1.

What are the differences between

supervised and unsupervised learning?
Supervised Learning Unsupervised Learning
• Uses known and labeled • Uses unlabeled data as input
data as input • Unsupervised learning has no
• Supervised learning has a feedback mechanism
feedback mechanism • The most commonly used
• The most commonly used unsupervised learning
supervised learning algorithms are k-means
algorithms are decision trees, clustering, hierarchical
logistic regression, and clustering, and apriori
support vector machine algorithm

2. How is logistic regression done?

Logistic regression measures the relationship between the
dependent variable (our label of what we want to predict) and
one or more independent variables (our features) by
estimating probability using its underlying logistic function
(sigmoid).
The image shown below depicts how logistic regression works:

The formula and graph for the sigmoid function are as shown:

3. Explain the steps in making a decision

tree.
1. Take the entire data set as input
2. Calculate entropy of the target variable, as well as the
predictor attributes
3. Calculate your information gain of all attributes (we gain
information on sorting different objects from each other)
4. Choose the attribute with the highest information gain as
the root node
5. Repeat the same procedure on every branch until the
decision node of each branch is finalized
For example, let's say you want to build a decision tree to
decide whether you should accept or decline a job offer. The
decision tree for this case is as shown:

It is clear from the decision tree that an offer is accepted if:

 Salary is greater than $50,000
 The commute is less than an hour
 Incentives are offered
4. How do you build a random forest model?
A random forest is built up of a number of decision trees. If you
split the data into different packages and make a decision tree
in each of the different groups of data, the random forest
brings all those trees together.
Steps to build a random forest model:
1. Randomly select 'k' features from a total of 'm' features
where k << m
2. Among the 'k' features, calculate the node D using the
best split point
3. Split the node into daughter nodes using the best split
4. Repeat steps two and three until leaf nodes are finalized
5. Build forest by repeating steps one to four for 'n' times to
create 'n' number of trees

5. How can you avoid overfitting your model?

Overfitting refers to a model that is only set for a very small
amount of data and ignores the bigger picture. There are three
main methods to avoid overfitting:
1. Keep the model simple—take fewer variables into
account, thereby removing some of the noise in the
training data
2. Use cross-validation techniques, such as k folds cross-
validation
3. Use regularization techniques, such as LASSO, that
penalize certain model parameters if they're likely to
cause overfitting

6. Differentiate between univariate,

bivariate, and multivariate analysis.
Univariate
Univariate data contains only one variable. The purpose of the
univariate analysis is to describe the data and find patterns
that exist within it.
Example: height of students
Height (in
cm)
164
167.3
170
174.2
178
 180
The patterns can be studied by drawing conclusions using
mean, median, mode, dispersion or range, minimum,
maximum, etc.
Bivariate
Bivariate data involves two different variables. The analysis of
this type of data deals with causes and relationships and the
analysis is done to determine the relationship between the two
variables.
Example: temperature and ice cream sales in the summer
season
Temperature (in Sale
Celcius) s
20 2,00
0
25 2,10
0
26 2,30
0
28 2,40
0
30 2,60
0
36 3,10
0
Here, the relationship is visible from the table that
temperature and sales are directly proportional to each other.
The hotter the temperature, the better the sales.
Multivariate
Multivariate data involves three or more variables, it is
categorized under multivariate. It is similar to a bivariate but
contains more than one dependent variable.
Example: data for house price prediction
No. of Floor Area (sq Price
rooms s ft)
2 0 900 $4000,00
3 2 1,100 $600,000
3.5 5 1,500 $900,000
4 3 2,100 $1,200,0
00
The patterns can be studied by drawing conclusions using
mean, median, and mode, dispersion or range, minimum,
maximum, etc. You can start describing the data and using it
to guess what the price of the house will be.

7. What are the feature selection methods

used to select the right variables?
There are two main methods for feature selection, i.e, filter,
and wrapper methods.
Filter Methods
This involves:
 Linear discrimination analysis
 ANOVA
 Chi-Square
The best analogy for selecting features is "bad data in, bad
answer out." When we're limiting or selecting the features, it's
all about cleaning up the data coming in.
Wrapper Methods
This involves:
 Forward Selection: We test one feature at a time and
keep adding them until we get a good fit
 Backward Selection: We test all the features and start
removing them to see what works better
 Recursive Feature Elimination: Recursively looks through
all the different features and how they pair together
Wrapper methods are very labor-intensive, and high-end
computers are needed if a lot of data analysis is performed
with the wrapper method.

