CHAPTER 15 [MOLECULAR THEORY OF GAS]

Definition of Heat:
Heat is the form of energy that is transferred from a hot body to a cold body because of difference in temperature between them.
It is not the property of the body.
Internal energy:
The internal energy is the sum of all microscopic kinetic and potential energies of the molecules in the body.
Units of heat and relation between them:
Joule (J); it is the S.I units of heat.
Calorie (cal.); it is the old unit of heat.
British thermal unit (B.T.U); it is the unit of heat in British engineering system or F.P.S system
1 cal = 4.18J =4.2J
1 B.T.U = 1055 J
1 B.T.U = 252 cal
Temperature:
The quantitative determination of degree of hotness or coldness is called temperature. (OR)
Temperature depends upon the average translational kinetic energy of the molecules of a body. It is property that determines the
direction of heat flow, because heat flows from higher temperature to lower temperature. It is denoted by “T” and its S.I unit is
“Kelvin”
Thermal Equilibrium:
When two bodies at different temperatures are brought in thermal contact with each other, the heat starts flowing from the hot
body to the cold body till the temperature of both the bodies becomes same, then they are said to be in Thermal Equilibrium.
Scales of Temperature:
Temperature is measured on three different scales;
1. Celsius (or Centigrade) Scale:
On centigrade scale the lower fixed point ( melting point of ice ) is taken as ‘O 0C’, where as the upper fixed point ( boiling
point of water) is taken as ‘100 0C’, and the space between the two points is divided into hundred equal parts, each part measures
a temperature of ‘1 0C’,.
2.Fahrenheit Scale:
On Fahrenheit scale the lower fixed point (melting point of ice) is taken as ’32 0F’ whereas the upper fixed point (boiling point of
water) is taken as ‘212 oF. The space between the two points is divided into 180 equal parts; each part measures a temperature
of ‘1oF. Each division on centigrade scale is equal to “9/5” divisions on Fahrenheit scale.
3.Kelvin or Absolute Scale:
On Kelvin scale the lower fixed point ( melting point of ice) is taken as ‘273K’, whereas the upper fixed point ( boiling point of
water) is taken as ‘373 K’. The Space between the two points is divided into 100 equal parts, each parts measures a temperature
of ‘1 K’.
Hence each division on centigrade scale in numerically equal to each division on the Kelvin scales.
Conversion of Temperature:
1. 𝑇𝐹 = 1.8𝑇𝐶 + 32
𝑇𝐹 −32
2. 𝑇𝐶 =
1.8
3. 𝑇𝐾 = 𝑇𝐶 + 273
Relation among Three Scales Of Temperature:
𝑇𝐶 − 0 𝑇𝐹 − 32 𝑇𝐾 − 273
= =
100 180 100
Thermometric Properties:
Property of a substance which changes uniformly with the change of temperature in named thermometric property. For example
the volume of a liquid in a vessel the volume of a fixed mass of gas kept at constant pressure, the pressure of a fixed mass of gas
maintained at constant volume, electrical resistance of a metal are some of the many measurable physical properties which
changes with the change of temperature.
Thermometer:
It is a device used to measure the temperature of any substance its working is based on the thermometric properties.

Page 1 of 23
 The Triple Point of water:
The vapor, liquid, and solid states of water can coexist in thermal equilibrium
only at a specific pressure and temperature. The triple point of water occurs at
a specific temperature and pressure, where all three phases are in
thermodynamic equilibrium. This means that at the triple point, ice, liquid
water, and water vapor can exist together without any phase changing to
another.
These conditions are used to define the Kelvin temperature scale, where the
temperature at the triple point of water is precisely 273.16 K (0.01°C) and 218
atm (611.73 Pa) and is used to calibrate thermometer.
The triple point is represented as the point where the lines separating the solid,
liquid, and gas phases meet. This diagram visually demonstrates the
relationship between temperature and pressure for the different phases of
water.
The Critical Point of water:
It is a point on phase diagram of PV-graph at which water is coexist in two states, liquid and vapor.
Gas Laws:
Boyle’s law”
Statement:
For a given mass of a gas, the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure by keeping the temperature to be constant.
Mathematical Expression:
If “V” denotes the volume and “P” pressure
1
Then 𝑉∝
𝑃
1
𝑉=𝐾
𝑃
𝑃𝑉 = 𝐾
Value of the constant depends upon mass and temperature of the gas. For a certain mass and temperature;
For two states of a gas;
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
• Real gasses obey Boyle’s law at low pressure and high temperature.
• Real gasses deviate from Boyle’s law at high pressure and low temperature.
If mass is varying then, relation between pressure, volume and mass of a gas at constant temperature is;
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
=
𝑚1 𝑚2
Where; m1= initial mass of the gas
m2= final mass of the gas

Graphical Representation: Graph between pressure and volume of a Gas at constant temperature is a parabolic curve. Graph
between “P” and 1/V of gas at Constant temperature is a straight line.

Charles’ law:
Statement:
For a given mass of a gas, the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature by keeping the pressure to be
constant.
Mathematically:

Page 2 of 23
If ”V” and “T” denote the volume and absolute temperature of a gas respectively then;
𝑉∝𝑇
V=K T
𝑉
=𝐾
𝑇
Value of the constant depends upon mass and temperature of the gas. For a certain mass and pressure;
For two states of a gas;
𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
If mass is varying then, relation between temperature, volume and mass of a gas at constant temperature is;
𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑚1 𝑇1 𝑚2 𝑇2
Where; m1= initial mass of the gas
m2= final mass of the gas
Graphical Representation:
Graph between temperature and volume of a gas at Constant pressure is a straight line. At
very low temperature, all gases get liquefied, hence Charles’ law not obeyed anymore and
the graph deviates from straight line.
However, if the straight line is extrapolated below the boiling point of a gas the straight line
meets the axis of temperature at
-2730C and the volume of the gas become zero. This would be possible if the Gas was cooled
to -2730C without changing into liquid and of course this is not possible. This temperature is
called absolute zero. It is the temperature at which volume of any gas Poetically becomes zero. (-2730C = 0K). Absolute zero is also
defined as. It is a temperature at which the motions of the molecules of any substance cease to move.
Avogadro’s law:
For a given mass of a gas the volume of gas is directly proportional to number of moles of a gas by keeping the pressure and
temperature to be constant.
Mathematically:
If ”V” and “n” denote the volume and no. of moles of a gas respectively then;
𝑉∝𝑛
V=K n
𝑉
=𝐾
𝑛
Value of the constant depends upon mass and temperature of the gas. For a certain mass, temperature and pressure;
For two states of a gas;
𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑛1 𝑛2
If mass is varying then, relation between volume, no. of moles and mass of a gas at constant temperature and pressure is;
𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑚1 𝑛1 𝑚2 𝑛2
Where; m1= initial mass of the gas
m2= final mass of the gas
General Gas Equation:
1
According to Boyle’s law; 𝑉 ∝ (where no. of moles and temperature are constant)
𝑃
According to Charles’ law; 𝑉 ∝ 𝑇 (where no. of moles and pressure are constant)
According to Avogadro’s law; 𝑉 ∝ 𝑛 (where pressure and temperature are constant)
Consider none of these three variables are constant then the relation will be formed;
𝑛𝑇
𝑉∝
𝑃
𝑛𝑇
𝑉=𝑅
𝑃
or
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
This is general gas equation “R” is moral gas constant

