GAURAV KUSHWAHA, ASSSISTANT PROF.

ASHOKA
UNIT IV

ASTRONOMY IN INDIA
 Astronomy is the study of everything in the universe beyond Earth's atmosphere. That includes
objects we can see with our naked eyes, like the Sun, the Moon, the planets, and the stars.
 It also includes object we can only see with telescopes or other instruments, like faraway galaxies
and tiny particles.
 Study of astronomy in modern time is done through different instruments.
 It uses Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry etc. to study the objects and their existence.
 It has its origin from Vedas.
 Astronomical Studies are older than 6000 years in India.
 Astronomy has different branches like Astrophysics, Astrochemistry, Astrobiology,Astrogeology
etc.
 Astronomy can be divided into two categories based on study - Observational,Theoritical.
 It reveals the truth about Time, Movement of Planets, Nakshtras, Chandramassa, Saurmasa,
Malmasha, Rituparivartan,Uttarayan ,Dakshinayana, Sun,Kapla.
 It has been a stream of knowledge through direct observation.
 Rishi Dirghatamas in ancient India studied the Sun thoroughly; in later years due to direct
observation of the sun he became blind.
 Dirghatamas has written many surtas about the sun and its secrets.
 In ancient times rishi Gritsmad probably started talking about changes in the phases of the moon.
 Maharshi Kanad propogated the law of Motion between 200 - 600 BC.
 In Yajurveda chapter 8 canto 40, it is described that due to the sun moon has the light.
 In the period of Aryabhatta 1550 years ago, there used to be an observatory for astronomical
activities in Patliputra(Patna).
 In his book Siddhant Siromani , Bhaskaracharya described about so many instruments by which
we may be aware of astronomy.
 Nari Yantra, Yastri yantra, Ghati Yantra, Falak, Shankuyantra, Chakra etc. are mentioned for
astronomical Analysis.
 In Rigveda Sayan Acharya Sutra states the distance of the Earth from the Sun.
 Gravitational forces were mentioned by Bhaskaryacharya in his writings.
 Siddhanta Siromani, in its Goladhyay Bhuvanaksha section containes the evidences of
Gravitational forces of the earth.
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 Aryabhatiya- The book by Aryabhatta also states that the earth revolves around the sun and has
also told the distance of the earth to the sun.
 12 Rashis ,27 Nakshtras Kaala gadna, Ancient Climatic changes all the event have the testimonial
evidences.
 Vedang Jyotish is one of the famous books on Astronomy.