8. In your choice of language, write a

program that prints the numbers ranging
from one to 50.
But for multiples of three, print "Fizz" instead of the number,
and for the multiples of five, print "Buzz." For numbers which
are multiples of both three and five, print "FizzBuzz"
The code is shown below:

Note that the range mentioned is 51, which means zero to 50.
However, the range asked in the question is one to 50.
Therefore, in the above code, you can include the range as
(1,51).
The output of the above code is as shown:

9. You are given a data set consisting of

variables with more than 30 percent missing
values. How will you deal with them?
The following are ways to handle missing data values:
If the data set is large, we can just simply remove the rows
with missing data values. It is the quickest way; we use the
rest of the data to predict the values.
For smaller data sets, we can substitute missing values with
the mean or average of the rest of the data using the pandas'
data frame in python. There are different ways to do so, such
as df.mean(), df.fillna(mean).

10. For the given points, how will you

calculate the Euclidean distance in Python?
plot1 = [1,3]
plot2 = [2,5]
The Euclidean distance can be calculated as follows:
euclidean_distance = sqrt( (plot1[0]-plot2[0])**2 + (plot1[1]-
plot2[1])**2 )
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11. What are dimensionality reduction and its

benefits?
The Dimensionality reduction refers to the process of
converting a data set with vast dimensions into data with
fewer dimensions (fields) to convey similar information
concisely.
This reduction helps in compressing data and reducing storage
space. It also reduces computation time as fewer dimensions
lead to less computing. It removes redundant features; for
example, there's no point in storing a value in two different
units (meters and inches).
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12. How will you calculate eigenvalues and

eigenvectors of the following 3x3 matrix?
- - 2
2 4
- 1 2
 2
4 2 5
The characteristic equation is as shown:
Expanding determinant:
(-2 – λ) [(1-λ) (5-λ)-2x2] + 4[(-2) x (5-λ) -4x2] + 2[(-2) x 2-4(1-
λ)] =0
- λ3 + 4λ2 + 27λ – 90 = 0,
λ3 - 4 λ2 -27 λ + 90 = 0
Here we have an algebraic equation built from the
eigenvectors.
By hit and trial:
33 – 4 x 32 - 27 x 3 +90 = 0
Hence, (λ - 3) is a factor:
λ3 - 4 λ2 - 27 λ +90 = (λ – 3) (λ2 – λ – 30)
Eigenvalues are 3,-5,6:
(λ – 3) (λ2 – λ – 30) = (λ – 3) (λ+5) (λ-6),
Calculate eigenvector for λ = 3
For X = 1,
-5 - 4Y + 2Z =0,
-2 - 2Y + 2Z =0
Subtracting the two equations:
3 + 2Y = 0,
Subtracting back into second equation:
Y = -(3/2)
Z = -(1/2)
Similarly, we can calculate the eigenvectors for -5 and 6.

13. How should you maintain a deployed

model?
The steps to maintain a deployed model are:
Monitor
Constant monitoring of all models is needed to determine their
performance accuracy. When you change something, you want
to figure out how your changes are going to affect things. This
needs to be monitored to ensure it's doing what it's supposed
to do.
Evaluate
Evaluation metrics of the current model are calculated to
determine if a new algorithm is needed.
Compare
The new models are compared to each other to determine
which model performs the best.
Rebuild
The best-performing model is re-built on the current state of
data.

14. What are recommender systems?

A recommender system predicts what a user would rate a
specific product based on their preferences. It can be split into
two different areas:
Collaborative Filtering
As an example, Last.fm recommends tracks that other users
with similar interests play often. This is also commonly seen on
Amazon after making a purchase; customers may notice the
following message accompanied by product recommendations:
"Users who bought this also bought…"
Content-based Filtering
As an example: Pandora uses the properties of a song to
recommend music with similar properties. Here, we look at
content, instead of looking at who else is listening to music.

15. How do you find RMSE and MSE in a

linear regression model?
RMSE and MSE are two of the most common measures of
accuracy for a linear regression model.
RMSE indicates the Root Mean Square Error.

MSE indicates the Mean Square Error.

16. How can you select k for k-means?

We use the elbow method to select k for k-means clustering.
The idea of the elbow method is to run k-means clustering on
the data set where 'k' is the number of clusters.
Within the sum of squares (WSS), it is defined as the sum of
the squared distance between each member of the cluster and
its centroid.

17. What is the significance of p-value?

p-value typically ≤ 0.05
This indicates strong evidence against the null hypothesis; so
you reject the null hypothesis.
p-value typically > 0.05
This indicates weak evidence against the null hypothesis, so
you accept the null hypothesis.
p-value at cutoff 0.05
This is considered to be marginal, meaning it could go either
way.

