Modelling

Subgrade
Lecture 4 & 5

Transportation Science 434

2024
Purpose of a Pavement?

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 Subgrade protection

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Load Spreading

Transfer high-pressure loading to Mother Earth

Soft = Low E Stiff = High E

Load Spreading = f (Stiffness E)

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CBR Cover Design

80kN/Axles
per lane
(millions)

ES0.3 <0.3
0.3< ES1 <1

ES0.3
1< ES3 <3
ES1 3< ES10 <10
ES3
ES10 10< ES30 <30

After Freeme,
Marais, Walker
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Example

• Use CBR design charts to calculate layer thicknesses for a pavement structure for
2 million E80’s:
• CBR = 100% base
• CBR = 25% subbase
• CBR = 11% selected subgrade
• CBR = 3% subgrade

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CBR Cover Design - Example

MESAs (80kN)
125

E0 <0.2
0.2< E1 <0.8
175

0.8< E2 <3
3 < E3 <12
425

12 < E4 <50

3 11 25 100

After Freeme,
Marais, Walker
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CBR test

load

penetration
0.1”

CBR = F/Fref * 100%

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CBR vs E

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CBR seasonal changes

wet dry
season season

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Paved Shoulder
Zone of Seasonal Variation
X

MC

X
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How does moisture affect subgrade
conditions?

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Principle of Suction

• Subgrade soil above the water table has pressure below atmospheric i.e. suction
• Smaller particles = higher suction
• Moisture balance = drain water (suck) from soil nearby

meniscus

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Suction Pressure

P0.075 = High

P0.075 = Low not important

SAPDM,
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Rubulusa
Suction

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Factors affecting EMC

• Climate (Thornthwaite or Weinert)

• Soil properties (pore sizes)
• Position of Water Table
• Topography (slopes)
• Cuts or fills
• From the above determine suction
• EMC Equilibrium moisture content = f(suction)

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 Rainfall Zones

BEIRA
CHIPINGE
FRANCISTOWN

WINDHOEK MESSINA

WALVISBAY
TZANEEN
GABORONE

PRETORIA
ZEERUST
JOHANNESBURG
MAPUTO
KLERKSDORP
KEETMANSHOOP
VOLKSRUST

BLOEMFONTEIN LADYSMITH

WEPENER
DURBAN N = 12Ej / MAP
ROUXVILLE PORT SHEPSTONE

SOMERSET
CERES WEST
Wet N<2
OUDTSHOORN EAST LONDON
CAPE TOWN
PORT ELIZABETH
Moderate 5>N>2
MOSSEL BAY
Dry N>5
TRH-SA.PRE

Macroclimatic regions of Southern Africa

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Thornthwaite Im

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Is soaked CBR applicable? (Emery)

• Unbound subgrade:
• EMC/OMC = 0.0084(LL0.7)(P.4250.3)+0.34(loge(100+Im)
+0.11(P75/OMC)-0.0036(P.425)-0.89
• Non-plastic subgrade:
• EMC/OMC = 0.19(P75/OMC)+0.0040(Im)-0.0036(P.425)+0.53
• Unsoaked CBR :
• If EMC/ OMC < 1.7 then use unsoaked CBR for subgrade design

Note: All OMC’s are for 100% Mod AASHTO

Im = Thornthwaite’s Moisture Index

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CBR samples – Centreline Soils Survey

• Use a lab with experience. Be present

• Test pit interval more likely 500m than 150m (depends on road length, variab.)
• Limit of excavator = 3m (shallow)
• Consider deep investigation as per vertical alignment

Fill
NGL
B
2B

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Deep investigations

Cut Bridge

Fill Prick of cut/fill

Deep investigations
(boreholes etc)
Topsoil
Transported
Pebble marker
Typical Weathered Residual Rock
Profile
Fresh Rock

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 Recommended Material Depth for Each Road Category

Road Category Material Depth (mm)

A 1 000 – 1 200
B 800 – 1 000
C 800
D 700
In Situ Subgrade Delineation for Flexible Pavements

CBR (%) of delineated

Classification subgrade sections

SG1 > 15

SG2 7 to 15

SG3 3 to 7

SG4 <3

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Subgrade Categories

CBR (%)1 of Action

delineated
SG subgrade
sections
1 • In situ subgrade of a G7 standard and of sufficient strength to
> 15 support structural layers.
• Rip and recompact to 93% of modified (mod.) AASHTO density.
2
• In situ subgrade of a G9 standard.
7 to 15 • Rip and recompact in situ material to 93% of mod. AASHTO density.
Import a 150 mm thick layer of G7 standard material.
3
•

• In situ subgrade of a G10 standard.

