Database Systems

Instructor : Dr. Natash Ali Mian

 `

Switch off mobile phones during

lectures, or put them into silent mode

2
Contents
•Introduction to SQL
•DDL Statements
•DML Statements
Objectives
 Definition of terms
 Interpret history and role of SQL
 Define a database using SQL data definition language
 Write single table queries using SQL
 Establish referential integrity using SQL
 Discuss SQL:1999 and SQL:2003 standards

5
 SQL Overview
 Structured Query Language

 The standard for relational database management

systems (RDBMS)

 RDBMS: A database management system that manages

data as a collection of tables in which all relationships are
represented by common values in related tables

6
 History of SQL
 1970–E. Codd develops relational database concept
 1974-1979–System R with Sequel (for Structured English
QUEry Language) created at IBM Research Lab, renamed to
SQL later
 1979–Oracle markets first relational DB with SQL
 1986–ANSI SQL standard released
 1989, 1992, 1999, 2003–Major ANSI standard updates
 Current–SQL is supported by most major database vendors. Most
DBMS are SQL-99 compliant, with partial SQL-2003 compliant
 Database major players--- Oracle (41%), IBM (31%), Microsoft
(13%), MySQL (open source)

7
 Purpose of SQL Standard
 Specify syntax/semantics for data definition and
manipulation
 Define data structures and basic operations
 Enable portability
 Specify minimal (level 1) and complete (level 2)
standards
 Allow for later growth/enhancement to standard

8
Benefits of a Standardized Relational
Language
 Reduced training costs
 Productivity
 Application portability
 Application longevity
 Reduced dependence on a single vendor
 Cross-system communication

9
 SQL Environment

 Catalog
 A set of schemas that constitute the description of a database
 Schema (or Database)
 The structure that contains descriptions of objects created by a user (base
tables, views, constraints)
 Data Definition Language (DDL)
 Commands that define a database, including creating, altering, and dropping
tables and establishing constraints
 Data Manipulation Language (DML)
 Commands that maintain and query a database
 Data Control Language (DCL)
 Commands that control a database, including administering privileges and
committing data

10
Figure 7-1
A simplified schematic of a typical SQL environment, as
described by the SQL-2003 standard

11
Some SQL Data types

12
Figure 7-4
DDL, DML, DCL, and the database development process

13
Common SQL Commands

 Data Definition Language (DDL):

 Create  Drop
 Alter
 Data Manipulation Language (DML):
 Select  Update
 Insert  Delete

 Data Control Language (DCL):

 Grant  Revoke

14
 Writing SQL Statements

 SQL statements are not case sensitive

(but criteria within quotation marks are for some RDBMS)
 SQL statements can be on one or more lines
 Clauses are usually placed on separate lines
 Keywords cannot be split across lines
 Tabs and spaces are allowed to enhance readability
 Each SQL statement (not line) ends with a
semicolon (;)
15
SQL Database Definition
 Data Definition Language (DDL)
 Major CREATE statements:
 CREATE SCHEMA (DATABASE)–defines a portion of the
database owned by a particular user
 CREATE TABLE–defines a table and its columns
 CREATE VIEW–defines a logical table from one or more tables
or views

16
DDL--Table Creation Steps in table creation:
1. Identify data types for
Figure 7-5 General syntax for CREATE TABLE
attributes
2. Identify columns that can
and cannot be null
3. Identify columns that
must be unique
(candidate keys)
4. Identify primary key–
foreign key mates
5. Determine default values
6. Identify constraints on
columns (domain
specifications)
7. Create the table and
associated indexes 17
Creating table--constraints
 Domain constraints
 Constraints about one or more columns
 NOT NULL, CHECK, DEFAULT
 Entity constraints
 Constraints about individual rows
 PRIMARY KEY, UNIQUE
 Referential Integrity constraints
 FOREIGN KEY

18
The following slides create tables for this
enterprise data model

19
Figure 7-6 SQL database definition commands for Pine Valley Furniture

Overall table
definitions

20
Defining attributes and their data types

21
 Non-nullable specification

Primary keys
can never have
Identifying primary key NULL values

22
 Non-nullable specifications

Primary key

Some primary keys are composite–

composed of multiple attributes

23
Controlling the values in attributes

Default value

Domain constraint

24
Identifying foreign keys and establishing relationships

Primary key of
parent table

Foreign key of
dependent table

25
DDL--Data Integrity Controls
 Referential integrity–constraint that ensures that foreign key
values of a table must match primary key values of a related
table in 1:M relationships
 Restricting:
 Deletes of primary records
 Updates of primary records
 Inserts of dependent records