18. How can outlier values be treated?

You can drop outliers only if it is a garbage value.
Example: height of an adult = abc ft. This cannot be true, as
the height cannot be a string value. In this case, outliers can
be removed.
If the outliers have extreme values, they can be removed. For
example, if all the data points are clustered between zero to
10, but one point lies at 100, then we can remove this point.
If you cannot drop outliers, you can try the following:
 Try a different model. Data detected as outliers by linear
models can be fit by nonlinear models. Therefore, be sure
you are choosing the correct model.
 Try normalizing the data. This way, the extreme data
points are pulled to a similar range.
 You can use algorithms that are less affected by outliers;
an example would be random forests.

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19. How can time-series data be declared as

stationery?
It is stationary when the variance and mean of the series are
constant with time.
Here is a visual example:

In the first graph, the variance is constant with time. Here, X is

the time factor and Y is the variable. The value of Y goes
through the same points all the time; in other words, it is
stationary.
In the second graph, the waves get bigger, which means it is
non-stationary and the variance is changing with time.

20. How can you calculate accuracy using a

confusion matrix?
Consider this confusion matrix:
You can see the values for total data, actual values, and
predicted values.
The formula for accuracy is:
Accuracy = (True Positive + True Negative) / Total
Observations
= (262 + 347) / 650
= 609 / 650
= 0.93
As a result, we get an accuracy of 93 percent.

21. Write the equation and calculate the

precision and recall rate.
Consider the same confusion matrix used in the previous
question.

Precision = (True positive) / (True Positive + False Positive)

= 262 / 277
= 0.94
Recall Rate = (True Positive) / (Total Positive + False Negative)
= 262 / 288
= 0.90

22. 'People who bought this also bought…'

recommendations seen on Amazon are a
result of which algorithm?
The recommendation engine is accomplished with
collaborative filtering. Collaborative filtering explains the
behavior of other users and their purchase history in terms of
ratings, selection, etc.
The engine makes predictions on what might interest a person
based on the preferences of other users. In this algorithm, item
features are unknown.

For example, a sales page shows that a certain number of

people buy a new phone and also buy tempered glass at the
same time. Next time, when a person buys a phone, he or she
may see a recommendation to buy tempered glass as well.

23. Write a basic SQL query that lists all

orders with customer information.
Usually, we have order tables and customer tables that contain
the following columns:
  Order Table
 Orderid
 customerId
 OrderNumber
 TotalAmount
 Customer Table
 Id
 FirstName
 LastName
 City
 Country
 The SQL query is:
 SELECT OrderNumber, TotalAmount, FirstName,
LastName, City, Country
 FROM Order
 JOIN Customer
 ON Order.CustomerId = Customer.Id
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24. You are given a dataset on cancer
detection. You have built a classification
model and achieved an accuracy of 96
percent. Why shouldn't you be happy with
your model performance? What can you do
about it?
Cancer detection results in imbalanced data. In an imbalanced
dataset, accuracy should not be based as a measure of
performance. It is important to focus on the remaining four
percent, which represents the patients who were wrongly
diagnosed. Early diagnosis is crucial when it comes to cancer
detection, and can greatly improve a patient's prognosis.
Hence, to evaluate model performance, we should use
Sensitivity (True Positive Rate), Specificity (True Negative
Rate), F measure to determine the class wise performance of
the classifier.

25. Which of the following machine learning

algorithms can be used for inputting missing
values of both categorical and continuous
variables?
 K-means clustering
 Linear regression
 K-NN (k-nearest neighbor)
  Decision trees
The K nearest neighbor algorithm can be used because it can
compute the nearest neighbor and if it doesn't have a value, it
just computes the nearest neighbor based on all the other
features.
When you're dealing with K-means clustering or linear
regression, you need to do that in your pre-processing,
otherwise, they'll crash. Decision trees also have the same
problem, although there is some variance.
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26. Below are the eight actual values of the

target variable in the train file. What is the
entropy of the target variable?
[0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1]
Choose the correct answer.
1. -(5/8 log(5/8) + 3/8 log(3/8))
2. 5/8 log(5/8) + 3/8 log(3/8)
3. 3/8 log(5/8) + 5/8 log(3/8)
4. 5/8 log(3/8) – 3/8 log(5/8)
The target variable, in this case, is 1.
The formula for calculating the entropy is:
Putting p=5 and n=8, we get
Entropy = A = -(5/8 log(5/8) + 3/8 log(3/8))
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27. We want to predict the probability of

death from heart disease based on three risk
factors: age, gender, and blood cholesterol
level. What is the most appropriate algorithm
for this case?
Choose the correct option:
1. Logistic Regression
2. Linear Regression
3. K-means clustering
4. Apriori algorithm
The most appropriate algorithm for this case is A, logistic
regression.
28. After studying the behavior of a
population, you have identified four specific
individual types that are valuable to your
study. You would like to find all users who
are most similar to each individual type.
Which algorithm is most appropriate for this
study?
Choose the correct option:
1. K-means clustering
2. Linear regression
3. Association rules
4. Decision trees
As we are looking for grouping people together specifically by
four different similarities, it indicates the value of k. Therefore,
K-means clustering (answer A) is the most appropriate
algorithm for this study.