CHEMISTRY IN INDIA
 The Sanskrit name for ‘chemistry’ is Rasayan shastra. , Rasa means a liquid or mercury, which is
the only metal available in liquid state.
 Chemical techniques in India can be traced back all the way to the Indus valley or Harappan
civilisation (3rd millennium BCE).
 The progress of the science of chemistry was mainly through Ayurveda during 5th century B.C. to
5th century A.D. Ayurveda texts such as Charaka and Sushrut Samhita also contains information
about chemistry.
 Nagarjuna was a famous Buddhist chemistry scholar. Vagbhatta (of 12th century) was another
famous authority on Ayurveda.
 Kautilya’s Arthashastra (4th century B.C.) Contains lot of information on mining, metallurgy,
chemistry etc. • Purification and extraction of metallic ores like gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc and
iron etc is described in this text.
 There are 5 stages of development of Chemistry in india -They are:
(I) The pre-Vedic stage upto 1500 BCE, including the Harappan period,
(II) The Vedic and the Ayurvedic period upto 700 CE,
(III) The transitional period from 700 CE to 1100 CE,
(IV) The Tantric period from 700 CE to 1300 CE, and
(V) The ‘Iatro-Chemical period’ from 1300 CE to 1600 CE.
 The Indus valley civilization was the earliest society, the story of early chemistry in India begins
from here.
 Traces of cement had been found in the era of Mohanjodaro.
 Preparation of soft wines by fermentation of rice and other flours or from fruits and sugarcane is
described in details.
 Five types of common salt and 84 types of wines - Charak Samhita
 Uses of various chemicals such as copper sulphate, cinnabar, lead oxide-mercury combination for
surma (eye powder)-. Vagbhatta’s Astangrhudaya mentions cosmetic items and perfumes and
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various types of cementing materials and procedures of their preparation - Bruhat Samhita
Chemistry in Ayurveda and other texts.
 In the book Rasa ratna Samucchaya, Following chemical have been mentioned -
Maharas ,Uprasa ,Samanya Rasa, Ratna,Dhatu ,Vish ,Kshar,Amla, Lavana,Bhasma
 According to RigVeda, tanning of leather and dyeing of cotton was practiced during this period.
 Some Details- In Indus Valley Civilization- Pottery, Bricks, Cements and Minerals and in later
phases Glass, Paper, Soap Dyeing, Cosmetic, Perfume, Liquor, Ink etc. were in trend which has
evidences.
MATHEMATICS IN INDIA
 Indian mathematics emerged in the Indian subcontinent from 1200 BC until the end of the 18th
century.
 In the classical period of Indian mathematics (400 AD to 1200 AD), important contributions were
made by scholars like Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, Bhaskara II, and Varāhamihira.
 The decimal number system in use today was first recorded in Indian mathematics.
 Indian mathematicians made early contributions to the study of the concept of zero as a
number, negative numbers, arithmetic, and algebra.
 Stages of development of Indian Matemathics - Vedic mathematics, Mathematics from the Jaina
tradition, Development of the number system and numerals, The mathematical astronomy
tradition, Patiganita and the Bakhshali manuscript, The Kerala school of Madhava
 In addition, trigonometry was further advanced in India, and, in particular, the modern definitions
of sine and cosine were developed there.
 These mathematical concepts were transmitted to the Middle East, China, and Europe and led to
further developments that now form the foundations of many areas of mathematics.
 Ancient and medieval Indian mathematical works, all composed in Sanskrit, usually consisted of a
section of sutras in which a set of rules or problems were stated with great economy in verse in
order to aid memorization by a student.
 All mathematical works were orally transmitted until approximately 500 BCE; thereafter, they
were transmitted both orally and in manuscript form.
 The oldest extant mathematical document produced on the Indian subcontinent is the birch
bark Bakhshali Manuscript, discovered in 1881 in the village of Bakhshali, near Peshawar (modern
day Pakistan) and is likely from the 7th century CE.
 In the seventh century, the first written evidence of the rules for working with zero were
formalised in the Brahmasputha Siddhanta.
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 Brahmagupta also demonstrated rules for working with negative numbers. He referred to positive
numbers as fortunes and negative numbers as debts.
 As early as the 8th Century BCE, long before Pythagoras, a text known as the “Sulba Sutras” (or
“Sulva Sutras “) listed several simple Pythagorean triples,
 Indian mathematician Bhāskara had already discovered many of Leibniz’s ideas over 500 years
earlier. Bhāskara, also made major contributions to algebra, arithmetic, geometry and
trigonometry.
 Some Concpts and Propgations -
Number of days in a year - Aryabhatta
Zero - Aryabhatta
Value of pie firstly calculated - Baudhayan
Value of pie up to four decimals - Aryabhatta
Pythagorean Triples - Brahmahagupta
First general formula for solving quadratic equations - Brahmahagupta
Sine table - Brahmahagupta
Modern Calculas - Bhaskara
First verison of Fibonocci sequence - Hemchandra
Theory of Numbers - Ramanuja