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R=8.314 J/mol. K
Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases:
The properties of gas are described by a set of fundamental assumptions which are given as:
1. A gas consists of particles called molecules. Depending on the gas each molecule will consist of an atom or group of atom. All
the molecules of a gas in a stable state are considered identical.
2. Any finite volume of a gas consists of very large number of these molecules. This assumption is justified by experiments. At
standard conditions there are 3x1025 molecules in a cubic meter.
3. The molecules are separated by large distance as compare to their own dimensions. The diameter of a molecule considered as
a sphere, is about 3x10-10m.
4. Molecules move in all directions and with various speeds and making elastic collisions with one another and with the walls of a
container can be considered perfectly smooth.
5. Molecules exert no forces on one another except during collisions. There for in between collisions with other molecules or with
the walls of the container and in the absence of the external forces, they move freely in straight lines.
6. Newtonian mechanics is applicable to the motion of molecules.

Interpretation of the Pressure of Gas on the Basis of Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases:
Pressure of the gases is due to those collisions which the molecules have with the walls of the container.
Let us consider a container of cubical shape and calculate pressure of the gas on one of its walls which on the left side of the
container.
Suppose,
Mass of each molecule of the gas =m
Length of each side of container = l Vy
Total number of molecules = N Vx l
→
Velocity of one of the molecules striking the wall = 𝑣 Vy

Component of velocity along x-axis =vx

-Vx
For One Molecule
l
Initial momentum along x-axis = m(-vx) = -mvx
Momentum after collision with the wall =mvx l
Change in momentum = ∆𝑃 mvx-(-mvx) =2mvx
Suppose a molecule takes “t” second for each collision. Then distance covered in that time along x-axis is 2I hence;
𝑆 = 𝑣𝑡
2𝑙 = 𝑣𝑥 𝑡
2𝑙
𝑡=
𝑣𝑥
Now, the rate of change of momentum is,
∆P 2𝑚𝑣 𝑥
=
∆t 2l
vx
𝑚𝑣𝑥 2
Or the force exerted by one molecule =
𝑙

Total force exerted by all the molecules is;

2 2 2
𝑚𝑣1𝑥 𝑚𝑣2𝑥 𝑚𝑣𝑛𝑥
𝐹= + +. . . . . . . . +
𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
𝑚 2 2 2
𝐹 = (𝑣1𝑥 + 𝑣2𝑥 +. . . . . . . +𝑣𝑛𝑥 )
𝑙
Multiplying and dividing by “N”
2 +𝑣 2 +.......+𝑣 2
𝑚𝑁 𝑣1𝑥 2𝑥 𝑛𝑥
Or 𝐹= ( )
𝑙 𝑁
𝑚𝑁 2
𝐹= (𝑣𝑥 )
𝑙
Hence, pressure on the wall is
𝑃 = 𝐹/𝐴

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 𝑚𝑁 2
(𝑣𝑥 )
𝑃= 𝑙 2
𝑙
𝑚𝑁 2
𝑃 = 3 (𝑣𝑥 )
𝑙
𝑚𝑁 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑠
3
=
𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑚𝑁
= 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑙3
𝑚𝑁
=𝜌
𝑙3
Therefore above equation becomes;
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑣𝑥2 − − − −(𝑖)
𝑣𝑥2 =Mean square of x-components of velocity
Now we may write the magnitude of average velocity of particle as;
𝑣 2 = 𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2 + 𝑣𝑧2 − − − − − − − − − (𝑖𝑖)
And according to KMT gas particles move at random therefore,
𝑣𝑥2 = 𝑣𝑦2 = 𝑣𝑧2
Thereforeeq (ii) becomes:
𝑣 2 = 𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑥2
𝑣 2 = 3𝑣𝑥2
1
𝑣𝑥2 = 𝑣 2
3
Putting value of 𝑣𝑥2 in eq (i):
1
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑣 2
3
This equation gives the pressure of an ideal gas on the basis of KMT.
Average translational K.E of the molecules of an ideal gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas .
Proof:
Pressure of an ideal gas given by;
1
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑣 2
3
Where;
𝑣 2 = Average square speed of molecules
𝜌 = density of the molecule
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝜌=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑚𝑁
𝜌=
𝑉
Put the value in above equation we get;
1 𝑚𝑁 2
𝑃= 𝑣
3 𝑉
1
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑁𝑣 2
3
Where; m=mass of one molecule
N=total No. of molecules
Re-arranging the equation we get;
1
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁 (𝑚𝑣 2 )
3
2 1
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁 ( 𝑚𝑣 2 )
3 2
But, PV=nRT; (General gas eq)

Therefore;

Page 5 of 23
 2
𝑛𝑅𝑇 = 𝑁(𝐾. 𝐸𝑎𝑣 )
3
Where;

N=no. of moles of the gas

R= molar gas constant

T= absolute temperature

K.E= Average Translational K.E

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠⥂𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑛=
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
But;
𝑚𝑁 𝑁
𝑛= =
𝑚𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐴
Note that molecular mass is the mass of one mole of the gas or the mass of Avogadro number of molecules

Put the value of “n” in eq (i)

𝑁 2
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑁(𝐾. 𝐸𝑎𝑣 )
𝑁𝐴 3
𝑅 2
𝑇 = (𝐾. 𝐸𝑎𝑣 )
𝑁𝐴 3
Where NA= Avogadro’s number = 6.02 x1023 molecules/mole
𝑅
= 𝑘 = 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛′𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡
𝑁𝐴
But
2
𝑘𝑇 = (𝐾. 𝐸𝑎𝑣 )
3
Therefore;
3
𝐾. 𝐸𝑎𝑣 = 𝑘𝑇 − − − − − − − − − (𝑖𝑖)
2
𝐾. 𝐸𝑎𝑣 = (𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡)𝑇 ⇒ 𝐾. 𝐸𝑎𝑣 ∝ 𝑇
Root Mean Square Velocity:

It is square root of the average square speed of molecules of a gas.