29. You have run the association rules

algorithm on your dataset, and the two rules
{banana, apple} => {grape} and {apple,
orange} => {grape} have been found to be
relevant. What else must be true?
Choose the right answer:
1. {banana, apple, grape, orange} must be a frequent
itemset
2. {banana, apple} => {orange} must be a relevant rule
3. {grape} => {banana, apple} must be a relevant rule
4. {grape, apple} must be a frequent itemset
The answer is A: {grape, apple} must be a frequent itemset

30. Your organization has a website where

visitors randomly receive one of two
coupons. It is also possible that visitors to
the website will not receive a coupon. You
have been asked to determine if offering a
coupon to website visitors has any impact on
their purchase decisions. Which analysis
method should you use?
 1. One-way ANOVA
2. K-means clustering
3. Association rules
4. Student's t-test
The answer is A: One-way ANOVA

31. What do you understand about true

positive rate and false-positive rate?
 The True Positive Rate (TPR) defines the probability that
an actual positive will turn out to be positive.
The True Positive Rate (TPR) is calculated by taking the ratio of
the [True Positives (TP)] and [True Positive (TP) & False
Negatives (FN) ].
The formula for the same is stated below -
TPR=TP/TP+FN
 The False Positive Rate (FPR) defines the probability that
an actual negative result will be shown as a positive one
i.e the probability that a model will generate a false
alarm.
The False Positive Rate (FPR) is calculated by taking the ratio
of the [False Positives (FP)] and [True Positives (TP) & False
Positives(FP)].
The formula for the same is stated below -
FPR=FP/TN+FP

32. What is the ROC curve?

The graph between the True Positive Rate on the y-axis and
the False Positive Rate on the x-axis is called the ROC curve
and is used in binary classification.
The False Positive Rate (FPR) is calculated by taking the ratio
between False Positives and the total number of negative
samples, and the True Positive Rate (TPR) is calculated by
taking the ratio between True Positives and the total number of
positive samples.
In order to construct the ROC curve, the TPR and FPR values
are plotted on multiple threshold values. The area range under
the ROC curve has a range between 0 and 1. A completely
random model, which is represented by a straight line, has a
0.5 ROC. The amount of deviation a ROC has from this straight
line denotes the efficiency of the model.
The image above denotes a ROC curve example.

33. What is a Confusion Matrix?

The Confusion Matrix is the summary of prediction results of a
particular problem. It is a table that is used to describe the
performance of the model. The Confusion Matrix is an n*n
matrix that evaluates the performance of the classification
model.

34. What do you understand about the true-

positive rate and false-positive rate?
TRUE-POSITIVE RATE: The true-positive rate gives the
proportion of correct predictions of the positive class. It is also
used to measure the percentage of actual positives that are
accurately verified.
FALSE-POSITIVE RATE: The false-positive rate gives the
proportion of incorrect predictions of the positive class. A false
positive determines something is true when that is initially
false.

35. How is Data Science different from

traditional application programming?
The primary and vital difference between Data Science and
traditional application programming is that in traditional
programming, one has to create rules to translate the input to
output. In Data Science, the rules are automatically produced
from the data.
36. What is the difference between the long
format data and wide format data?
LONG FORMAT DATA: It contains values that repeat in the first
column. In this format, each row is a one-time point per
subject.
WIDE FORMAT DATA: In the Wide Format Data, the data’s
repeated responses will be in a single row, and each response
can be recorded in separate columns.
Long format Table:
NAM ATTRIBUT VALU
E E E
RAM HEIGHT 182
A
SITA HEIGHT 160
Wide format Table:
NAM HEIGH
E T
RAM 182
A
SITA 160

37. Mention some techniques used for

sampling.
Sampling is the selection of individual members or a subset of
the population to estimate the characters of the whole
population. There are two types of Sampling, namely
Probability and Non-Probability Sampling.

38. Why is Python used for Data Cleaning in

DS?
Data Scientists and technical analysts must convert a huge
amount of data into effective ones. Data Cleaning includes
removing malwared records, outliners, inconsistent values,
redundant formatting etc. Matplotlib, Pandas etc are the most
used Python Data Cleaners.
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39. What are the popular libraries used in
Data Science?
The popular libraries used in Data Science are
 Tensor Flow
 Pandas
 NumPy
 SciPy
 Scrapy
 Librosa
 MatPlotLib
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40. What is variance in Data Science?