PHYSIC IN INDIA
 The root of the concept of the atom in ancient India is derived from the classification of the
material world into five basic elements of ancient Indian philosophers (Panch Mahabhoot).
 Maharshi Kanad was the propagator of Atom and its concept.
 Indian philosopher Pakudha Katyayana, who was a contemporary of Buddha, propounded the
ideas about the atomic structure of the material world.
 Bharadwaja Rishi - Author of Amshu Bodhini & Akasha Thantram , described about the planetary
motion, the influence of other interferences on their motion, light, heat, sound, telephony, and
construction of aeroplanes, electricity and its applications. He is also author of Brihadyantra
Saavaswami. Described the aeroplanes and about electricity. He has also described 7 types of
Akasha, the classification of the stars in the Akasha, the interactions of various energies in the
Akasha, types of fires, lights, the orbits of the planets, the earth's, rivers, etc., are described.
 Angiro Maharshi: Author of generation of clouds – In this he described the changes in the clouds,
generations of the life of many species, changes in solar energy, relationship between the solar
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radiation and the cloud formation the origin or generation of the Navaratnams. How the solar
radiation is responsible for them are described.
 Shaktyayana Maharshi: Author of the nature of vapour – In this he described 84,000 vapours, their
layers, their influence on the earth and plantation, 84,00,000 medicines, instruments to detect these
vapours etc.
 Sage Narada : Author of different fires & Author of different types of smokes. He described about
128 types of fires, colours, quantities and usefulness measurement of heat, the differences in heat
quantities are described. He describes how different types of smokes that are generated from
different matter, can be collected by certain mirrors. Then how these smokes can be tested by
using certain acids, in order to understand the poisonous nature or usefulness of smokes. The
applications of these for the growth protection of the body mind and intellect have been explained.
 Aswalayana Maharshi: Author of nature of water & Agatatwalahari – In this, the differences in
types of water, their usefulness, the results of baths in different waters, the characteristic features
of different waters etc.and also dealt with agriculture and methods of cultivation of the plant
kingdom etc. are described.
 Vashishta Maharshi: Author of Prapancha Lahari – atomic theory is proved – the cause of the
creation – is it dependent on the atomic energy or in the supernatural, Paramatma shakti. This topic
is well discussed.
 Vyasa Maharshi: The author of Brahmanda saram – in this also the above topics are described.
 Parasara Maharshi: Author of the Andakaustabam – in this also the cause of the creation is
discussed. In addition, the life species. and their descriptions are given. The atomic theory is also
explained.
 Vivaranacharyulu: Author of Lokasangraham. He had described about 1714 languages, life
species, food habits, their origins, religions, about the different information in the world.
 Bhodayana Maharshi: Author of Dhatu Sarvaswau. In this different element, their generations,
mines, method extraction of metals from mines, description of poisons, antidotes, for the poisons.
Sulphur generation, mercury, preparation of ashes etc. are described.
 Atri Maharshi: Author of Namaratha Kalpam – In this 84, 00,000 of shakthis (energies) their
names, how they can he generated the meaning of the words etc., are described.
 Bhoja Maharshi: Author of Samarangana Sutradharam – In this he described different types of
machines, construction of aeroplanes, methods of preparation of sirens, how the music, dance, war,
protection of the kingdom etc. can be performed by the dolls, is well described.

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AGRICULTURE IN INDIA
 Indian agriculture began by 9000 BC as a result of early cultivation of plants and domestication of
crops and animals.
 Agriculture in India has always been considered the Way of life and not an occupation.
 Agricultural practices in the Vedic period presumably started from c.1500 BC and ended in c.500
BC.
 Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilization by around 4500 BC.
 The associated factors with agricultural practices in Vedic India to be included in the present study
are-Soil, land and village settlement;Manure and manuring;Crop husbandry inclusive of plant
protection measures, agricultural technology and agricultural implements;Irrigation system;Animal
husbandry an Meteorological observations in relation to crop prospects.
 Krishi-Parashara -The Book (c. 400 BC) gives details of the design of the plow with Sanskrit
names for different parts, disc plow, seed drill, blade harrow (bakhar), wooden spike tooth harrow,
plankers, axe, hoe, sickle, supa for winnowing and a vessel to measure grain (udara).
 India from the past has been the largest agricultural country, Spices, Silk, fruits, food grains have
been the prominent produces.
 During Vedic age, agriculture was one of the most important professions.
 Irrigated agriculture with rice was started in south India during 300 A.D.
 Amarakosha was written during the period of Chandra Gupta – II it contains information of soil,
irrigation implements, manures and land use.
 Modern Agriculture was started during early 19th century but was confined to western countries.

MEDICINE IN INDIA
 Ayurveda is an alternative medicine system with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent.
 Ayurveda, meaning the "complete knowledge for long life" is another medical system of India.
 Its two most famous texts belong to the schools of Charaka and Sushruta.
 The theory and practice of Ayurveda is pseudoscientific.
 The main classical Ayurveda texts begin with accounts of the transmission of medical knowledge
from the gods to sages, and then to human physicians.
 Ayurveda has eight ways to diagnose illness, called Nadi (pulse), Mootra (urine), Mala (stool),
Jihva (tongue), Shabda (speech), Sparsha (touch), Druk (vision), and Aakruti (appearance)

