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Current Cosmetic Science, 2022, 1, e070122200109
REVIEW ARTICLE

Mechanical Properties of the Skin: What do we Know?

Kevin Ita1,*, Madeline Silva1 and Rosemary Bassey2

1
College of Pharmacy Touro University, Mare Island-Vallejo, California, CA 94592, USA; 2Department of Science and
Education, Donald and Barbara Zucker College of Medicine, Hofstra University, Hempstead, N.Y. 11549-1000, USA

Abstract: The human skin is a multi‐layered material consisting of three layers: the epidermis,
dermis, and subcutis. The epidermis is the dominant structure that affects the properties of the skin,
ARTICLE HISTORY such as tensile strength and stiffness. The skin regulates body temperature, provides insulation, and
protects inner organs. Skin structure has a substantial influence on skin biomechanics. For instance,
Received: August 23, 2021 anisotropy is a result of the alignment of elastin and collagen fibers in the dermis that compels the
Revised: November 11, 2021 skin to exhibit greater tension in one direction, making it appear stiffer. The mechanical properties
Accepted: December 3, 2021
(such as stiffness, extensibility, and strength) of this organ are important from the clinical, cosmet-
DOI:
10.2174/2666779701666220107161901
ic, and biomechanical standpoints. A fundamental understanding of skin mechanics is important for
the development of useful products for cosmetology. As an illustration, changes in the mechanical
properties of the skin can shed light on the efficacy of cosmeceutical formulations. In this review,
we will highlight skin structure and then discuss the biomechanics of this important organ.

Keywords: Skin, mechanics, anisotropy, skin anatomy, indentation, stress-strain curve.

Current Cosmetic Science

1. INTRODUCTION stiffness increases quickly as the collagen fibers begin to

straighten to bear the load. In the third phase (Stage III), all
A fundamental grasp of the mechanical properties of the
collagen fibers are straight, and the system experiences its
human skin can be used to quantify the effectiveness of cos- greatest stiffness [6].
metic products. Several methods have been used by re-
searchers for the quantitative measurement of skin mechan- Choe and colleagues performed experiments testing the
ics. These include uniaxial tensiometry, shear imaging, skin mechanical properties of the stratum corneum via confocal
compliance to suction, torsion measurements, measurements Raman microscopy [7] by comparing older (mean 50 years)
of the speed of elastic shear wave propagation in the skin as and younger (mean 29 years) human skin [7]. Results sug-
well as indentometry [1, 2]. However, devices for the quanti- gested that older skin had a thicker stratum corneum with
fication of skin mechanics in vivo enable researchers to ob- increased hydrogen-bound water molecules, lipid organiza-
tain relative values instead of formal mechanical measures, tion, and concentration of natural moisturizing factors [7].
thus making it difficult to compare different sets of studies With increasing age, results also suggested loss of trans-
[3]. Noninvasive techniques, such as torsion, suction, inden- epidermal water, which can be explained by SC thickness
tation, or traction, can be used to evaluate the biomechanical along with the other properties found in the results [7]. In
properties of the skin [4]. another set of experiments, supersonic shear imaging was
used to measure and compare normalized elastic modulus
Static methods for in vivo studies use force or stress [5].
(EN) and shear wave speed (cs) values of skin with and
Force divided by area is stress and the latter can generate without dermal striae (DS) in vivo [2]. The two parameters
strain [3]. Strain refers to a change in the shape of the mate- were quantified at angles of 0°, 45°, 90°, and 315° to the skin
rial, and this can be calculated as the change in dimension
tension lines [2]. In the presence of DS, the authors docu-
divided by the original dimension [3]. It is noteworthy that mented a statistically significant decrease in the elasticity of
the mechanical response of the human skin tissue is highly the dermis [2]. Chen and Park used a Helmholtz resonator to
nonlinear due to the composition of its microstructural com-
measure the elasticity of human skin [8]. The acoustic
ponents [6]. Under uniaxial tension, skin is relatively soft, transmission loss by which resonant frequency can be ac-
and much of the structural response of the skin at low strain quired was derived via the receptance coupling technique
levels (Stage I) is conducted via elastin components as the
[8]. The analytical and experimental results demonstrated the
collagen fibers are slack and non-load-bearing [6]. When the
utility of the approach [8]. A comparative nanoindentation
skin is stretched to greater strain values (Stage II), material experiment was also carried out and relative errors ranged
*
from 9.24% to 20.06% [8]. In this study, we will first review
Address correspondence to this author at the College of Pharmacy, Touro
skin structure and then examine the mechanical properties of
University, Mare Island-Vallejo, California, CA 94592, USA
Tel: 1-707-638-5994; Emails: [email protected] and [email protected] this important organ.