Variance is the value that depicts the individual figures in a set
of data which distributes themselves about the mean and
describes the difference of each value from the mean value.
Data Scientists use variance to understand the distribution of a
data set.

41. What is pruning in a decision tree

algorithm?
In Data Science and Machine Learning, Pruning is a technique
which is related to decision trees. Pruning simplifies the
decision tree by reducing the rules. Pruning helps to avoid
complexity and improves accuracy. Reduced error Pruning,
cost complexity pruning etc. are the different types of Pruning.

42. What is entropy in a decision tree

algorithm?
Entropy is the measure of randomness or disorder in the group
of observations. It also determines how a decision tree
switches to split data. Entropy is also used to check the
homogeneity of the given data. If the entropy is zero, then the
sample of data is entirely homogeneous, and if the entropy is
one, then it indicates that the sample is equally divided.

43. What information is gained in a decision

tree algorithm?
Information gain is the expected reduction in entropy.
Information gain decides the building of the tree. Information
Gain makes the decision tree smarter. Information gain
includes parent node R and a set E of K training examples. It
calculates the difference between entropy before and after the
split.

44. What is k-fold cross-validation?

The k-fold cross validation is a procedure used to estimate the
model's skill in new data. In k-fold cross validation, every
observation from the original dataset may appear in the
training and testing set. K-fold cross-validation estimates the
accuracy but does not help you to improve the accuracy.

45. What is a normal distribution?

Normal Distribution is also known as the Gaussian Distribution.
The normal distribution shows the data near the mean and the
frequency of that particular data. When represented in
graphical form, normal distribution appears like a bell curve.
The parameters included in the normal distribution are Mean,
Standard Deviation, Median etc.

46. What is Deep Learning?

Deep Learning is one of the essential factors in Data Science,
including statistics. Deep Learning makes us work more closely
with the human brain and reliable with human thoughts. The
algorithms are sincerely created to resemble the human brain.
In Deep Learning, multiple layers are formed from the raw
input to extract the high-level layer with the best features.

47. What is an RNN (recurrent neural

network)?
RNN is an algorithm that uses sequential data. RNN is used in
language translation, voice recognition, image capturing etc.
There are different types of RNN networks such as one-to-one,
one-to-many, many-to-one and many-to-many. RNN is used in
Google’s Voice search and Apple’s Siri.
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48. What are the feature vectors?

A feature vector is an n-dimensional vector of numerical
features that represent an object. In machine learning, feature
vectors are used to represent numeric or symbolic
characteristics (called features) of an object in a mathematical
way that's easy to analyze.

49. What are the steps in making a decision

tree?
1. Take the entire data set as input.
2. Look for a split that maximizes the separation of the
classes. A split is any test that divides the data into two
sets.
3. Apply the split to the input data (divide step).
4. Re-apply steps one and two to the divided data.
5. Stop when you meet any stopping criteria.
6. This step is called pruning. Clean up the tree if you went
too far doing splits.

50. What is root cause analysis?

Root cause analysis was initially developed to analyze
industrial accidents but is now widely used in other areas. It is
a problem-solving technique used for isolating the root causes
of faults or problems. A factor is called a root cause if its
deduction from the problem-fault-sequence averts the final
undesirable event from recurring.
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51. What is logistic regression?
Logistic regression is also known as the logit model. It is a
technique used to forecast the binary outcome from a linear
combination of predictor variables.

52. What are recommender systems?

Recommender systems are a subclass of information filtering
systems that are meant to predict the preferences or ratings
that a user would give to a product.

53. Explain cross-validation.

Cross-validation is a model validation technique for evaluating
how the outcomes of a statistical analysis will generalize to an
independent data set. It is mainly used in backgrounds where
the objective is to forecast and one wants to estimate how
accurately a model will accomplish in practice.
The goal of cross-validation is to term a data set to test the
model in the training phase (i.e. validation data set) to limit
problems like overfitting and gain insight into how the model
will generalize to an independent data set.

54. What is collaborative filtering?

Most recommender systems use this filtering process to find
patterns and information by collaborating perspectives,
numerous data sources, and several agents.

55. Do gradient descent methods always

converge to similar points?
They do not, because in some cases, they reach a local minima
or a local optima point. You would not reach the global optima
point. This is governed by the data and the starting conditions.

56. What is the goal of A/B Testing?

This is statistical hypothesis testing for randomized
experiments with two variables, A and B. The objective of A/B
testing is to detect any changes to a web page to maximize or
increase the outcome of a strategy.