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 In Sushruta Samhita (Sushruta's Compendium), Sushruta wrote that Dhanvantari, Hindu god of
Ayurveda, incarnated himself as a king of Varanasi and taught medicine to a group of physicians,
including Sushruta.
 In Ayurveda texts, Doṣa balance is emphasized, and suppressing natural urges is considered
unhealthy and claimed to lead to illness.
 Ayurveda treatises describe three elemental doṣas viz. vāta, pitta and kapha, and state that balance
of the doṣas results in health, while imbalance (viṣamatva) results in disease.
 Ayurveda practitioners had developed various medicinal preparations and surgical procedures
from at least the beginning of the Common Era.
 The earliest classical Sanskrit works on Ayurveda describe medicine as being divided into eight
components. This characterization of the physicians' art, "the medicine that has eight components"
is first found in the Sanskrit epic the Mahābhārata.
Kāyachikitsā: general medicine, medicine of the body
Kaumāra-bhṛtya (Pediatrics): Discussions about prenatal and postnatal care of baby and mother,
methods of conception; choosing the child's gender, intelligence, and constitution; and childhood
diseases and midwifery.
Śalyatantra: surgical techniques and the extraction of foreign objects
Śhālākyatantra: treatment of ailments affecting ears, eyes, nose, mouth, etc. ("ENT")
Bhūtavidyā: pacification of possessing spirits, and the people whose minds are affected by such
possession
Agadatantra/Vishagara-vairodh Tantra (Toxicology): It includes subjects about epidemics,
toxins in animals, vegetables and minerals. It as well contains keys for recognizing those
anomalies and their antidotes.
Rasāyantantra: rejuvenation and tonics for increasing lifespan, intellect and strength
Vājīkaraṇatantra: aphrodisiacs and treatments for increasing the volume and viability of semen
and sexual pleasure. It also deals with infertility problems (for those hoping to conceive) and
spiritual development (transmutation of sexual energy into spiritual energy).

METALLURGY IN INDIA

 Metallurgy may be defined as the extraction, purification, alloying and application of metals.
 Today, some eighty-six metals are known, but most of them were discovered in the last two
centuries.
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 The first evidence of metal in the Indian subcontinent comes from Mehrgarh in Baluchistan, where
a small copper bead was dated to about 6000 BCE.
 Early gold and silver ornaments from the Indian subcontinent are found from Indus Valley sites
such as Mohenjodaro (ca 3000 BC).
 The noble metals, gold and silver, are found in the native state, and as is well known, gold and
silver were used to make jewelry and sheet metal due to the great ductility and lustre of the pure
metals.
 Early gold and silver ornaments from the Indian subcontinent are found from Indus Valley sites
such as Mohenjodaro (ca 3000 BC). These are on display in the National Museum, New Delhi.
 In India there is unique evidence for the extensive and semi-industrial production of metallic zinc
at the Zawar area of Rajasthan.
 The Rasaratnakara, a text ascribed to the great Indian scientist Nagarjuna, of the early Christian era
describes this method of production of zinc.
 Iron seems to have been used in India from about the late second millennium BC.
 India has been reputed for its iron and steel since Greek and Roman times.
 Mercury is a metal that has been of great alchemical importance in ancient times.