2666-7800/22 $65.00+.00 © 2022 Bentham Science Publishers

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Mechanical Properties of the Skin e070122200109 Current Cosmetic Science, 2022, Vol. 1, No. 1

2. SKIN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Following injury, these adnexal structures can restore the
epithelium through the migration of keratinocytes from the
The skin is an extraordinarily complex biological materi-
adnexal epithelium to the surface of the epidermis [27]. In-
al that acts as the interface between the body and the envi- terestingly, there is a higher concentration of these structures
ronment [9, 10]. The skin is part of the integumentary system in the face and scalp, so injuries tend to heal more rapidly
which also includes hair, nails, and related organs. It is the
there compared to other parts of the body [27].
largest organ in the body, constituting about fifteen percent
of total body weight [11] and made up of two main layers: The eccrine sweat glands function in thermoregulation.
the superficial epidermis and the deeper dermis. An addi- They initiate the formation of sweat in response to thermal
tional layer, the hypodermis, lies between the dermis and the stimulus, which when secreted onto the skin surface, pro-
underlying structures [12]. The epidermis is the thinner, most motes cooling [28]. Consequently, vasodilation and upregu-
superficial layer of the skin made up of keratinized, strati- lation in blood flow to the skin, along with sweating, are
fied, squamous epithelium. This is further divided into five crucial to dispel heat [29]. However, during exposure to ex-
layers: from superficial to deep, stratum corneum, stratum treme cold, vasoconstriction in the skin reduces loss of body
granulosum, stratum spinosum, and stratum basale [13]. In heat to prevent hypothermia [30]. Apocrine sweat glands are
some parts of the body, where the skin is thicker, such as the limited mostly to the hairy parts of the axilla, mammary,
palm and the sole, there is an additional layer known as the perineal, and genital regions [31]. The hair follicles and se-
stratum lucidum [14]. Furthermore, the epidermis forms a baceous glands are collectively known as the pilosebaceous
largely impenetrable barrier [15], which acts as the first line unit. The number and distribution of hair follicles on the skin
of defense against external environments, such as water, mi- are determined during fetal development and cover most
croorganisms, mechanical and chemical trauma, and ultravi- parts of the body except the palms, soles, and lips [12]. They
olet light [16]. It contains progenitor cells within the basal serve as mechanical protection for the skin from the external
layer that grow towards the corneum, playing a significant environment, have sensory functions due to extensive cuta-
role in producing this protective barrier, due to its high turn- neous nerve distribution, and function in trapping air close to
over for differentiation and self-renewal [17]. This is particu- the epidermis to regulate body temperature by contracting
larly evident in the role of the epidermis in wound healing the arrector pili muscles [12]. At the point of attachment of
[18]. The epidermis itself is bereft of blood supply and there- the arrector pili muscle to the hair follicles, there are epithe-
fore derives nourishment from the underlying dermis. There lial stem cells responsible for renewing follicles, which are
are other types of non-keratinocyte cells in the epidermis. critical in determining hair growth [32]. Skin structure has a
One is melanocyte which is responsible for of the production significant effect on the mechanical behavior of this organ.