57. What are the drawbacks of the linear

model?
 The assumption of linearity of the errors
 It can't be used for count outcomes or binary outcomes
 There are overfitting problems that it can't solve

58. What is the law of large numbers?

It is a theorem that describes the result of performing the
same experiment very frequently. This theorem forms the
basis of frequency-style thinking. It states that the sample
mean, sample variance, and sample standard deviation
converge to what they are trying to estimate.

59. What are the confounding variables?

These are extraneous variables in a statistical model that
correlates directly or inversely with both the dependent and
the independent variable. The estimate fails to account for the
confounding factor.
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60. What is star schema?

It is a traditional database schema with a central table.
Satellite tables map IDs to physical names or descriptions and
can be connected to the central fact table using the ID fields;
these tables are known as lookup tables and are principally
useful in real-time applications, as they save a lot of memory.
Sometimes, star schemas involve several layers of
summarization to recover information faster.

61. How regularly must an algorithm be

updated?
You will want to update an algorithm when:
 You want the model to evolve as data streams through
infrastructure
 The underlying data source is changing
 There is a case of non-stationarity

62. What are eigenvalue and eigenvector?

Eigenvalues are the directions along which a particular linear
transformation acts by flipping, compressing, or stretching.
Eigenvectors are for understanding linear transformations. In
data analysis, we usually calculate the eigenvectors for a
correlation or covariance matrix.

63. Why is resampling done?

Resampling is done in any of these cases:
 Estimating the accuracy of sample statistics by using
subsets of accessible data, or drawing randomly with
replacement from a set of data points
 Substituting labels on data points when performing
significance tests
 Validating models by using random subsets
(bootstrapping, cross-validation)

64. What is selection bias?

Selection bias, in general, is a problematic situation in which
error is introduced due to a non-random population sample.
65. What are the types of biases that can
occur during sampling?
1. Selection bias
2. Undercoverage bias
3. Survivorship bias

66. What is survivorship bias?

Survivorship bias is the logical error of focusing on aspects that
support surviving a process and casually overlooking those
that did not because of their lack of prominence. This can lead
to wrong conclusions in numerous ways.

67. How do you work towards a random

forest?
The underlying principle of this technique is that several weak
learners combine to provide a strong learner. The steps
involved are:
1. Build several decision trees on bootstrapped training
samples of data
2. On each tree, each time a split is considered, a random
sample of mm predictors is chosen as split candidates
out of all pp predictors
3. Rule of thumb: At each split m=p√m=p
4. Predictions: At the majority rule
This exhaustive list is sure to strengthen your preparation for
data science interview questions.

68. What is a bias-variance trade-off?

Bias: Due to an oversimplification of a Machine Learning
Algorithm, an error occurs in our model, which is known as
Bias. This can lead to an issue of underfitting and might lead to
oversimplified assumptions at the model training time to make
target functions easier and simpler to understand.
Some of the popular machine learning algorithms which are
low on the bias scale are -
Support Vector Machines (SVM), K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN),
and Decision Trees.
Algorithms that are high on the bias scale -
Logistic Regression and Linear Regression.
Variance: Because of a complex machine learning algorithm, a
model performs really badly on a test data set as the model
learns even noise from the training data set. This error that
occurs in the Machine Learning model is called Variance and
can generate overfitting and hyper-sensitivity in Machine
Learning models.
While trying to get over bias in our model, we try to increase
the complexity of the machine learning algorithm. Though it
helps in reducing the bias, after a certain point, it generates an
overfitting effect on the model hence resulting in hyper-
sensitivity and high variance.

Bias-Variance trade-off: To achieve the best performance, the

main target of a supervised machine learning algorithm is to
have low variance and bias.
The following things are observed regarding some of the
popular machine learning algorithms -
 The Support Vector Machine algorithm (SVM) has high
variance and low bias. In order to change the trade-off,
we can increase the parameter C. The C parameter
results in a decrease in the variance and an increase in
bias by influencing the margin violations allowed in
training datasets.
 In contrast to the SVM, the K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN)
Machine Learning algorithm has a high variance and low
bias. To change the trade-off of this algorithm, we can
increase the prediction influencing neighbors by
increasing the K value, thus increasing the model bias.

69. Describe Markov chains?

Markov Chains defines that a state’s future probability depends
only on its current state.
Markov chains belong to the Stochastic process type category.
The below diagram explains a step-by-step model of the
Markov Chains whose output depends on their current state.
A perfect example of the Markov Chains is the system of word
recommendation. In this system, the model recognizes and
recommends the next word based on the immediately previous
word and not anything before that. The Markov Chains take the
previous paragraphs that were similar to training data-sets and
generates the recommendations for the current paragraphs
accordingly based on the previous word.