GEOGRAPHY IN INDIA

 The study of geography as a systematic science was a significant gap in Indian knowledge during
ancient times.
 Geographical facts were presented in a nonsystematic manner in the whole range of Sanskrit, Pali,
and Prakrit literature.
 The term ‘Bhugola’ has been first used in the Suryasiddhanta.
 The ancient Indian scholars had accurate knowledge of topography, physiography, flora, fauna,
natural resources, agriculture and other socio-economic activities of India and adjoining countries.
 In the Aitareya Brahmana one may find materials regarding the regional geography of India.
 The Satapatha Brahmana furnishes a systematic description of the various branches of geography.
 Every physical phenomenon, every major or spectacular landmark on the earth’s surface has a
religious background for Indians.
 Every mountain peak, every river, every crag, every huge and useful tree is sacred and is preserved
in these traditions.
 In the Padma Puranas a difference has been made between Bhogol (geography), Khogol (the
science of space) and Jyotishakra (astrology).
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 The philosophical theory of cosmogony has its origin in the song of creation which says that in the
beginning there was neither being (sat), or not-being (asat).
 The concept of prithvi (earth) is the most basic concept in the study of geography. The word
‘prithvi’ (earth) has been used profusely in the Vedas and the Puranas.
 In the Puranas, there are references about latitudes (akshansa) and longitudes (deshantra). On the
basis of latitudes, they have divided the earth into various regions.
 The word ‘bbukampa’ has been used in the Puranas. It was assumed that earthquakes were caused
by deities like Vayu (Air), Agni (Fire), Indra and Varuna (Water).
 The Rigveda also mentions five seasons, i.e., Vansant (spring), Grisma (summer), Prourit (rainy
season), Sarad (autumn), and Hemanta (severe winter).
 The Vedas, epics and Puranas have mentioned a series of mountains in Bharatvarsa. Himavat,
Uttra-Kuru, Utter-Madra, Trikakud (Hindukush), Vindhya, Paripatra, Durdura and Mahendra are
the main mountains described in the ancient Indian literature.
 As per references found in the Puranas, the land mass of the earth was divisible into several dwipas
(continents).
 In the Puranic literature, the entire country from the Himalayas to Kanyakumari (Cape Comorin) is
designated by a single name— Bharatvarsa (India). Bharatvarsa bears the testimony of Arayans.
 The known world during the Puranic period was divided into seven dwipas -1. Jambu Dwipa, 2.
Kusa Dwipa, 3. Plaska Dwipa, 4. Puskara Dwipa, 5. Salmali Dwipa, 6. Kraunca Dwipa, 7. Saka
Dwipa,
 Ancient Indian cities thrived mainly in areas which aided the growth of a civilization. They were
geographically located mainly near rivers, mountains, and forests.

BIOLOGY IN INDIA
 It has been observed in the Vedic literature that 740 plants and 250 animals were recorded proving
that in the Vedic period observations of plants and animals were carried out and recorded.
 The Rigveda gives references to trees, sowing of seeds, hibernation and sighting of frogs, seasoned
timber, domestication of cattle, grinding of corn, reference to birds and their feathers, production
of food through ploughing etc.
 Evolution and origin of the universe, plants (nearly 107 applications of plants) and their curative
powers, are mentioned here.
 The Soma plant was the most important plant followed by the Aswatha or the peepal plant.
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 In Atharvaveda, there is recognition of energy, uses of beans, rice, sesame, curd, vegetable foods
and the preparation of liquor from grass, barley and rice are mentioned.
 The Satapatha Brahmana mentions ploughs used in agriculture, boar skin used for sandals, dyeing
of cloth, cow dung used as manure, pests and weeds, houses made of wood, grass with bamboo
cane for thatching etc.
 Parasara’s Vrkshayurveda had extensive information on the morphology, anatomy and
classification of plants.
 The Chandogya Upanishad made the first attempt in classification of animals into three categories-
Jivaja or Viviparous meaning giving birth to young ones like mammals, Andaja or Oviparous
meaning egg laying like birds, reptiles, worms and insects and Udbhija or Vegetal origin like
minute organisms.
 In Sushruta Samhita in 600 BC, all substances were classified into Immobile or Sthavara like
plants and Mobile or Jangama like Animals.
 Plants were further subdivided into Osadhi or plants which die with ripening of fruits, Virudha or
shrubs and creepers, Vriksha or fruit yielding and flowering plants and Vanaspati or fruit yielding
non flowering plants.
 The parts of the plant were also described in detail by Sushruta as Mula (root), Ankura (sprout),
Patra (leaf), Kanda (bulb or stem), Pushpa(flower), Phala(fruit) etc.
 It also mentions the classification of animals like Matsya(fish), Janghala(wild herbivorous
quadrupeds like deer), Guhasaya(Carnivorous quadrupeds like lion, tiger etc),
Kulachara(herbivores who frequent banks of rivers like buffalo, elephant etc).
 There are also observations on venomous and non-venomous snakes and leeches. In post operative
cases, Sushruta used live leeches which were nonpoisonous for preventing clotting of blood.
 The first physician to present the concept of metabolism, digestion and immunity was Charaka.
 Later as observed in the Mahabharata Shanti Parva, scientific thought evolved. Absorption and
assimilation of food from the soil by the roots, distinction between fertile and sterile soil,
knowledge of trees, methods of planting, grafting and transplanting, various types of manures,
rotation of crops, pollination of seeds, nomenclature of plants, the habitats required etc were all
mentioned in Brihatsamhita, Puranas and other texts written by great scholars like Varahamihira,
Shankara Mishra, Gunaratna, Udayana and others.
 Plants were systematically classified as medicinal, dietic and botanical. Vaiseshika, Bhagavat
Purana and other works mention systematic grouping of plants with their characteristics and uses.