melanin, produced in melanosomes [19, 20]. Highly pig-
mented skin is correlated with greater production of melano- 3. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF THE SKIN
somes, a larger size of melanosomes, more dispersion of
Many mechanical testing approaches use experimental
melanosomes in keratinocytes, and a subsequently slower
rate of melanosome degradation [21]. Other cell types, such data to plot the stress-strain curve [3]. For most biological
as Langerhans cells are the skin’s first line of defense in an- materials, the initial portions of these curves are J-shaped (a
large strain is induced by low stress) [3]. Investigators meas-
tigen presentation, essential for delayed-type hypersensitivity
reactions [22], and Merkel cells which are sensory mechano- ure strength (stress at fracture), stiffness (the elastic or
receptors located in sites of highly tactile sensitivity, such as Young’s modulus), and extensibility (strain at failure) from
the stress-strain curve [3]. Four major techniques are utilized
the lips and digits [23].
for in vivo mechanical testing of the skin: tension, torsion,
The dermis is the thicker, deeper layer of skin made up of suction, and indentation [6]. The mechanical parameters of
connective tissue, and can be further subdivided into two the skin can be determined experimentally by altering the
layers: the papillary and the deep reticular layers. It provides shape of skin via different methods, such as stretching (ten-
access to several specialized structures, such as blood ves- sile test), elevating the skin in an aperture, or applying nega-
sels, lymphatics, sweat glands and nerves, and other blood- tive pressure to the skin (suction test, applying normal load
borne cells to enter the dermis in response to various stimuli on the skin (indentation test), or rotating the epidermis to
[24], cushions deeper structures from mechanical injury, and varying degrees (torsion test) [33]. Tensile testing to failure
is involved in thermal regulation. The dermis interacts with followed by imaging can be used to study the structure-
other layers in repairing and restoring the skin during wound function relationship of the skin [34]. Young’s (elastic)
healing, although its pace of differentiation does not equate modulus measures the tensile stiffness of the skin and can be
to epidermal differentiation [25]. Its main component is col- computed from plots of tensile stress versus tensile strain.
lagen, which is a major stress-resistant material that repre- Young’s modulus can range from 2.9 to 150 MPa irrespec-
sents seventy percent of the skin’s dry weight. Elastic fibers, tive of different donor sites while tensile properties of skin
however, function in maintaining the elasticity of the skin from the human back indicate an elastic modulus of
[25]. The dermo-epidermal junction is found at the boundary 83.3 ± 34.9 MPa [35]. Hooke's law, which is normally used
between the epidermal and dermal layers. It allows the ex- to describe elasticity, states that the strain, ε, in a solid is
change of cells and fluids [26], acts as a support for the epi- proportional to the applied stress, σ [36]. The uniaxial (1‐D)
dermis, establishes the direction of growth, provides devel- relation takes the form [36]:
opmental signals, and functions as a semi-permeable barrier
σ= 𝐸𝜀 Equation (1)
between the two layers [26]. Additionally, there are skin
adnexa, including eccrine, apocrine, and sebaceous glands.
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Current Cosmetic Science, 2022, Vol. 1, No. 1 e070122200109 Ita et al.