70. Why is R used in Data Visualization?

R is widely used in Data Visualizations for the following
reasons-
 We can create almost any type of graph using R.
 R has multiple libraries like lattice, ggplot2, leaflet, etc.,
and so many inbuilt functions as well.
 It is easier to customize graphics in R compared to
Python.
 R is used in feature engineering and in exploratory data
analysis as well.

71. What is the difference between a box plot

and a histogram?
The frequency of a certain feature’s values is denoted visually
by both box plots and histograms.
Boxplots are more often used in comparing several datasets
and compared to histograms, take less space and contain
fewer details. Histograms are used to know and understand
the probability distribution underlying a dataset.

The diagram above denotes a boxplot of a dataset

.

72. What does NLP stand for?

NLP is short for Natural Language Processing. It deals with the
study of how computers learn a massive amount of textual
data through programming. A few popular examples of NLP are
Stemming, Sentimental Analysis, Tokenization, removal of stop
words, etc.
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73. Difference between an error and a

residual error
The difference between a residual error and error are defined
below -
Error Residual Error
The difference between the The difference between the
actual value and the predicted arithmetic mean of a group
value is called an error. Some of of values and the observed
the popular means of calculating group of values is called a
data science errors are: residual error.
• Root Mean Squared Error
(RMSE)
• Mean Absolute Error (MAE)
• Mean Squared Error (MSE)
An error is generally A residual error can be
unobservable. represented using a graph.
A residual error is used to show An error is how actual
how the sample population data population data and
and the observed data differ observed data differ from
from each other. each other.

74. Difference between Normalisation and

Standardization
Standardization Normalization
• The technique of converting • The technique of converting
data in such a way that it is all data values to lie between 1
normally distributed and has a and 0 is known as
standard deviation of 1 and a Normalization. This is also
mean of 0. known as min-max scaling.
• Standardization takes care • The data returning into the 0
 that the standard normal to 1 range is taken care of by
distribution is followed by the Normalization.
data.

X’ = (X - 𝞵) / 𝞼
• Normalization formula - • Standardization formula -
X’ = (X - Xmin) / (Xmax -
Xmin)
Here,
Xmin - feature’s minimum
value,
Xmax - feature’s maximum
value.

75. Difference between Point Estimates and

Confidence Interval
Confidence Interval: A range of values likely containing the
population parameter is given by the confidence interval.
Further, it even tells us how likely that particular interval can
contain the population parameter. The Confidence Coefficient
(or Confidence level) is denoted by 1-alpha, which gives the
probability or likeness. The level of significance is given by
alpha.
Point Estimates: An estimate of the population parameter is
given by a particular value called the point estimate. Some
popular methods used to derive Population Parameters’ Point
estimators are - Maximum Likelihood estimator and the
Method of Moments.
To conclude, the bias and variance are inversely proportional
to each other, i.e., an increase in bias results in a decrease in
the variance, and an increase in variance results in a decrease
in bias.

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One-on-One Data Science Interview

Questions
To crack a data science interview is no walk in the park. It
requires in-depth knowledge and expertise in various topics.
Furthermore, the projects that you have worked on can
significantly boost your potential in a lot of interviews. In order
to help you with your interviews, we have compiled a set of
questions for you to relate to.
Since data science is an extensive field, there are no
limitations on the type of questions that can be inquired. With
that being said, you can answer each of these questions
depending on the projects you have worked on and the
industries you have been in. Try to answer each one of these
sample questions and then share your answer with us through
the comments.
Pro Tip: No matter how basic a question may seem, always try
to view it from a technical perspective and use each question
to demonstrate your unique technical skills and abilities.

76. Which is your favorite machine learning

algorithm and why?
One of the popular and versatile machine learning algorithms
is the Random Forest. It's an ensemble method that combines
multiple decision trees, providing high accuracy, handling both
classification and regression tasks, and reducing overfitting. Its
ability to handle large datasets and diverse feature types
makes it a powerful choice in various applications.

77. Which according to you is the most

important skill that makes a good data
scientist?
The most important skill that makes a good data scientist is a
strong foundation in statistics. Data scientists need to
understand statistical concepts to analyze and interpret data
accurately, draw meaningful insights, and make data-driven
decisions. This skill allows them to select appropriate modeling
techniques, handle uncertainty, and effectively communicate
findings to stakeholders, ensuring the success of data-driven
projects.

78. Why do you think data science is so

popular today?
Data science is popular today due to the explosion of data and
the potential to extract valuable insights from it. Organizations
across various industries recognize the importance of data-
driven decision-making to gain a competitive edge. Moreover,
advancements in technology and accessible tools have made
data science more approachable, attracting professionals from
diverse backgrounds to harness data's power for innovation
and problem-solving.