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 After Sushruta and Charaka, classification of animals was further advanced by Umasvati in his
Tatthvarthadigama. In the Mahabharata pedigree registers and cattle census are also described.
There is clear

HARAPPAN TECHNOLOGIES
 Technology in the Indus Valley Civilization was used to aid in agriculture.
 The people of the Indus Valley, also known as Harappan achieved many notable advances in
technology, including great accuracy in their systems and tools for measuring length and mass.
 Harappans were among the first to develop a system of uniform weights and measures that
conformed to a successive scale.
 The smallest division, approximately 1.6 to 1.7 mm, was marked on an ivory scale found in Lothal,
a prominent Indus Valley city in the modern Indian state of Gujarat.
 "The kind of efficient system of Harappans of Dholavira, developed for conservation, harvesting
and storage of water speaks eloquently about their advanced hydraulic engineering, given the state
of technology in the third millennium BCE" says R.S.Bist
 It stands as the smallest division ever recorded on a Bronze Age scale. Another indication of an
advanced measurement system is the fact that the bricks used to build Indus cities were uniform in
size.
 Harappans demonstrated advanced architecture with dockyards, granaries, warehouses, brick
platforms, and protective walls.
 The ancient Indus systems of sewerage and drainage developed and used in cities throughout the
region were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban sites in the Middle East, and
even more efficient than those in many areas of Pakistan and India today.
 Harappans were thought to have been proficient in seal carving, the cutting of patterns into the
bottom face of a seal, and used distinctive seals for the identification of property and to stamp clay
on trade goods.
 Seals have been one of the most commonly discovered artifacts in Indus Valley cities, decorated
with animal figures, such as elephants, tigers, and water buffalos.
 Harappans also developed new techniques in metallurgy—the science of working with copper,
bronze, lead, and tin—and performed intricate handicraft using products made of the semi-
precious gemstone, Carnelian.
 The Indus Valley Civilization was aided by major advances in transportation technology.
 Irrigation systems included artificial reservoirs (such as Girnar) and early canal systems.
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 Harappan engineers followed the decimal division of measurements for all practical purposes.
 The people of the Indus Valley also manufactured ‘fans’ by heating silica up to 1200C.

WATER MANAGEMENT IN INDIA

 In vedic age, Indians had developed the concept that water gets divided into minute particles due to
the effect of sun rays and wind.
 At various places in the Puranas, it is alluded that water cannot be created or destroyed and that
only its state is changed through various phases of hydrological cycle.
 Evaporation, condensation, cloud formation, precipitation and its measurement were well
understood in India in vedic and puranic times.
 Effect of yajna, forests, reservoirs etc., on the causation of rainfall, classification of clouds, their
colour, rainfall capacity etc, forecasting of rainfall on the basis of natural phenomenon like colour
of sky, clouds, wind direction, lightning, and the activities of animals was well developed in
ancient India well before 10th century BC.
 Contrivances to measure rainfall were developed during the time of Kautilya (4th century BC)
which had the same principle as that of modern hydrology except the fact that weight measure
(of drone, paia etc.,) were adopted instead of modern linear measurement of rainfall.
 Scientific facts like arid region of Tibetan rain shadow area and no rainfall by polar winds was
discussed in the puranas.
 The knowledge of monsoon winds and height of clouds along with the division of atmosphere was
well developed in vedic age.
 The technique of knowing the slope of an area by means of a flowing river and dimensions of
meandering rivers along with velocity of flow were developed.
 In ancient times, Indians had well developed concepts of groundwater occurrence, distribution and
utilization.
 Literature also reveals that hydrologic indicators such as physiographic features, termite mounds,
soils, flora, fauna, rocks and minerals were used to detect the presence of groundwater.
 Variation in the height of water table with place, hot and cold springs, ground water utilization by
means of wells, well construction methods and equipment are fully described in chapter 54
of Vrhat Sanhita (Bruhat Samhita) named as ‘Dakargala’. The fact that sun rays, winds, humidity,
vegetation etc are the major causes of evapotranspiration was well realized.