where the coefficient of proportionality is the elastic healthy tissue [40]. All samples displayed increased stiffness
modulus, E [36]. Several factors affect Young’s modulus. at higher depths into the papillary dermis layer [40].
These include testing technique (tensile or indentation), the In another study, the mechanical resistance of the stratum
type of test performed (in vivo or in vitro), testing depth (in corneum to deformation was studied at different length
indentation methods), or test velocities (in tensile testing)
scales using atomic force microscopy [41]. Nanomechanical
[5]. Skin deformation is dependent on the direction a load is surface mapping was conducted with a sharp silicon tip and
administered rather than just load magnitude [37]. Strength Young‫׳‬s modulus of the stratum corneum varied over the
(load required to break) and stiffness (deformation under
surface with a mean value of about 0.4GPa [41]. Force in-
load) can be measured in several directions to understand dentation measurements showed permanent deformation of
skin function [37]. the skin surface only at high applied loads (over 4µN)[41].
Indenters are often utilized for the application of a known Nanomechanical imaging showed the effects of increased
deformation force to the skin [6]. From the Hertz contact normal force on elastic/plastic surface deformation [41].
theory using aspherical indenter and assuming elastic behav- Force measurements with a single hair fiber probe correlated
ior, there is a mathematical relationship between indentation with nanoindentation results. The stratum corneum was high-
force, indentation depth, and material properties, such as the ly elastic at the nanoscale while the lateral scale of the de-
elastic (Young’s) modulus [6]: formation determined the effective elastic modulus [41].
1
4 2 2
3 Kim et al. used the indenter pressure of SkinFibrometer®
𝑃 = 𝐸𝑟 𝑅𝑠𝑖 𝛿 (2) and R, Q parameters of Cutometer® to analyze skin elasticity
3
[42]. A study was conducted on the cheek, around the eye,
𝑎2 and forearm of 10 young Korean women (SD 27.3 +/- 1.2
𝛿= (3)
𝑅𝑠𝑖 years), and 11 old Korean women (SD 59.2 +/- 1.8
where 𝑃 is the load applied, 𝐸𝑟 is the reduced modulus years)[42]. The purpose of this study was to analyze any
and E is Young’s modulus, 𝛿 is the displacement of the in- differences between skin elasticity properties using two dif-
denter, 𝑅𝑠𝑖 is the radius of the spherical indenter, and 𝑎 is the ferent methods [42]. Skin resistance force was measured
contact radius of the indenter on the material being indented using the induration force method using SkinFibrometer®
[6]. [42]. The forearm had the highest induration value (N),
which proves that induration value increases with increased
The human skin is a nonlinear, viscoelastic, and aniso- skin firmness [6]. Skin elongation and skin elevation were
tropic material that undergoes mild incompressible defor- measured using the suction method with Cutometer® MPA
mation [38]. The human skin possesses the properties of both 580, and echogenicity was measured using the DUB®
viscous liquids and elastic solids [39]. There is a dynamic SkinScanner [42]. All methods used to determine skin elas-
change in the stress-strain relationship until a stable state is ticity properties consistently resulted in higher elasticity val-
reached [5]. Skin elasticity is a parameter that enables it to ues in the younger age group than the older group [42].
change and recover shape when stretched or deformed [5]. These results confirmed that skin firmness and skin elasticity
On the other hand, skin viscoelasticity is a function of the may vary depending on age or anatomical region, but more
water content of the skin and adds the principle of viscosity, experiments are needed to determine the variation of skin
the internal resistance to flow when a shearing force or stress elasticity between female and male groups [42].
is applied to a fluid [39]. Creep behavior takes place when a
material is subjected to constant stress and describes the re- The Cutometer® utilizes the suction principle to measure
sultant increase in strain [36]. Viscoelastic materials exhibit the viscoelastic properties of the skin in vivo [39]. The de-
creep behavior when they go through increased deformation vice can provide information regarding the pathological and
under constant stress until an asymptotic level of strain is physiological alterations of human skin as well as the effica-
attained. When constant stress (𝜎𝐴) is applied, the following cy of cosmeceutical applications [39]. Cutaneous elasticity is