i.e 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √𝑣 2

Relation between Root Mean Square Speed and Absolute Temperature Of a Gas:
3
𝐾. 𝐸𝑎𝑣 = 𝑘𝑇
2
1 3
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑘𝑇
2 2
3𝑘𝑇
𝑣2 =
𝑚
3𝑘𝑇
√𝑣 2 = √
𝑚

3𝑘𝑇
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √
𝑚
Relation Between Vrms and Pressure of gas:
1
As; 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑣 2
3
3𝑃
= 𝑣2
𝜌
3𝑃
√𝑣 2 = √
𝜌

Page 6 of 23
Boltzmann’s Constant (K):
It is the value of gas constant per molecule i.e
𝑗
𝑅 8.314
𝑘= = 𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝐾
𝑁𝐴 6.02 × 1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠/𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑘 = 1.380 × 10−23 𝑗/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠. 𝐾

Page 7 of 23
SOLVED MCQs FROM BOOK

Page 8 of 23
 CHAPTER 16 [FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS]
Thermodynamics:
“The branch of physics deals with the temperature dependent properties of matter and change of states is called
thermodynamics”. The study of thermodynamics also gives an idea about the transformation of heat energy and mechanical
energy.
Law of Thermodynamics:
The basic principles and techniques concern with the transformation of heat energy into mechanical energy or vice versa, are
known as “Laws of thermodynamics”.
Thermodynamic Equilibrium:
If the thermodynamic co-ordinates (pressure, volume, temperature, internal energy and entropy etc) of a system doesnot change
even for an infinite interval of time, the system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium.
First Law of Thermodynamics:
This law is based on the experimental research done by the “ROWLAND” and “MAYER” in 1842 and “JOULE” and “HELMHOLTZ”
in 1847. This law basically explains the conservation of energy in respect of transformation of heat energy and mechanical energy.
This is Law States,
“When heat is transferred into mechanical energy or vice versa, the total amount of energy remains constant”.
Explanation:
Suppose that the amount of heat "𝛥𝑄"is added to a system which increases the internal energy of the system by an amount,
"𝛥𝑈"and also helps the system to do some useful work, "𝛥𝑊"according to first law of thermodynamics, the conservation of energy
during thermodynamic change can be written as,
𝛥𝑄 = 𝛥𝑈 + 𝛥𝑊
This equation is commonly called equation of first law of thermodynamics. It states, “The sum of internal energy and work done
by the system is equal to the supplied energy”.
Note: "𝛥𝑄"is positive when heat enters the system and negative when it leaves the system. "𝛥𝑊" is positive when work is done
by the system and negative when it is done on the system.
Application of First Law of Thermodynamics:
Isobaric Process:
“A thermodynamic system, in which pressure is kept constant during the processing, is called an Isobaric Process”.
Technique of the Process:
To achieve an isobaric process, a gas enclosed in a vessel having a movable piston at upper end.
Explanation of the Process:
Consider a gas as working substance and enclosed within a vessel at volume “V 1” and temperature “T1”.
Let the Pressure on the piston of vessel is kept constant. When "𝛥𝑄"amount of heat is supplied to the system, some part of it used
in increasing the K.E of molecules and rest of heat is utilized in doing work. Thus with supply of heat, the gas will expand and its
final parameters becomes “V2” and “T2” respectively.
During an isobaric process the gas will perform some useful work against the constant Pressure
The magnitude of such a work is given by.
𝛥𝑊 = 𝐹 × 𝑑
𝛥𝑊 = 𝑃𝐴 × 𝑑
𝛥𝑊 = 𝑃(𝐴𝑑)
𝛥𝑊 = 𝑃𝛥𝑉
𝛥𝑊 = 𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
By the equation of first law of thermodynamics,
𝛥𝑄 = 𝛥𝑈 + 𝛥𝑊
Putting 𝛥𝑊 = 𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
𝛥𝑄 = 𝛥𝑈 + 𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
This expression shows the modified from of first law of thermodynamics in
case of an “Isobaric process”.
P-V-Diagram of an isobaric Process:
The P-V-Diagram of an isobaric process will describe a horizontal straight line.

Page 9 of 23
Isochoric Process;
“A thermodynamic process in which maximum internal energy during process is called an isochoric process”
Technique of the process:
To achieve an isochoric process, the piston of vessel is kept fixed at the initial position. For this we increase the external pressure
on the piston with the supply of heat energy.
Explanation of the process:
Consider a gas as working substance and enclosed in a vessel in a pressure “P 1” and temperature “T1’
Let the volume of the gas is kept constant. When "𝛥𝑄"heat is supplied to the system, it is directly used in increasing the molecular
kinetic energy of the gas and thus the molecular impact with the surface of piston increases. To balance the increasing
intermolecular forces we increase the external pressure up to the limit so that volume of the gas remains constant. After this
process, the final parameters of the gas will become, “P2”and “T2”.

During an isochoric process, the displacement of the piston against the external pressure remains zero and thus no work is
supposed to be done by gas against the external pressure i.e. 𝛥𝑊 =0

From the equation of first law f thermodynamics,

𝛥𝑄 = 𝛥𝑈 + 𝛥𝑊
Putting 𝛥𝑊 = 0
𝛥𝑄 = 𝛥𝑈
i.e. in an isochoric process, whole supplied heat is utilized in increasing the internal
energy of the working substance.
P-V-Diagram of an isochoric Process:
The P-V-Diagram of an isochoric process will describe a vertical straight line.
Isothermal Process:
“A thermodynamic process, in which temperature of working substance is kept constant throughout the process, is called an
isothermal process”.
Technique of the Process:
To perform an isothermal process, the working substance is filled into a vessel of insulated walls and a conducting base. For
processing, this vessel is placed on a heat reservoir of same initial temperature as that of gas.
Explanation:-
Consider a gas as working substance in a vessel having insulated walls and a conducting base.
Let the initial parameter of the gas are “P1”,”V1”and “T1”. The vessel is placed on a heat reservoir at “T1”when the pressure on the
piston is decreased to “P2” the gas will expand and its volume is increased by”V 2”. Due to expansion the gas will cool down and
thus some heat will be conducted into the gas through conduction base until unless the temperature of gas is maintained to “T 1”.

Condition of Process;
During an isothermal process, the initial and final internal energy of the gas equals the other and thus, the change of internal
energy of the system will remain zero.
i.e. 𝛥𝑈 = 0
From the equation of first law of thermodynamics,
𝛥𝑄 = 𝛥𝑈 + 𝛥𝑊
Putting 𝛥𝑈 = 0
𝛥𝑄 = 𝛥𝑊
The amount of heat entered into the system will be equal to the work done by the gas
during isothermal expansion.
P-V-Diagram:
The P-V-Diagram of an isothermal process will describe a curve, called isotherm curve.
This curve follows the statements of Boyle’s law. Hence, the equation of Boyle’s law,
PV=constant Holds true in case of an isothermal process.