26
DDL--Changing and Removing Tables
 ALTER TABLE statement allows you to change column
specifications:
 ALTER TABLE table_name action
 The action can be
 ADD, ALTER or DROP Column,
 ADD or DROP table constraint
 Example
 ALTER TABLE CUSTOMER_T ADD (TYPE VARCHAR(2) default
“commercial”);
 DROP TABLE statement allows you to remove tables from your
schema:
 DROP TABLE CUSTOMER_T
 Can be qualified by ‘restrict’ or ‘cascade’

27
 DML--Insert Statement
 Adds data to a table
 Inserting into a table: every attribute is supplied
 INSERT INTO CUSTOMER_T VALUES (001, ‘Contemporary Casuals’,
‘1355 S. Himes Blvd.’, ‘Gainesville’, ‘FL’, 32601);
 Inserting a record that has some null attributes requires entering
null explicitly for the empty fields or identifying the fields that
actually get data
 INSERT INTO PRODUCT_T (PRODUCT_ID,
PRODUCT_DESCRIPTION,PRODUCT_FINISH, STANDARD_PRICE,
PRODUCT_ON_HAND) VALUES (1, ‘End Table’, ‘Cherry’, 175, 8);
 Inserting from another table
 INSERT INTO CA_CUSTOMER_T SELECT * FROM CUSTOMER_T WHERE STATE =
‘CA’;

28
Creating Tables with Identity Columns
New with SQL:2003

Inserting into a table does not require explicit customer ID entry or field
list

INSERT INTO CUSTOMER_T VALUES ( ‘Contemporary Casuals’,

‘1355 S. Himes Blvd.’, ‘Gainesville’, ‘FL’, 32601);
29
DML--Delete Statement
 Removes rows from a table
 Delete certain rows
 DELETE FROM CUSTOMER_T WHERE STATE = ‘HI’;
 Delete all rows
 DELETE FROM CUSTOMER_T;
 Be cautious: always use SELECT clause to display the
records first to make sure only desired records are to be
deleted!

30
 DML--Update Statement

 Modifies data in existing rows

 UPDATE PRODUCT_T SET UNIT_PRICE = 775

WHERE PRODUCT_ID = 7;

31
 Internal Schema Definition
 Control processing/storage efficiency:
 Choice of indexes
 File organizations for base tables
 File organizations for indexes
 Data clustering
 Statistics maintenance
 Creating indexes
 Speed up random/sequential access to base table data
 Example
 CREATE INDEX NAME_IDX ON
CUSTOMER_T(CUSTOMER_NAME)
 This makes an index for the CUSTOMER_NAME field of the
CUSTOMER_T table
 DROP INDEX NAME_IDX

32
DML--SELECT Statement Syntax

SELECT [DISTINCT] column_list

FROM table_list
[WHERE conditional expression]
[GROUP BY column_list]
[HAVING conditional expression]
[ORDER BY column_list] ;

33
 SELECT Statement
 Used for queries on single or multiple tables
 Clauses of the SELECT statement:
 SELECT
 List the columns (and expressions) that should be returned from the query
 FROM
 Indicate the table(s) or view(s) from which data will be obtained
 WHERE
 Indicate the conditions under which a row will be included in the result
 GROUP BY
 Indicate categorization of results
 HAVING
 Indicate the conditions under which a category (group) will be included
 ORDER BY
 Sorts the result according to specified criteria

34
 SELECT Example
 Find products with standard price less than $275

SELECT PRODUCT_DESCRIPTION, STANDARD_PRICE

FROM PRODUCT_t
WHERE STANDARD_PRICE < 275;

 When you want to select all columns in the table , use * in the SELECT
Clause
SELECT *
FROM PRODUCT_t
WHERE STANDARD_PRICE < 275;

Table 7-3: Comparison Operators in SQL

35
 SELECT Example Using Alias
Alias is an alternative name you give to a column or a table in query
Qualified name: [TABLE NAME].[COLUMN NAME]