equation can be used to describe the strain(𝜀) as a function of the biomechanical parameter that quantifies the capacity of
time(𝑡)[36]: the skin to regain its shape after stretching and this property
can be determined via non‑invasive techniques [39], such as
𝜎𝐴 𝜎𝐴 cutometry, ballistometry, and suction cup. Skin elasticity and
𝜀𝐶𝑀(𝑡) = + 𝑡 (4)
𝐸 𝜂 firmness can be assessed with ballistometry. Dynamic resili-
ence can be determined via the degree of a rebound while
Equation 4 shows that creep behavior is formed of two ballistometric principle employs indentation [43]. The ballis-
𝜎
components, an instantaneous, elastic strain, 𝐴 , and a vis- tometer uses a torsional wire mechanism, thus providing
𝜎𝐴 𝐸
cous strain, 𝑡 , which is a linear function of time [36]. Vis-
𝜂 independence from gravity [43]. A suction cutometer
cosity is denoted by 𝜂 while the elastic modulus is 𝐸 [36]. measures skin elasticity in vivo, but it has not utilized widely
Peñuela et al. used atomic force microscopy imaging to due to inconsistency in the generated data [44]. Abbas et al.
study the biomechanical properties of the human skin by
studied the variability of several dimensionless parameters
comparing healthy tissue to stretched skin from obesity and generated by the cutometer to improve their accuracy and
sun-exposed skin [40]. Mechanical and physical stimuli were precision [44]. In an interesting study, Myoung et al. used a
applied to the dermis skin in 25μm2 areas with varying
Swing anglemeter to measure skin elasticity of the cheek of
depths of the dermis tested [40]. The stretched skin showed women (age 23-60 years old) and compared results with the
similar values of stiffness while the sun-exposed tissue had Ballistometer® results (Dia-stron Ltd., Andover, UK)[45].
significantly lower values of stiffness compared to the
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The anglemeter functions by dropping a rubber ball on an [51]. It has been postulated that the Cutiscan® be used to
individual's cheek, which draws a curve as it collides with the measure the viscoelastic and elastic properties of the skin
cheek [45]. After registering the ball movement via the slow- [52]. The directionality and anisotropy of this organ can also
motion function on a mobile phone, the authors defined the be quantified in vivo with this device [52]. Rosado and col-
leagues provided Cutiscan® skin descriptors that were com-
maximum angle at which the ball bounced off the skin as the
elastic angle [45]. Elastic angles differed markedly as a func- parable to those measured with the Cutometer® and Revis-
tion of age. A negative correlation was also shown between cometer®, while at the same time supplying more compre-
hensive information about the skin anisotropy [52].
age and the elastic angle [45].
The human skin is also characterized by anisotropy [46]. Langer mapped the natural tension lines which exist
within the skin [53]. The lines were formed via skin puncture
Anisotropy is a result of the alignment of elastin and colla-
gen fibers in the dermis that compels the skin to exhibit with a circular device. The wounds subsequently took an
greater tension in one direction, making it appear stiffer [47]. elliptical shape, and by joining the major axes of the ellipses,
a system of tension lines could be drawn [53]. These tension
Laiacona et al. assessed the ability of an aspiration system to
measure the anisotropy of human skin [47]. The device uses lines are called Langer’s Lines [53]. A tensile test was used
a dermal camera to capture radially asymmetric skin defor- to demonstrate the dependency of mechanical deformation of
skin upon a specimen’s orientation along Langer lines [38].
mations following the painless application of radial stress
(17 kPa) to a portion of the human skin [47]. These defor- For example, optical coherence images in vivo have been
mations are used to quantify orientations of strain extrema used to show the significant difference between the Young
moduli of skin along with the parallel and orthogonal direc-
and the direction of greatest skin stiffness. The ratio of these
asymmetric strains varies between 1 and -0.75 [47]. The au- tions of the Langer’s lines [38]. Pan and coworkers measured
thors used the results of their experiments to establish a sim- rheometric parameters from commercially available aged
and juvenile skin models subjected to large amplitude oscil-
ple constitutive model of mechanical skin anisotropy [47].