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Adiabatic Process:
“A thermodynamic process, in which no heat will enter or reject out of the system, is called an adiabatic process’.
Technique of the process;
To perform an adiabatic process, the working substance is filled into a vessel of insulated walls and conducting base. For processing
this vessel is placed on a heat insulator.
Explanation:
Consider a gas as a working substance in a vessel of insulated walls and a conducting base. For
Achieved an adiabatic process the vessel is placed on a heat insulator. Let the initial parameters of the gas are P 1 V1 and T1.
When the pressure is decreased to “P2” the gas will expand and its volume increase by ‘V2” while this adiabatic expansion, the gas
will cool down and its temperature is decreased to “T2”.
Condition of the Process:
As no heat will enter or eject out of the system, therefore, the change of heat for the system will remain zero i.e. 𝛥𝑄 = 0
From the equation of first law of thermodynamics,
𝛥𝑄 = 𝛥𝑈 + 𝛥𝑈
Putting 𝛥𝑄 = 0
0 = 𝛥𝑈 + 𝛥𝑊
𝛥𝑊 = 𝛥𝑈
𝑂𝑅
−𝛥𝑊 = 𝛥𝑈
This expresses the first law of thermodynamics in case of an adiabatic process. This
shows that the work done by the gas is equal to its own loss of internal energy. And
work done on the gas is equal to gain internal energy,
P-V Diagram:
The P-V diagram for an adiabatic process will describe a steep curve, called adiabatic
curve. The equation PV= constant holds true for such a curve.
Where, “𝛾” is called adiabatic constant and equal to the ratio of “Cp” and Cv”.
𝐶𝑃
i.e. 𝛾=
𝐶𝑉
Heat Capacity(C):
Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a body to unit degree is called “Heat Capacity”.
Formula:
𝛥Q=Amount of heat absorbed by the body.
𝛥T=Change (increase) in temperature
Then
𝛥𝑄 ∝ 𝛥𝑇
𝛥𝑄 = 𝐶𝛥𝑇
Where, C is the constant of proportionality. It is known as “Heat Capacity”.
𝛥𝑄
𝐶=
𝛥𝑇
Unit: it unit is JK-1 or jC-1
Specific Heat Capacity:
Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance through unit degree of temperature (10C or1K),
is called “Specific Heat”.
Formula:
𝛥Q= Amount of heat absorbed by the body.
𝛥T= Change (increase) in temperature.
M= Mass of substance
Then
𝛥𝑄 ∝ 𝛥𝑇 − − − − − − − (𝑖)
𝛥𝑄 ∝ 𝑚 − − − − − − − −(𝑖𝑖)
Combining eq (i) and (ii)
𝛥𝑄 ∝ 𝑚𝛥𝑇
𝛥𝑄 = 𝑐𝑚𝛥𝑇

Where, “C” is the constant of proportionality.It is known as “Specific” heat Capacity” of a body.
𝛥𝑄
𝑐=
𝑚𝛥𝑇

Page 11 of 23
Unit: its unit is JKg-1K=1 Or JKg-10C-1
Molar Specific Heat:
Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of a substance through one Kelvin (or 1 oC) of temperature, is
called molar specific heat.
Formula:
𝛥Q=Amount of heat absorbed by the body.
𝛥T= Change (increase) in temperature.
n= number of moles of a substance
Then 𝛥𝑄 ∝ 𝛥𝑇 − − − − − −(𝑖)
𝛥𝑄 ∝ 𝑛 − − − − − − − (𝑖𝑖)
𝛥𝑄 ∝ 𝑛𝛥𝑇
𝛥𝑄 = 𝑐′𝑛𝛥𝑇
Where, “C” is the constant of Proportionality. It is known as “Molar Specific heat capacity” of a substance.
𝛥𝑄
𝑐′ =
𝑛𝛥𝑇
Unit: its unit is J mole -1K-1 Or Jmol-1 OC-1
Types of Molar Specific Heat Of Gases:
The molar specific heat of a gas depends whether or not the gas allowed to expand.
They are:
(1)Molar specific heat at constant pressure; (Cp)
(2)Molar specific heat at constant pressure; (Cv)

Relation Between Specific Heat (c) and Molar Specific Heat (C ).

𝛥𝑄
Using definition 𝑐= − − − − − − − −(𝑖)
𝑚𝛥𝑇
𝛥𝑄
𝑐′ = − − − − − − − −(𝑖𝑖)
𝑛𝛥𝑇
And
Where, n=no of moles
𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑛= =
𝑀 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝛥𝑄
So, eq (ii) 𝑐′ = 𝑚
( )𝛥𝑇
𝑀
𝑀𝛥𝑄
𝑐′ =
𝑚𝛥𝑇
𝛥𝑄
𝑐′ = 𝑀 ( )
𝑚𝛥𝑇
Using eq (i)
𝛥𝑄
𝑐=
𝑚𝛥𝑇
𝑐 ′ = 𝑀𝑐
𝑂𝑟
𝑐′ = 𝑐𝑀
Molar specific heat = (Molecular mass) x (Specific Heat Capacity)
From above equation; Molar Specific heat is defined as, “Product of the molecular mass and specific heat capacity of a substance
is called molar specific heat.”
Cp – Cv = R
Consider two isotherms (A graph between P and V at constant temperature is called an
isotherm) at temperatures “T1” and “T2” (T2>T1) since internal energy depends upon
temperature, it changes when there is a change in temperature. Hence each isotherm
represents constant internal energy. If the gas is heated from T 1 to T2 along path “a c” it’s
volume will remain constant, similarly if the same gas is heated along path “a b” from
temperature T1 to T2, it’s pressure remains constant. Since change in internal energy is
independent of path. Therefore, change in internal energy of gas will be equal whatever
path is followed between these two isotherms.
For a to b