79. Explain the most challenging data science

project that you worked on.
The most challenging data science project I encountered
involved analyzing vast amounts of unstructured text data
from various sources. Extracting meaningful insights required
advanced natural language processing techniques, sentiment
analysis, and topic modeling. Additionally, handling data
quality issues and ensuring scalable processing posed
significant hurdles. Collaborating with domain experts and
iteratively refining models were crucial to deliver accurate and
actionable results.

80. How do you usually prefer working on a

project - individually, small team, or large
team?
For projects, I can provide support individually, in small teams,
or as part of larger teams. My adaptability allows me to assist
in diverse settings, leveraging my capabilities to meet project
requirements effectively and contribute to successful
outcomes, regardless of team size.

81. Based on your experience in the industry,

tell me about your top 5 predictions for the
next 10 years.
1. AI continues to evolve, becoming an integral part of daily
life, driving innovation in healthcare, education, and
transportation.
2. Climate change initiatives reshape economies, with
renewable energy, electric vehicles, and sustainable
practices mainstream.
3. Advances in biotech lead to breakthroughs in
personalized medicine and anti-aging therapies.
4. Virtual and augmented reality become widespread,
transforming entertainment, work, and social
interactions.
5. Cryptocurrencies and blockchain technologies gain wide
acceptance, changing the financial landscape.
82. What are some unique skills that you can
bring to the team as a data scientist?
As a data scientist, I bring expert knowledge in machine
learning, statistical modeling, and data visualization. My ability
to translate complex data into actionable insights is valuable. I
have proficiency in programming languages like Python, R, and
SQL, crucial for data manipulation and analysis. Additionally,
my experience with big data platforms and tools, along with
strong problem-solving skills, uniquely position me to
contribute.

83. Were you always in the data science

field? If not, what made you change your
career path and how did you upgrade your
skills?
No, I have switched to Data Science field recently due to the
ever increasing opportunities in the domain.

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84. If we give you a random data set, how

will you figure out whether it suits the
business needs or not?
To ensure a random dataset suits business needs, first
understand the business objectives and key performance
indicators. Then, assess the dataset's relevance, quality, and
completeness with respect to these objectives. If necessary,
perform exploratory data analysis to uncover patterns or
trends. Confirm that the dataset contains actionable insights
that can drive business decisions.

85. Given a chance, if you could pick a career

other than being a data scientist, what would
you choose?
The role of a Data Engineer is a vital and rewarding profession.
They are responsible for designing, building, and managing the
data infrastructure. They create the architecture that enables
data generation, processing, storage, and retrieval. Their work
allows data scientists to perform analyses and make
meaningful contributions.
86. Given the constant change in the data
science field, how quickly can you adapt to
new technologies?
I'm a keen learner and always ready to upskill. I think I will be
able to adapt to new technologies in no time.

87. Have you ever been in a conflict with

your colleagues regarding different
strategies to go about a project? How were
you able to resolve it?
Yes, once I remember. However, it was resolved in no time.
Resolving differences in strategies among colleagues requires:
1. Open Communication: Initiate a dialogue to understand
each person's perspective.
2. Active Listening: Allow each colleague to express their
views fully.
3. Find Common Ground: Identify shared goals or priorities
that everyone agrees on.
4. Collaborative Decision-Making: Encourage participation in
the decision-making process.
5. Compromise: Recognize that a perfect solution may not
exist and compromise might be needed.
6. Feedback and Follow-up: Regularly review the strategy's
progress and adjust as needed.

88. Can you break down an algorithm you

have used on a recent project?
Yes, I can do that.

89. What tools did you use in your last

project and why?
1. Programming Languages: Python, R, SQL for data
manipulation and analysis.
2. Libraries: Pandas, NumPy, Scikit-learn for data processing
and machine learning.
3. Visualization Tools: Matplotlib, Seaborn, Tableau for data
visualization.
4. Big Data Platforms: Hadoop, Spark for handling large
datasets.
 5. Machine Learning Platforms: TensorFlow, PyTorch for
creating ML models.
6. Notebooks: Jupyter, Google Colab for prototyping and
sharing work.

90. What is your most favored strategy to

clean a big data set and why?
My most favored strategy is iterative cleaning, where data is
cleaned in stages or chunks, rather than all at once. This
approach, often combined with automation tools, is efficient
and manageable for large datasets. It allows for quality checks
at each stage, minimizes the risk of data loss, and enables
timely error detection.

91. Do you contribute to any open source

projects?
I have contributed to open source projects in several ways:
1. Developing algorithms and models
2. Improving data processing:
3. Visualizations and dashboard creation
4. Documentation and Tutorials
5. Bug fixing and feature requests