In another set of experiments, Thieulin et al. used a contact- latory shear deformations [54]. At large strains, strain thin-
less bio-rheometer to study the mechanical behavior of the ning was significantly higher for the dermis of the young
skins and their whole skin counterparts. An inverse qualita-
skin in several directions [48]. This device generates an air
blast without any contact with the skin area and measures the tive relationship was documented for the skin models and
speed of wave propagation (its dynamic response) with a adult skins [54]. Quantitative dimensionless indices and
qualitative Lissajous plots were analyzed with MITlaos
linear laser [48]. In addition, a turntable was used by the
authors to measure the mechanical behavior of the skin in software. Viscous shear thinning and nonlinear intracycle
different angular directions [48]. Significantly, a good corre- elastic strain stiffening were documented for all the native
specimens at the maximum deformation [54]. Regardless of
lation between the mechanical properties of the skin and skin
relief was documented as a function of aging. For both me- the age group, the evaluated skin models showed more sig-
chanical properties and topography, there was a transition nificant intracycle and inter-cycle elastic nonlinearities, and
their magnitudes were markedly greater [54]. In another in-
from an almost isotropic mechanical profile to an anisotropic
one and this was dependent on aging [48]. Kirby et al. used a teresting study, Lynch et al. used multiphoton microscopy to
non-contact and non-invasive method to image and charac- study the correlation between aging skin and dermal biome-
chanical changes in murine skin [55]. Four main measure-
terize skin’s elastic anisotropy [49]. The technique combines
a nearly incompressible transversely isotropic (NITI) model ments were obtained, normalized, and analyzed for stress,
with acoustic micro-tapping optical coherence elastography relaxation, reorganization of microstructure, and deformation
[55]. Relaxation between young and old WT mice was simi-
(AmT-OCE) to quantify skin’s elastic moduli [49]. Skin sites
were also imaged with polarization-sensitive optical coher- lar, implying viscosity and stiffness change in a constant
ence tomography (PS-OCT) to help define fiber orientation ratio [5]. Relative stress and stretch measurements were
found to simulate a J-shaped curve with an increased length
[49]. The experimental results showed elastic anisotropy of
skin in all subjects [49]. of heel region for wild type and Col5a2pN/+ mice [55]. Deg-
radation of collagen fibers may explain why stiffness in-
In an interesting project, Chartier and colleagues used creases with age, as seen in old mice [55].
high-frequency elastography to estimate one-dimensional (1-
D) Young's modulus through the dermis and hypodermis In another interesting set of experiments, Oftadeh et al.
used an atomic force microscope-based wide-bandwidth
[50]. Experiments were carried out using 1-D high-frequency
transient elastography (HF-TE) [50]. Experimental results of nanorheology system together with a poroviscoelastic finite
the forearm and cheek skin showed promising performance element model (FEM) to predict the frequency-dependent
mechanical behavior of dermis subjected to compression
of HF-TE in measuring elasticity in the dermis and hypo-
dermis [50]. The mechanical anisotropy of skin has also been [56]. The authors delineated loading rates controlled by ei-
characterized via the bulge technique in combination with ther viscoelasticity, poroelasticity, or the superposition of
these two phenomena [56]. Viscoelasticity was found to be
full-field imaging [51]. In bulging, the saline solution at 37
°C mimicked the in vivo body temperature and fluid condi- the dominant mechanism at lower frequencies (<102 Hz)
tions [51]. Spherical shell membrane theory and imaging while poroelasticity was the main energy dissipation mecha-
nism for mouse dermis at higher indentation frequencies
techniques were used to obtain an anisotropic stress-strain
relationship [51]. A marked difference in the minimum and (102 to 104 Hz) [56]. Tip displacement and force were
maximum collagen orientation intensity between the tested measured while phase angle, ϕ, and magnitude, |E∗|, of the
dynamic complex modulus, were assessed [56]. Zang and
and untested specimens was attributed to fiber realignment
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Current Cosmetic Science, 2022, Vol. 1, No. 1 e070122200109 Ita et al.

