The Concept of Nirvana
Definition and nature
The word nirvana is formed from the negative suffix nir and the root va (to blow)
or vr (to cover). Both connote images of extinguishing a flame, in the first case by
blowing it out and in the second by smothering of fuel.
Of these two etymologies, early sources prefer the latter, which indicates that for
them nirvana is a gradual process, like cutting off the fuel to a fire. It is not a
sudden event. The popular notion that nirvana is the ‘blowing out of a flame’ is
thus not widely supported in the canonic literature of Buddhism.
Nirvana is the goal of spiritual practice in all branches of Buddhism. In the
understanding of early Buddhism, it is departure from the cycle of rebirths
(samsara) and entry into an entirely different mode of existence. It requires
complete overcoming of the 3 unwholesome roots – desire, hatred, delusion.
Refutation of these 3 roots is given as the definition of Nirvana during life. Here
samsara is the problem and Nirvana is the solution.
In the West, Nirvana has often been misunderstood as mere annihilation. Even in
early Buddhism it was not so conceived. To explain what is described as Nirvana
the simile of extinguishing a flame is used in many texts. The fire that goes out
does not pass away, but merely becomes invisible by passing into space (akasa).
Thus, the term Nirvana does not indicate annihilationism, but entry into another
mode of existence. The fire comes from space and returns back to it. Thus,
Nirvana is a spiritual event that takes place in time but is also in an unmanifest
and imperishable sphere. This is the ‘abode of immortality’ which is not spatially
localizable. It is transcendent and accessible only to mystical experience. Thus, in
early Buddhism Nirvana is not seen in a positive relation to the world but is only a
place of salvation.
In some places in the sutras an expression is used for Nirvana is ‘sivam’ which
means bliss. In many places Nirvana is characterized as a process or state of
cessation of suffering. But this should not be regarded as a proof of a nihilistic
attitude. It is an indication of the inadequacy of words to represent the nature of
Nirvana.
The description of Nirvana as the cessation of suffering suffices as a goal for the
spiritual effort, because spiritual practice is irrelevant whether Nirvana is positive
state or annihilation. For this reason the Buddha declined to make any statement
concerning the nature of Nirvana.
1
Types of nirvana: Hinayana - sopadhisesa and nirupadhisesa.
Sopadhisesa Nirvana: Nirvana with a remainder of conditionality is called
sopadhisesa Nirvana. It can be attained before death. In this Nirvana all passions
(Klesas1) are eliminated. Passions are the causes of rebirth. Here Pancaskandha
continues to be present. One who has gained this Nirvana is not completely free
from suffering, because he must live through the remaining consequences of his
old karma.
Nirupadhisesa Nirvana: Nirvana without conditionality is called nirupadhisesa
Nirvana. It can be attained only at death. In this Nirvana the Pancaskandhas, the
the 12 ayatanas2 (sense realms), 18 dhatus3 (perceptual bases or elements) and
indriyas are no longer present. This Nirvana comes about at the death of an arhat
who is not to be reborn. It is also called Parinirvana.
Views of nirvana in Hinayana schools
Sarvastivada: Nirvana is something positive that is unmanifest and imperishable.
It is reached through successively overcoming the passions. For the overcoming
of each passion a specific realm is posited. Thus many different types of Nirvana
may exist. In this school, Nirvana is only one among many unconditioned
dharmas.
Sautrantika: Nirvana is just the disappearance of the passions. But it is not
unmanifest and imperishable metaphysical factor.
Sarvastivada: There are 75 dharmas of which 3 are asamskrta (unconditioned) and
the rest are samskrta (conditioned). Asamskrta dharmas are Akasa,
Pratisankhyanirodha, and Apratisankhyanirodha. Pratisankhyanirodha is the
dissociation of the consciousness from the asravas 4 and klesas. Because this
dissociation is effected by transcendental knowledge or wisdom (pratisankhya) it
is called nirodha dependent upon Pratisankhya or prajna. This is a positive entity.
Apratisankhyanirodha is not the opposite process. It is dissolution without the
participation of wisdom or prajna. This state cannot be realized by wisdom.
These two forms of nirodha have their respective parts to play in the evolution of
Nirvana in the Sarvastivada tradition. Both these nirodhas are necessarily
involved in Nirvana. The Pratisankhyanirodha by the removal of klesas directly
unfolds the state of Nirvana. Apratisankhyanirodha is also necessary to ensure the
non-emergence of these klesas by the removal of Avidya.
1
Dasaklesas in Visuddhimagga: Greed, hatred, delusion, pride, false views, doubt, rigidity, excitability,
shamelessness, lack of conscience.