Page 12 of 23
We know that at constant volume (Isochoric process) no work is done therefore,
𝛥𝑊 = 0
Applying first law of thermodynamics we get
𝛥𝑄𝑣 = 𝛥𝑊 + 𝛥𝑈
𝛥𝑄𝑣 = 𝛥𝑈
Hence, heat is supplied at constant volume it is totally used to change the internal energy 𝛥𝑈of the system. If “n” is the number
of moles of the gas and Cv represents it’s molar specific heat at constant volume then the amount of heat supplied to the system
at constant volume is given by:
𝛥𝑄𝑣 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑛𝛥𝑇
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝛥𝑄𝑣 = 𝛥𝑈
𝛥𝑈 = 𝐶𝑉 𝑛𝛥𝑇 − − − − − − − − − − − (𝑖)
For a to c
When a gas is heated under constant pressure (isobaric process) along path “a b”, there will be some work done by the system.
Work done by the system at constant pressure is given by:
𝛥𝑊 = 𝑃𝛥𝑉 − − − − − − − − − − − (𝑖𝑖)
Where, V is the change in volume of the gas. In case heat supplied is partially used to raise the temperature (or internal energy
and partially to do work. Heat is supplied at constant pressure is given by as.
𝛥𝑄𝑝 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑛𝛥𝑇 − − − − − − − − − (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
According to first law of thermodynamics
𝛥𝑄𝑝 = 𝛥𝑊 + 𝛥𝑈
The change in internal energy in both cases will be’ equal because the gas is heated in both cases from the temperature Ti to
T2herefore, from equations (i), (ii) and (iii) we get;
𝐶𝑝 𝑛𝛥𝑇 = 𝑃𝛥𝑉 + 𝐶𝑉 𝑛𝛥𝑇 − − − − − − − (𝑖𝑣)
From general gas equation:
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
For change of state;
𝑃∆𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅∆𝑇
Substituting this expression in equation (iv) we get.
𝐶𝑝 𝑛𝛥𝑇 = 𝑛𝑅𝛥𝑇 + 𝐶𝑣 𝑛𝛥𝑇
𝐶𝑝 𝑛𝛥𝑇 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑛𝛥𝑇 + 𝑛𝑅𝛥𝑇
𝐶𝑝 𝑛𝛥𝑇 = (𝐶𝑣 + 𝑅)𝑛𝛥𝑇
𝐶𝑝 = 𝐶𝑣 + 𝑅
The above relation shows that Cp>Cv.
Or 𝐶𝑝 − 𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅
The above equation shows that the difference between the two molar specific heats of a gas is equal to universal gas constant R.

Page 13 of 23
SOLVED MCQs FROM BOOK

CORRECT ANSWER IS [ ΔU = ΔQ ]

Page 14 of 23
 CHAPTER 17 [SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS]
Second law of thermodynamics:
The second law of thermodynamics is based on two fundamental principles formulated by CLASUSIUS and LORD KELVIN to explain
the processing of a COLD ENGINE and HEAT ENGINE.
i) KELVIN’S STATEMENT:
In 1851, Lord Kelvin suggested a basic principle about the working of a heat engine.
According to the Lord Kelvin’s ideology, “It is impossible to operate a heat engine in a cyclical process to cconvert heat entirely
into work, with no other change taking place”.
This ideology leads towards the operation of a perfect heat engine which states,
“It is impossible to construct a perfect heat engine which may convert all the supplied heat into useful work”.
The Kelvin’s statement can be expressed can be expressed by the following schematic diagram.
ii) CLAUSIUS STATEMENT:
In 1850, clausius expressed a basic principle about the working of a COLD ENGINE. He concluded that, “It is impossible to cause
heat to flow from a cold body to hot body without the expenditure of energy.”
The clausius statement can be expressed by the following schematic diagram.
Kelvin’s and Clausius Statements are equivalent to each other:
Proof:
We can prove that both statements are equivalent by showing that either of these statements is supposed to be false. Suppose
that Kelvin’s statement is false, that we could have engine with one hundred percent efficiency, that takes heat from a source and
convert it completely into work. If we connect this perfect heat engine to a refrigerator, we can take heat from hot body and
convert completely to work this work can be used to operator refrigerator, which convey heat from cold body to hot body without
expenditure of work, which is contrary to clausius statement.
Reversible Process:
“A reversible process is one which can be retraced in exactly reverse order, without producing any change in the surroundings"
• An ideal process where the system and surroundings can be restored to their original states with no net change.
• Occurs very slowly and remains in equilibrium throughout.
• No energy loss (no friction, heat dissipation, etc.).
Example: Slow, isothermal expansion of an ideal gas.

Irreversible Process:
"The process which cannot be retraced in the backward direction by reversing the controlling factors is known as irreversible
process"
• A real process where the system and surroundings cannot return to their original states without net changes.
• Happens quickly and involves non-equilibrium states.
• Energy is often lost due to factors like friction, heat transfer, or turbulence.
Example: Free expansion of gas into a vacuum.
Reversible processes are theoretical and ideal, while most real-world processes are irreversible.
PETROL ENGINE
Petrol engine is an internal combustion engine designed to run on volatile fuel such as petrol (gasoline), which has spark-ignition.
these engines air and fuel are generally mixed post-compression. It works on the Otto cycle and the name comes from the German
Engineer Nikolaus Otto (1876), who made the first working prototype. Although different engines may differ in their construction
technology but they are based on the principle of Carnot cycle.

Page 15 of 23
1. The cycle starts on the intake stroke in which piston moves outward and petrol air mixture is drawn through an inlet valve into
the cylinder from the carburetor at atmospheric pressure.
2. On the compression stroke, the inlet valve is closed and the mixture is compressed
adiabatically by inward movement of the piston.
3. On the power stroke, a spark fires the mixture causing a rapid increase in pressure and temperature. The burning mixture
expands adiabatically and forces the piston to move outward. This is the stroke which delivers power to crankshaft to drive the
flywheels.
4. On the exhaust stroke, the outlet valves open. The residual gases are expelled and piston moves inward. The cycle then begins
again. Most motorbikes have one cylinder engine but cars usually have four cylinders on the same crankshaft. The cylinders are
timed to fire turn by turn in succession for a smooth running of the car. The actual efficiency of properly tuned engine is usually
not more than 25% to 30% because of friction and other heat losses.
DIESEL ENGINE:
The diesel engine named after Rudolf Diesel (German inventor and Mechanical Engineer), is an internal combustion engine. He
patented his original design in 1892. When the fuel comes into contact with high temperature, it ignites, creating energy that
drives the piston down transferring energy to the crankshaft. There are two classes of diesel engine: two strokes and four strokes.
Most diesel engines generally use the four-stroke cycle.