SELECT CUST.CUSTOMER_NAME AS [NAME],

CUST.CUSTOMER_ADDRESS AS [ADDRESS]
FROM CUSTOMER AS CUST
WHERE CUSTOMER_NAME= 'Home Furnishings';

36
 Aggregate Functions
(Numeric Functions)

 COUNT: the number of rows containing the

specified column (attribute)
 SUM: the sum of all values for a selected
column
 AVG: the arithmetic mean (average) for the
specified column (attribute)
 MAX: the largest value in the column
 MIN: the smallest value in the column

37
 SELECT Example Using a Function
 Using the COUNT aggregate function to find the number of different items that were
ordered in an order
SELECT COUNT(*) AS #LINEITEMS
FROM ORDER_LINE_t
WHERE ORDER_ID = 1004;
 Find the average price for all products
SELECT AVG (STANDARD_PRICE) AS AVERAGE
FROM PRODUCT_t;
 Find the maximum price for all products
SELECT MAX (STANDARD_PRICE) AS MAXIMUM
FROM PRODUCT_t;
 Find the total quantity of products that were ordered in an order
SELECT SUM(ORDERED_QUANTITY) AS #ALLITEMS
FROM ORDER_LINE_t
WHERE ORDER_ID=1004

38
Using function
 This is wrong:
SELECT PRODUCT_ID, COUNT(*)
FROM ORDER_LINE_t
WHERE ORDER_ID=1004;
 While product_id returns row values, count returns a
aggregate value. SQL can not return both in a single query

39
wildcards
 Asterisk (*) in a SELECT clause represents all columns
or all rows, depending on situation
 Wildcard characters % and _ are often used with
keyword LIKE in a WHERE clause
 % represents 0, 1 or any number of characters
 Eg: LIKE ‘%Desk’ matches both ‘Computer Desk’ and ‘Writers
Desk’
 Underscore (_) represents exactly one character
 Eg: LIKE ‘_-drawer’ matches ‘3-drawer’ as well as ‘5-drawer’

40
 Comparison Operators

 Which orders were placed after 10/24/2006?

 SELECT ORDER_ID, ORDER_DATE FROM
ORDER_t WHERE ORDER_DATE>’24-OCT-2006’
 What furniture aren’t made of cherry?
 SELECT PRODUCT_DESCRIPTION,
PRODUCT_FINISH FROM PRODUCT_t WHERE
PRODUCT_FINISH!=‘Cherry’

41
Boolean operators
 Used in WHERE clause to join two conditions
 And: returns results only when all conditions are true
 OR: returns results when any conditions are true
 NOT: negates a expression
 Order of the operators: NOT first, then AND, then OR
 Use parenthesis to change default order of operators

42
SELECT Example–Boolean Operators
 AND, OR, and NOT Operators for customizing conditions in
WHERE clause

SELECT PRODUCT_DESCRIPTION, PRODUCT_FINISH,

STANDARD_PRICE
FROM PRODUCT_t
WHERE (PRODUCT_DESCRIPTION LIKE ‘%Desk’
OR PRODUCT_DESCRIPTION LIKE ‘%Table’)
AND UNIT_PRICE > 300;

Note: the LIKE operator allows you to compare strings using wildcards.
For example, the % wildcard in ‘%Desk’ indicates that all strings that
have any number of characters preceding the word “Desk” will be allowed
43
Venn Diagram from Previous Query

44
SELECT Example–Boolean Operators
 Note this query is different from the previous example
SELECT PRODUCT_DESCRIPTION, PRODUCT_FINISH,
STANDARD_PRICE
FROM PRODUCT_t
WHERE PRODUCT_DESCRIPTION LIKE ‘%Desk’
OR PRODUCT_DESCRIPTION LIKE ‘%Table’
AND UNIT_PRICE > 300;

45
Venn Diagram from Previous Query

46
Using ranges for qualification
 Which products have a standard price between 200 and 300?

SELECT PRODUCT_DESCRIPTION, STANDARD_PRICE FROM

PRODUCT_t
WHERE STANDARD_PRICE>199 AND STANDARD_PRICE<301;

SELECT PRODUCT_DESCRIPTION, STANDARD_PRICE FROM

PRODUCT_t
WHERE STANDARD_PRICE BETWEEN 200 AND 300;

 BETWEEN is inclusive (include 200 and 300)