2
Six sense organs and their objects.
3
Six sense faculties, six sense objects, and six perceptual awareness.
4
Basic impurities or defilements that cause rebirth: kama, bhava, ditthi, avijja.
2
Vaibhasika: cessation of Avidya and klesas does not connote extinction, but
mutual dissociation of the mind and passions from one another and this
dissociation is called nirodha. They say that Nirvana is an everlasting existence. It
is unceased and unproductive by itself. We know from Vasubandhu’s
Abhidharmakosa that Nirvana is represented in these schools by
Pratisankhyanirodha in its positive aspect and Apratisankhyanirodha in its
negative aspect. This Apratisankhyanirodha prevents the future occurrence of
klesas.
Pudgalavada: Posits a person (pudgala) that is not impermanent. For them
Nirvana is a positive state in which the person continues to exist.
Mahasanghika: Nirupadhisesa Nirvana is not as important as the Sopadhisesa
Nirvana. From this view later schools developed the conception of Apratistitha
Nirvana in which a Bodhisattva renounces Nirupadhisesa Nirvana and yet is free
of the attachment to the world.
Significance of nirvana in Mahayana
In Mahayana, the notion of Nirvana undergoes a change which is characterized by
two aspects: Bodhisattva ideal and non-difference between samsara and nirvana.
The introduction of the Bodhisattva ideal. Because of the emphasis on the
Bodhisattva ideal, attainment of Nirvana slips into the background. But it does not
lose its importance. Because no school of Mahayana consider bodhisattvahood as
the ultimate goal. Entrance into Nirvana is postponed by the bodhisattva until all
beings are liberated from suffering. Here Nirvana takes on a positive character,
since it becomes essentially a state of awareness of one’s identity with the
Absolute.
Samsara and nirvana are one. This is an emphasis on the unified nature of the
world. The experience of unity with the absolute is not limited to the person of the
experience. It is a limitless experience that covers all appearances, including one’s
own body. In this view, there is no essential distinction between Nirvana and
samsara.
Types of nirvana: Mahayana - Pratistitha Nirvana and Apratistitha Nirvana.
Pratistitha Nirvana: it is remainderless extinction of a liberated person. Here all
relationship to the world is broken off and there is no activity. It is the Nirvana
after death. It is equated with Sopadhisesa Nirvana.
Apratistitha Nirvana: it is the unlocalised Nirvana. It is unlocalised because in
this state a Bodhisattva does not dwell exclusively in either samsara or nirvana.
By virtue of his great insight (prajna) and awareness (Jnana) he does not dwell in
samsara. Because of his great compassion (karuna) he does not disappear into
final nirvana. It is the nirvana of a transcendental bodhisattva.
3
Views of nirvana in Mahayana schools
Vijnanavada: posits the non-distinctness of samsara and nirvana as well as the
unreality of all appearances. Nirvana for this school is the cessation of
discrimination as well as the consciousness that only mind exists and the faith that
the objective existence of the phenomenal world represents nothing but a
confusion of the mind.
Madhyamaka: Nagarjuna in his Mula Madhyamaka Karika argues against the
substantialist conception of Nirvana. He defines Nirvana as:
o Aprahinam Asampraptam (Unabandoned and unachieved)
o Anucchinnam Asvasvatam (Uninterrupted and impermanent)
o Aniruddham Anutpannam (Unextinguished and Non-arisen)
This definition contains three sets. The first set is Aprahinam Asampraptam. Here
Nagarjuna says that nirvana is neither casting off nor reaching. It is a radical
refutation of the substantialist account of nirvana. Casting off something and
reaching at something completely different represents the substantialist or
absolutist way of explaining nirvana. Here Nagarjuna says that nirvana is not the
result of abandonment of raga, dvesa, moha. Nor is it an achievement of
something. If there were something to be achieved, that would again be a source
of bondage rather than freedom.
The second set says that Anucchinnam Asvasvatam. These two negations are also
complementary. If nirvana is unabandoned it is uninterrupted as well. Because we
cannot cut off something if it is unabandoned. Likewise, if nirvana is that which is
unachieved then it is permanent. We cannot achieve nirvana, because already we
have it. How can we achieve something if it is already in us? So here Nagarjuna
declares that nirvana is uninterrupted and unachieved.
This is also a radical refutation of the substantialist concept of nirvana. Cutting off
something completely and attaining a state of permanent existence is nirvana in
the substantialist account of nirvana. Nagarjuna denies this view.
The third set says that Aniruddham Anutpannam. All the previous negations
logically leads us to the declaration that nirvana is non-ceased and non-arisen.
Nirvana transcends all descriptions and characterization.