No spark plug is needed in the diesel engine. Diesel is sprayed into the cylinder at maximum compression. Because air is at very
high temperature immediately after compression, the fuel mixture ignites on contact with air in the cylinder and pushes the piston
outward. The efficiency of diesel engine is about 35% to 40%.
CARNOT ENGINE:
In 1824, a French scientist, SADI CARNOT has proposed an ideology of heat
engine which is very close to an IDEAL HEAT ENGINE, as it has maximum
theoretical efficiency than rest of all the HEAT ENGINE, but never be 100%
infect the heat engine designed by the Carnot was free from heat losses
mainly appear due to FRICTION and CONDUCTION
Construction:
A Carnot engine consists of a CYLINDER and a PISTON. The walls of the cylinder and piston are made of insulated material, but
base of cylinder is kept conductor. An ideal gas is filled into the cylinder as working substance.
Working: (Cycle of Carnot Engine)
The operating cycle of Carnot’s engine consists of four steps, called Carnot cycle.
Process #1 (Isothermal Expansion):
To achieve this process, we need place system on heat reservoir. To expresses an isothermal expansion, we need to unload the
piston so that, the pressure decreased from “P1” to “P2” and thus ideal gas will expand from “V1” to the new volume “V2”. During
process the gas will cool down but due to heat reservoir some heat, say “Q1” will be entered into the system of gas to maintain its
temperature. Hence, P2<P1, V2>V1, T1 =T2
Process #2 (Adiabatic Expansion):
To achieve this process, we need place system on insulating stand. To expresses an adiabatic expansion, we need to unload the
piston so that, pressure further decreased from “P2” to “P3” and ideal gas will further expand from “V2” to “V3”. During adiabatic
expansion, ideal gas cools down to a lower temperature. Hence P3<P2, V3>V2 and T3 <T2

Page 16 of 23
Process #3 (Isothermal Compression):
To achieve this process, we need place system on heat reservoir. To expresses an isothermal compression, we need to load the
piston so that, the applied pressure is increased from “P3” to “P4” and thus the volume of gas will decreased from “V3” to “V4” and
heat up the gas to a higher temperature but due to heat reservoir some heat, say “Q2” will be rejected out from the system to
maintain its temperature. Hence P4>P3, V4<V3, T3= T4
Process #4 (Adiabatic Compression):
To achieve this process, we need place system on insulating stand. To expresses an adiabatic compression, we need to load the
piston so that, pressure further decreased from “P4” to “P5”. To expresses an adiabatic compression the applied pressure is further
increased from “P4” to “P5”. The ideal gas is thus compressed from “V4” to “V5”. During adiabatic compression, ideal gas will heat
up from “T4” to “T5”. Hence, P5>P4, V5<V4, T5>T4
After completing process #4, ideal gas will return back to its initial parameters i.e. P5 = P1, V5 = V1 and T5 = T1 and hence, a cycle of
Carnot engine is said to be done by the ideal gas.
Derivation for the Theoretical Efficiency of Carnot Engine:
We know that the ratio of output of an engine will describe its EFFICIENCY. It is symbolized by “E”. Its magnitude is measured by
‘percentage (%)’.
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦

∆𝑊
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = ∴ ∆𝑊 = 𝑄1 − 𝑄2
𝑄1
𝑄1 − 𝑄2
𝜂=
𝑄1
𝑄1 𝑄1
𝜂= −
𝑄1 𝑄1
𝑄2
𝜂 = 1 − 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑄1 > 𝑄2
𝑄1
This expression represents theoretical efficiency of Carnot engine interm of heat of hot reservoir and cold reservoir.
If “T1” and “T2”be the temperature related to “Q1” and “Q2” heat respectively, then the above expression interm of temperature
can be written as.
𝑇2
𝜂 = 1−
𝑇1
Where, T1>T2
According to the equation of theoretical efficiency of Carnot engine, if less be the ratio of heats or ratio of temperatures, more
efficiency heat engine can be made.
Noted That:
i. If T1=T2 or Q1=Q2, then Efficiency = 0
ii. If T2/T1 .1 or Q2/Q1>1, then theoretical efficiency of Carnot engine be discussed.
iii. If T2/T1 = 1 or Q2/Q1=1 then theoretical efficiency of Carnot engine becomes zero.
iv. If T2/T1=0 or Q2/Q1=0 then theoretical efficiency of Carnot engine becomes 100%.
Infect, to attain such a result the value of “Q 2” or “T2” should be equal to zero and
when we do such an operation, we may not able to complete the cycle of Carnot
engine.
It means, T2/T1=0 or Q2/Q1=0 and Hence, Efficiency=100%
So, one can say that theoretical efficiency of Carnot engine never becomes 100%
even is it an ideal engine.
P-V Diagram of Cannot Cycle:
From A to B: Isothermal Expansion curve From B to C: Adiabatic Expansion curve
From C to D: Isothermal Compression curve From D to A: Adiabatic Compression curve
• Area surrounded by the curve gives work done by the system

Page 17 of 23
Refrigerator:
A refrigerator is a device that transfers heat from a low-temperature space (inside the fridge) to a higher-temperature space
(outside the fridge) using mechanical work. This process keeps the inside of the refrigerator cool, preserving food and other
items.
How it works:
1. Evaporation: A refrigerant absorbs heat from the inside of the refrigerator and
evaporates, cooling the interior.
2. Compression: The refrigerant gas is compressed by a compressor, increasing its
temperature.
3. Condensation: The hot, compressed gas releases heat to the surroundings through
condenser coils, turning back into a liquid.
4. Expansion: The liquid refrigerant expands and cools before repeating the cycle.

The second law of thermodynamics governs this process, where heat is moved from a
colder to a hotter region by doing external work.
Efficiency of Refrigerator:
The coefficient of performance (COP) measures a refrigerator's effectiveness, similar to thermal efficiency in heat engines. It is
the ratio of energy removed from the cold reservoir (what you gain) to the work input (what you give). A more effective
refrigerator removes the most energy with the least work, making COP a key indicator of performance in cooling mode.
"The heat removed from the cold reservoir Qc (ie. inside refrigerator) divided by the work done to remove the heat (i.e. the
work done by the compressor)".
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝐶𝑂𝑃 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘
𝑄𝑐
𝐶𝑂𝑃 = 𝐾 =
𝑊
∴𝑄ℎ = 𝑄𝑐 + 𝑤
∴w = 𝑄ℎ − 𝑄𝑐
𝑄𝑐
𝐶𝑂𝑃 = 𝐾 =
𝑄ℎ − 𝑄𝑐
From Carnot cycle Q1 α T1 and Q2 α T2;
𝑇𝑐
𝐶𝑂𝑃 = 𝐾 =
𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐
Tc is the cryogenic temperature at which the heat is removed T h is the temperature at which the heat is rejected
It can also be seen from above relations that the coefficient of performance of refrigerator can be larger than 100% unlike
the efficiency of heat engine which is always less than 100%. A good refrigerator should have a high COP, typically 5 or 6.
Entropy:
“Entropy is a measure of molecular disorder.” Or
”Entropy is a measure of unavailability of energy.”
In any thermodynamic process, entropy either increases or remains constant.
If 𝛥𝑄is the amount of heat supplied to a system or removed from a thermodynamic system at constant absolute Temperature “T”
then the change in entropy 𝛥𝑆is given by;
𝛥𝑆 = 𝛥𝑄/𝑇
Change in entropy is positive when heat enters the system but if heat is removed from the system then it is negative. The unit of
entropy is J/K.
Second Law of Thermodynamics In Terms Of Entropy;
Entropy in terms of second law of thermodynamics can be stated as;
“When an isolated system undergoes a thermodynamic change, the entropy of the system either remains constant or increases.”
Entropy in a Reversible Process:
By using theorem we may write as,
𝑄2 𝑇2
1− =1−
𝑄1 𝑇1
𝑄2 𝑇2
=
𝑄1 𝑇1
𝑄2 𝑄1
=
𝑇2 𝑇1
It means that the ratio between heat and their respective temperature always remains constant during the whole process. So in
general if “Q” be the amount of heat absorbed at a temperature of “T” in going from the adiabatic “A” to adiabatic “B” then from
the above results we may write as;