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 Varamihira in as early as 550 AD presented a simple method for obtaining potable water from a
contaminated source of water.
 Various plant materials along with the sun heating, aeration, quenching of water with fire heated
stones, gold, silver, iron or sand were used.
 The change in the quality of water with the months of year and suitability of water from different
sources for various uses were described.
 Efficient water use, lining of canals, construction of dams, tanks, essential requirements for the
construction of good tanks, bank protection methods, spillways and other minor aspects were given
due consideration in ancient times in India.
 Well organized water pricing system was prevalent during the times of Kautilya.
 Various references are available in the Vedas eluding the importance of efficient water use so as to
reduce the intensity of water scarcity and drought.

TEXTILE TECHNOLOGY IN INDIA

 A textile is made from fiber or other extended linear materials such as thread or yarn. The various
categories of textiles include woven, crochet, knitted, knotted or tufted cloth, and non- woven
fabrics such as felt.
 Materials such as fiberglass, which are made from fibers dispersed in a matrix of another material,
are called composite materials rather than textiles.
 Yarn, fabrics, and tools for spinning and weaving have been found from the relics of the early
human habitations.
 Indus Valley Civilization used cotton for clothing since 5th million B.C.–4th million B.C.
 Colombian Encyclopedia says: “Cotton has been spun, woven and dyed since pre-historic times.”
 “Cotton textiles were woven in India with match less skills, and their use spread to Mediterranean
countries.”
 World famous fine Indian Mullin dates back to around to 16 centuries.
 India has a diverse and rich textile tradition.
 The origin of Indian textiles can be traced to the Indus Valley civilization.
 The people of this civilization used homespun cotton for weaving their garments.
 The first literary information about textiles in India can be found in the Rig-veda, which refers to
weaving.
 The past traditions of the textile and handlooms can still be seen amongst the motifs, patterns,
designs, and the old techniques of weaving, still employed by the weavers.

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 Refining silk for brocade making –raw silk is specially treated for brocades.

WRITING TECHNOLOGY IN ANCIENT INDIA

 Paper is having been used in India only for about a thousand years. Before those the main writing
materials in our country were birch-bark, palm-leaves and copper-plates.
 Besides these, agarubark, bricks, earthenware, shell, ivory, cloth, wood, etc. had also their uses as
materials for writing.
 Prehistoric rock paintings have been discovered at Bhimbetka, Pachmarhi, Adamgarh,
Mirzapur and many other Indian sites.
 Here the paintings, in vivid and panoramic detail, depict the day-to-day life of the cave-dwellers.
 These paintings, which can be called the early pictorial writing, are done mostly in red and white
and occasionally in green and yellow.
 The colors were taken from local minerals and were mixed with water and a fixative resin of some
local tree or animal tallow.
 The brushes used were made of twigs or, for fine work, quills.
 Along with the rock paintings short Brahmi inscriptions have also been found at Bhimbetka and
some other such sites.
 It is, thus, evident that in ancient India stone and natural colours were used as writing materials for
thousands of years.
 Indus inscriptions, usually short and numbering about 4000, are found on a variety of objects: (1)
steatite seals, (2) sealings on clay, miniature stone, terracotta, or faience tablets, (3) copper tablets,
(4) bronze implements, (5) bone and ivory rods, (6) pottery graffiti, and (7) miscellaneous objects,
such as the crumbled gate and made of white, crystalline material.
 In the Buddhist Jatakas, there are many references to the art of writing.
 Panini (c. 500 BC) in his Ashtadyayi refers to granth (book), lipikara (writer) and Yavanani
lipi (Greek script).
 Stone was the principal writing material in use in ancient India.
 Engravings on stone, as emperor Ashoka himself expresses, are “such as to endure for a long
time”. Such engravings were made on rocks, slabs, smoothed or rough pillars, images, caskets,
vases, etc.
 Stone slabs or columns used to be inscribed with grant-deeds, royal eulogy, proclamations, and
agreements between individuals or kings and even with literary works.
 Putting inscriptions on stone pillars is a very old tradition.
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 Emperor Ashoka (272-232 BC) got his edicts inscribed on rocks and also on stone pillars. Made of
sandstone quarried from Chunar (UP), the pillars are monolithic and highly polished.
 Some of the pillars are 15 m high and weigh nearly 50 tons. These Ashokan pillars can be seen in
Delhi, Allahabad, Lumbini and several other sites.
 A large number of inscribed bricks have been unearthed from different places and are preserved in
archaeological museums.
 Some inscribed bricks are related to the Ashwamedha sacrifices performed by various kings.
 Most of the early inscribed bricks carry Buddhist sutras, the letters having been scratched on the
moist clay before it was baked.
 Inscribed clay seals have been obtained from Nalanda and several other ancient sites.
 Specimens of some inscribed ivory bars and conch-shells have been discovered.
 Precious metals, gold and silver have been used for engraving and casting with characters.
 Cotton cloth (called karpasika-pata or simply pata in Sanskrit) was also used as writing material in
ancient India.
 Nearchos (c. 326 BC), an admiral of Alexander’s fleet, has mentioned that the Indians wrote letters
on well-beaten cotton cloth.
 The cloth was prepared for writing by putting on it a thin layer of wheat or rice pulp and polishing
with a conch-shell or a smooth stone after the same was dried.
 Writing on the Tamra patra was done with black ink.
 This Sanskrit inscription in Gupta Brahmi letters of the 5th century AD consists of six lines and
mentions a king whose name is ‘Chandra’.
 In the courtyard of the Gopeswar temple of Garhwal, there is the five-meter-high
iron Trishula which has a 7th century Sanskrit inscription incised on it.
 Till paper was introduced in India sometime in the eleventh century, palm-leaf was one of the most
important materials used for writing purposes.
 A very popular material for writing purposes in ancient India was birch-bark, called Bhurja-
patra in Sanskrit.
 Kalidas in his Kumarasambhava mentions bhurja-tvak, birch-bark.
 Alberuni states that people in India use for writing the bark of Bhurja, a kind of tuz tree.
 The bark of Agaru tree, which is called sanchipata in Assamese, has been extensively used in
north-east India for writing and painting.