47
Distinct values
 What are the distinct order numbers included in the
ORDER_LINE table?
SELECT DISTINCT ORDER_ID
FROM ORDER_LINE_t;
 What are the unique combinations of order number and
order quantity included in the ORDER_LINE table?
SELECT DISTINCT ORDER_ID, ORDERED_QUANTITY
FROM ORDER_LINE_t;

48
Using IN and NOT IN with list
 List all customers live in warmer states
SELECT CUSTOMER_NAME, CITY, STATE
FROM CUSTOMER_t
WHERE STATE IN (‘FL’, ‘TX’, ‘CA’, ‘HI’);

49
SELECT Example –
Sorting Results with the ORDER BY Clause
 Sort the results first by STATE, and within a state by
CUSTOMER_NAME

SELECT CUSTOMER_NAME, CITY, STATE

FROM CUSTOMER_t
WHERE STATE IN (‘FL’, ‘TX’, ‘CA’, ‘HI’)
ORDER BY STATE, CUSTOMER_NAME;

Note: the IN operator in this example allows you to include rows whose
STATE value is either FL, TX, CA, or HI. It is more efficient than separate
OR conditions
50
SELECT Example–
Categorizing Results Using the GROUP BY Clause
 For use with aggregate functions
 Divide table into subsets (by groups), then aggregate function values
are calculated for each group
 Scalar aggregate: single value returned from SQL query with aggregate function
 Vector aggregate: multiple values returned from SQL query with aggregate
function (via GROUP BY)

 Eg: count the number of customers in each state

SELECT STATE, COUNT(STATE) AS NO_CUSTOMERS
FROM CUSTOMER_t
GROUP BY STATE;

51
 SELECT Example– Qualifying Results by
Categories Using the HAVING Clause

 For use with GROUP BY

 Similar to a WHERE clause, except that the restriction is applied on
groups instead of on rows
 Eg: Find the states with more than one customers
SELECT STATE, COUNT(STATE) AS NO_CUSTOMERS
FROM CUSTOMER_t
GROUP BY STATE
HAVING COUNT(STATE) > 1;

Like a WHERE clause, but it operates on groups (categories), not on individual rows. Here, only those
groups with total numbers greater than 1 will be included in final result

52
SELECT Example– Qualifying Results by
Categories Using the HAVING Clause
 Example: list the product finish and average standard price for selected finishes
where the average standard price is less than 750

SELECT Product_Finish, AVG(Standard_Price) AS AVG_PRICE

FROM PRODUCT
WHERE Product_Finish IN ('Cherry', 'Natural Ash', 'Natural Maple', 'White
Ash')
GROUP BY Product_Finish
HAVING (AVG(Standard_Price) < 750)
ORDER BY Product_Finish

53
Figure 7-10
SQL statement
processing
order (adapted
from van der
Lans, p.100)

54
 Using and Defining Views
 Views simplify query command, provide users controlled access to tables
 Base Table–table containing the raw data
 Dynamic View
 A “virtual table” created dynamically upon request by a user
 No data actually stored; instead data from base table made available to user
 Based on SQL SELECT statement on base tables or other views
 You can think of views as stored queries
 Materialized View
 Copy or replication of data
 Data actually stored
 Must be refreshed periodically to match the corresponding base tables

55
 Sample CREATE VIEW
CREATE VIEW EXPENSIVE_STUFF_V AS
SELECT PRODUCT_ID, PRODUCT_NAME, UNIT_PRICE
FROM PRODUCT_T
WHERE UNIT_PRICE >300
WITH CHECK OPTION;

View has a name

View is based on a SELECT statement
CHECK OPTION—applied to updatable
view

56
Sample CREATE VIEW
 Update of view will result in a update of the base table
from which the view is derived
 Check options
 Cause the UPDATE or INSERT statement to be rejected if the
statements would cause updated or inserted rows to be
removed from the view.
 Eg: the following statement will be rejected
UPDATE EXPENSIVE_STUFF_V
SET STANDARD_PRICE=295
WHERE PRODUCT_ID=5;

57
Advantages of Views
 Simplify query commands
 Assist with data security (but don't rely on views for
security, there are more important security measures)
 Enhance programming productivity
 Contain most current base table data
 Use little storage space
 Provide customized view for user
 Establish physical data independence

58
Disadvantages of Views
 Use processing time each time view is referenced
 May or may not be directly updateable

59
Thanks