Page 18 of 23
 𝑄/𝑇 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡
As, we know that the constant term in an adiabatic process called entropy an denoted by “S” thus;
𝛥𝑆 = 𝛥𝑄/𝑇
This equation shows the second law of thermodynamics in term of entropy. It should be noted here that ′"𝛥𝑄"is positive when
heat is added and negative when heat is removed from the system.
The Change Of Entropy In Irreversible Process:
Consider a simple irreversible cycle in which “Q1” heat is absorbed at a temperature “T1” and “Q2” heat is rejected at temperature
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
“T2” then net change in entropy = 1 − 2 since, 1 > 2 , therefore , 𝛥𝑆 > 0
𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇1 𝑇2
Net change in entropy > 0 i.e. positive one. So we observe that in an irreversible cycle there is always a net gain of entropy.
As we know that the net change in entropy is called “Entropy change of universe”. So from the above we conclude that in an
irreversible process there is always increase in entropy of universe. Thus the second law of thermodynamic expressed in term of
“principle of increase of entropy as”.
“The entropy of the universe increase during an irreversible process”.
Also, “The Entropy of the universe remains constant during reversible process”.
SOLVED MCQs FROM BOOK

Page 19 of 23
 Past papers’ MCQs OF Chapters 15,16 and 17
i. The molar heat capacities of polyatomic gases as compared to the mono–atomic gases are:
* Greater * Smaller * Equal * Infinite
ii. At what condition real gas behaves like ideal gas?
* High pressure and low temperature * Low pressure and high temperature
* High pressure and high temperature * none of these
iii. The K.E of the molecules of an ideal gas at absolute zero temperature will be:
* Infinite * Zero * Very high * Below Zero
iv. Choose the correct Statement:
* The product of P and T is constant if the volume is constant
*The ratio of P and V is constant if the temperature is constant
* The product of P and V is constant if the temperature is constant
* The product of V and T is constant if the pressure kept constant
v. If the pressure of a gas is doubled, keeping the temperature constant, the volume of the gas is:
* reduced to one-fourth * doubled
* reduced to one-half of the original volume * increased four times
vi. According to Charles Law:
* VT=constant when the pressure is constant * V/T=constant when the pressure is constant
* PV=constant when the temperature is constant * None of these
vii. Volume of a given gas at constant pressure becomes zero at:
* 273 K * 273 °C * –273 K * –273 °C
viii. According to the Kinetic Theory of gases the absolute temperature of a perfect gas is:
* Inversely proportional to the K.E. of the molecules * Independent of the kinetic energy of the molecules
* Equal to the kinetic energy of the molecules * Directly proportional to the average translational kinetic energy of the
molecules.
ix. The kinetic energy per mole of a gas is:
* 3/2 kT * 2/3 kT * 3/2 RT * nRT
x. If the volume of a given mass of a gas is double without changing its temperature, the pressure of the gas is:
* reduced to ½ of the initial value * the same as the initial value
* reduced to ¼ of the initial value * double of the initial value

First law of thermodynamics and its applications

i. Which of the following statements is true:
* Heat can be converted completely into work * Work can be converted completely into heat
* Both work and heat are inter-convertible * neither heat nor work is inter-convertible
ii. In an isothermal process, the internal energy of the system:
* Remains the same * Increases * Decreases * None of them happens
iii. The process during which no external work is performed as:
* Isothermal * Isochoric * Isobaric * Adiabatic
iv. If the volume of the system remains constant during a process, it is called:
* Isochoric * Isothermal * Isobaric * Adiabatic
vi. During the Adiabatic change, the pressure and the volume formula of a gas is given by:
* PV = Constant * PγV = Constant * (PV) γ = Constant * PVγ = Constant
vii. The maximum work done can be measured in the process called.
* Isobaric * Isochoric * Isothermal * Adiabatic
viii. A domestic pressure cooker is based on:
* Adiabatic process * Isothermal process * Isobaric process *Isochoric process
ix. The area bounded by an isothermal and an adiabatic curve in a PV diagram for a heat engine represents:
* heat intake * heat rejected * work done * total kinetic energy
x. A thermodynamic process in which the change in volume of the system is zero tells that
* the work done by the system is maximum .* the work done on and by the system is zero.
* the work done on the system is maximum. * none of the above
xi. If no heat flows into or out of a system, the process is called:
* Isobaric * Isothermal * Isochoric * Adiabatic

Page 20 of 23
xii. In an Adiabatic expansion the internal energy of the gas:
* remains the same * decreases * increases * becomes zero
xiii. The maximum work done is possible in this process
*isobaric *isothermal *isochoric *adiabatic
ix. In this process no heat enters or leaves the system:
*Isochoric *Isobaric *Adiabatic *Isothermal
Carnot engine and its efficiency
i. The efficiency of a Carnot engine is given by:
𝑇1 𝑇1 𝑇2
*1− −1 * −1 * −1 * None of them
𝑇2 𝑇2 𝑇1
ii. The area of a Carnot cycle represents:
* Useful work * Energy loss due to leakage * Heat rejected *Heat absorbed
iii. Two steam engines A and B have their sources at 600°C and their sinks at 300°C and 200°respectively.
* They are equally efficient * A is more efficient than B
* B is more efficient than A * If their sinks are interchanged, their efficiencies will not change
iv. The maximum efficiency of a heat engine is obtained by:
* increasing the temperature of hot and cold body simultaneously, keeping other factors constant
* decreasing the temperature of the sink and increasing the temperature of the source, Keeping other factors constant
* decreasing the temperature simultaneously
* None of these
Conversion of temperature scale
i. Zero on the Celsius is equal to:
* 273 K * 32 K * 100 K * 212 K
ii. The temperature on Fahrenheit scale corresponding the Absolute Zero is:
*32°F * –180°F * –460°F * 212°F
iii. 273 Kelvin corresponds to:
* 273°C * –32°F * 0°C * –273°C
iv. The temperature at which centigrade scale is equal to Fahrenheit scale:
* 0° * –32° * –40° * –273°
v. The absolute temperature corresponding to 212°F is:
* 485 K * 373 K * 161 K * 100 K
vi. In Celsius scale 1°C in magnitude is equal to:
* 32°F * 32.8°F * 33°F * 33.8°F
vii. 273 K is equal to:
* 0°F * –32 °F * –273 °F * 32 °F
viii. On Fahrenheit scale the temperature of 50°C will be:
* 40°F * 10°F * 122°F *105°F
ix. Absolute zero corresponds to this temperature on Fahrenheit scale:
* 32 F * –180 F * –460 F * 212 F
x. Boyle’s Law holds good for an ideal gas in a process called:
* Isobaric * Isochoric * Isothermal * Adiabatic
Thermal expansion
i. Two ends ‘A’ & ‘B’ of a rod are at temperatures –10°C and –30 °C. The heat will flow from:
* –30°C to –10°C * will not flow at all * –10°C to –30°C *None of the above
ii. The coefficient of linear expansion is ________ times the coefficient of volume expansion.
* 1/3 *3 *4 *¼
iii. A bimetallic thermostat works on the principle of:
* Linear expansion * bulk expansion * differential linear expansion * all the these
iv. Thermostat is a device used to keep the:
* Temperature constant * Entropy constant * Heat constant * Pressure constant
Entropy
i. The net change in entropy of a system in a natural process is:
* Positive * Negative * Zero * Infinite