coworkers measured skin viscoelasticity of porcine skin with the delamination energy of the SC was lower in UVB-
surface wave elastography [57]. The surface wave was gen- exposed samples without sunscreen [59]. Decreased delami-
erated by a mechanical vibrator using a ball-tip indenter [57]. nation was shown with UVB-exposed samples without sun-
The surface wave speed was determined by the change of screen compared to the control, whereas no significant dif-
phase with distance while wave attenuation was measured by ference was shown with sunscreen treated samples with
the decay of wave amplitude with distance [57]. Speed of UVB exposure compared to the control [59].
propagation of elastic shear waves in materials is another It is well known that excessive skin hydration from wet
option for assessing viscoelasticity [1]. The range of speed of
undergarments, such as infant diapers and adult incontinence
elastic shear wave propagation permits the evaluation of skin products can lead to skin damage [60]. Tate and Wright
stiffness [1]. measured the hydration of simulated skin samples with an
Constantin et al. evaluated skin viscoelasticity using the evaporimeter and compared the results with clinical data
suction chamber method in patients with allergic contact from adult armband assessments [60]. A heated mechanical
dermatitis vs. healthy subjects, before and after applying a arm and baby torso accurately distinguished products for
moisturizer [39]. The skin viscoelasticity was determined skin dryness [60]. In another set of experiments, corneome-
with Cutometer®, using the suction method, by performing a try was carried out following a single application of
dynamic assessment of parameters before and after applying ceramide cream to healthy skin and compared to three refer-
the moisturizing cream [39]. The results showed a reduction ence moisturizers and a placebo [61]. Transepidermal water
in the elasticity parameters in both groups, providing evi- loss (TEWL) was also measured following a single applica-
dence of an improvement of the elastic properties under the tion of Ceramide cream compared to baseline [61]. It was
treatment [39]. shown that Ceramide cream increases skin hydration and
Atomic force microscopy (AFM) and nano-indentation improves barrier function [62]. Corneometer® measures the
influence of several components [62]. Thus, the water level
testing are common methods to test the mechanical proper-
ties of human skin layers [40]. Kim et al. studied the me- in the skin partially explains the benefits of topical moistur-
chanical properties of the different layers of the skin [40]. izing products administered to the skin [62]. Crowther has
postulated that skin 'moisturization' is a parameter which is
Three human skin biopsies were used for the study: sample 1
from the medial part of the abdomen, sample 2 from the influenced by salts, water, emollients, and humectants. This
breast, and the control from the gluteus [40]. Sample 1 was is in agreement with how the SC imparts flexibility and plas-
ticity [62]. The human skin indeed possesses a complex
from an obese 44-year-old female patient, sample 2 was
from a sun-exposed 82-year-old male, and the control was structure [63].
from a 36-year-old female without sun-exposed skin or obe-
sity [40]. Skin stiffness depth was parallel to the XY axis CONCLUSION
with measurements taken from Z-axis at 60 µm, 100 µm, and The knowledge of skin mechanics is important from the-
140 µm [40]. Skin stiffness results showed that sample 1 oretical and practical standpoints. In this review, we have
results were consistent with the control, whereas the skin- described human skin anatomy and how it affects the me-
exposed sample 2 was significantly lower than the control at chanical properties of this organ. The mechanical behavior of
+60 µm and +100 µm [40]. The epidermis and dermis the skin can be altered by therapeutic and cosmetic agents.
showed no significant difference in skin stiffness [40]. AFM Several examples of this effect have been discussed in this
imaging and structural analysis results showed an overall review.
thickness of collagen fibers in sample 1 and sample 2 at +60
µm compared to the control [40]. CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
Cosmetic scientists assess cosmetic products in terms of Not applicable.
hydration and emolliency [6]. Ansari et al. published a study
showing the direct correlation between the biomechanical
FUNDING
properties of the human stratum corneum (SC) and emol-
lients used in fully formulated moisturizing creams [58]. The None.
efficacy of the emollients in moisturizing creams on the skin
barrier and biomechanical properties of the stratum corneum CONFLICT OF INTEREST
were measured by the authors. Thin-layer mechanical meth-
ods were used to measure the drying stress development of The authors declare no conflict of interest, financial or
the stratum corneum before and after the application of a otherwise.
moisturizing cream [58]. It was shown that the emulsifier
type used affects the efficacy of stress, with a 12% reduction ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
with anionic emulsifiers and a 26% reduction following the Declared none.
use of amphoteric emulsifiers [58]. In another study, in-vitro
thin-film mechanical analysis was performed to compare the REFERENCES
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Mechanical Properties of the Skin e070122200109 Current Cosmetic Science, 2022, Vol. 1, No. 1

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