• Rip and recompact in situ material to 93% of mod. AASHTO density.
3 to 7 • Import a 150 mm thick layer of G9 standard material.
4 • Import a second 150 mm thick layer of G7 standard material.
• Chemical/mechanical stabilisation
• Or, remove and import new material.
<3 • Or, add additional cover to place poor quality in situ material below
material depth.

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Subgrade Improvement
Subgrade Improvement

Layerworks Layerworks Layerworks

Capping
Geofabric
Rockfill or Lime stabilize
sand-blanket

Geofabric Subgrade
Subgrade
Subgrade
Medium to Loose sand
Soft clay firm clay

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Example

• CBR values every 100m:

5,7,6,7,7,8,5,10,12,9,10,13,16,22,25,22,20
• Determine CBRdes for Category B road
• Uniform sections
• Mean and Standard Deviation
• CBRdes = mean – 1.282 x StdDev
(section 1) = 6.429 – 1.282 x 1.134
= 4.98% (normal distribution)

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Uniform Sections from Plot

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Cumulative Sum Method

• Si = xi – x + Si-1

• Where Si = cum sum of deviations of mean CBRs

• xi = CBR at point i
• x = mean CBR
• Si-1 = cum sum of previous point

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Example

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 Actual identification of Uniform Sections
KA2 - Ymax CUSUM PLOT
400.00

200.00

Fast lane 0.00

-200.00

-400.00

-600.00

-800.00

-1000.00

-1200.00

SECTION 1 SECTION 2 -1400.00

-1600.00
58+000 57+000 56+000 55+000 54+000 53+000

Slow Middle Fast Shoulder

Greek Highway – Athens to Corinth

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Cumulative Frequency Histogram (example cont.)
Cum Freq
(%)
CBR Freq Cum
60 (%)
50 4 0 0

40
5 2 2/7=28.5
30
20 6 1 3/7=42.8

Cat B
10 7 3 6/7=85.7

0
8
8 1 7/7=100
4 5 6 CBR
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Compaction: Maximum Dry Density

ρdry = ρbulk / (1+MC)

Max ρd
Dry
Density

ρd (kg/m3)

OMC=x%

Moisture Content (%)

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 Compacting Granular Material

Max ρd
Dry
Density Max ρd

ZAV
ρd (kg/m3)

Compact 0.5 to 1.5% <OMC

DD=(1-Va/V).1000/(1/Gs+w)
OMC (%)
OMC (%)

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Moisture Content (%)
Density vs Compaction Energy
Density vs Compaction Energy

DD=(1-Va/V).1000/(1/Gs+w)

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Compaction vs Material

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 Compaction vs Material Type

Improved grading
Coarser grained

Fine grained
Cohesive

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CBR vs Moisture CBR as
CBR after moulded
soaking
Clayey
Material

Swell Clayey
Material

Moisture Content
Moisture content (%)
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Plasticity

or

3 mm

Plastic
Limit Liquid
Limit
Semi- Behaviour
Solid
Solid Plastic Liquid Type

SL
Shrinkage Limit Moisture
PI = Plasticity Index Content
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 Advantage of Good Compaction

High Energy

Plastic Limit

Low Energy

Compaction Moisture Content

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Rollers

Smooth drum
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 Padfoot
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Pneumatic Tyred Roller (PTR)

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Rollers

Layer Thickness (mm)

100 150 200 250 300

FINE
PTR

Material Smooth Drum

Grading

Padfoot

COARSE
10 t 15 t 20 t 25 t

Static mass of Primary Roller

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End of the road…..

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Thank you
Enkosi
Dankie

Photo by Stefan Els

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