ii. The entropy of the universe:

* Always remains constant * Always decreases
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* Either remains constant or increases * Always increases
iii. the change of Entropy is given by:
* ΔS= ΔQ/T * T/ ΔQ * ΔQ= ΔQ/ ΔT * ΔS= ΔU/T
iv. The change in disorder of the system is equal to:
𝛥𝑇 𝛥𝑄 𝛥𝑄
* 𝛥𝑆 = * 𝛥𝑆 = * 𝛥𝑆 = * 𝛥𝑆 = 𝛥𝑄. 𝑇
𝑄 𝑇 𝛥𝑇
v. Entropy has been called the degree of disorder because:
* The entropy of the universe remains constant * the entropy of the universe always increases.
* The entropy of the universe always decreases. * None of these
vi. In an isothermal expansion, the Entropy of the system:
*increases *decreases *becomes Zero *remains constant
Boltzman’s constant
i. The universal gas constant per molecule in 1 mol is called:
* Planck’s constant * Stefan’s Constant *Avogadro’s constant *Boltzmann’s constant
ii. Boltzmann Constant is equal to
* RNA * R/NA * NA/R * √𝑅/𝑁𝐴
iii. The value of Boltzmann constant is:
* 3.85x10–23 JK–1 * 2.185x10–12 JK–1 * 1.62x10–22 JK–1 * 1.38x10–23JK–1
Heat capacity/Specific heat/Molar specific heat
i. The quantity of heat required for per degree rise in temperature of a body is called:
* Heat of vaporization * Heat of fusion * Specific heat capacity * Heat capacity
ii. The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance through 1°C is known as:
* Specific heat * Latent heat * Calories * Joule
iii. The unit of specific heat is:
* J KgoC–1 * J Kg–1 K–1 * J Kg oC * J Kg–1 oC
iv. The heat required to produce a unit change in the temperature of a unit mass of substance is called;
* Heat capacity * Molar heat * Specific heat * Latent heat
v. The difference of molar specific heats at constant pressure and at constant volume per mole is called:
*Molar Heat * Heat constant * Boltzmann constant * Gas constant
Root mean square speed
i. RMS velocity of a gas molecule at absolute zero temperature is:
* 9x106m/sec * 3x103m/sec * 273 m/sec * zero
Second law of thermodynamics
ii. According to the Second Law of Thermodynamics 100 percent conversion of heat energy into work is:
* Possible * Not possible * Possible when conditions are ideal * Possible when conditions are not idea
Heat energy/Internal energy
i. The S.I unit of heat:
* Joule * Calorie * Centigrade * Fahrenheit
ii. The internal energy of a system depends on:
* Pressure * Volume * Temperature * Entropy
iii. The internal energy is an Isothermal process:
* Increase * decrease * becomes zero *remains the same
iv. In C.G.S. system one calorie of heat is equal to:
* 11184J * 2184J * 3184J * 4184J
v. Heat energy cannot be measured in:
*J * B.T.U. * Kelvin * Calorie
vi. The sum of all the energies of the molecules in a substance is called,
* Heat energy * temperature *kinetic energy *potential energy

FORMULAE
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1) Relationship between Celsius and Fahrenheit scale
5 9
𝑇𝐶 = (𝑇𝐹 − 32) 𝑇𝐹 = ( 𝑇𝐶 ) + 32
9 5
2) Linear Thermal Expansion ∆𝐿 = 𝛼𝐿𝑜 ∆𝑇 𝐿𝑓 = 𝐿𝑜 {1 + 𝛼(𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 )}
3) Volumetric Thermal Expansion ∆𝑉 = 𝛽𝑉𝑜 ∆𝑇 𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑜 {1 + 𝛽(𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 )}
4) Relation between Coefficient of linear and volumetric expression
𝛽 = 3𝛼
𝑉
5) Charles’ Law 𝑉 ∝ 𝑇 , = (𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
𝑇
1
6) Boyle’s law 𝑉 ∝ 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑃
7) General Gas Law
𝑃𝑉= nRT
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
1
8) Pressure of an Ideal Gas 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑣 2
3
3
9) Kinetic Energy of Molecules of an Ideal Gas 𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝐾 𝑇
2
3
10) Kinetic Energy of Mole of an Ideal Gas 𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑅 𝑇
2
3𝐾𝑇
11) Root Mean Square Velocity of Molecule of an Ideal Gas (𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 ) 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √
𝑚
3𝑅𝑇
12) Root Mean Square Velocity of Mole of an Ideal Gas (𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 ) 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √
𝑀
∆𝑄
13) Heat Capacity 𝐶 =
∆𝑇
∆𝑄
14) Specific Heat Capacity 𝑐 =
𝑚∆𝑇
∆𝑄
15) Molar Specific Heat 𝑐′ =
𝑛∆𝑇
(𝑚𝑤 𝑐𝑤 +𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐 )(𝑇𝑓 −𝑇𝑖 )
16) Determination of specific heat capacity 𝑐𝑏 =
(𝑇𝑏 −𝑇𝑓 )𝑚𝑏
17) Relation b/w Specific Heat at Constant Pressure and Specific Heat at Constant Volume
𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅
18) Work Done in Thermodynamics ∆𝑊 = 𝑃∆𝑉
19) First Law of Thermodynamics 𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝑊
𝑄2 𝑇
20) Efficiency of Carnot Engine 𝜂 = (1 − ) × 100 , 𝜂 = (1 − 2 ) × 100
𝑄1 𝑇 1
∆𝑄
21) Entropy ∆𝑆 =
𝑇

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