PYROTECHNICS IN INDIA

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 The use of firecrackers is not new to India. While they originated in China.
 The crackers soon made their way into India through trade and military contact.
 The earliest evidence we have of firecrackers in India dates back to the Mughal times.
 Some historians have pointed out that the knowledge of materials used to make firecrackers
existed in India as back as 300 BC.
 Historians believe that knowledge of gunpowder existed in India back in the 8th Century.
 A Sanskrit text such as the Nitiprakasika of Vaisampayana which was compiled in the 8th Century
mentions a similar substance.
 But the potential of gunpowder had not been realized during this time.
 Though a section of historians is of opinion that Indians were aware of the existence of saltpetre
as agnichurna or a powder that creates fire.
 Kautilya’s Arthashastra has mentions of saltpeter 2,300 years ago, Kautilya had written the
Arthashastra, India’s grand treatise on management, rule of law, and economics. In it, he talks
about saltpeter (Agnichaurana), which was a “powder to create fire”.
 Kautilya said that saltpeter could be used to create smoke which could be used to fight an enemy in
a war.
 The Nilamata Purana is an ancient text (6th to 8th century CE) from Kashmir, which contains
information on its history, geography, religion, and folklore. It says fireworks have to be
illuminated on 14th/15th day of Kartika (Diwali) to show path to dead ancestors.
 A Chinese text from 1300 years ago says that people of north-west India were aware of the
existence of saltpeter, and used it to produce “purple flames”.
 This would indicate that the flames were produced for aesthetic purposes rather than military,
which were the early precursor to modern fireworks.
 A lot of happened in the intervening period. Gunpowder had been invented in China a few
centuries ago, and it eventually came to India.
 Indians quickly adopted it to make even more elaborate fireworks.
 Manufacturing formulas for fireworks describing pyrotechnic mixtures
were described within Kautukachintamani, a Sanskrit volume by Gajapati Prataparudradeva (1497-
1539), a reputed royal author from Orissa.
 A popular sixteenth century Marathi poem by the saint Eknath called “Rukmini Swayamvara,”
describes Rukmini’s wedding with Krishna. The poem mentions a range of fireworks, from rockets
to the equivalent of the modern phooljhadi.

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 Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, though, wasn’t a fan of fireworks. In a firmaan (royal decree) dated
9th April 1667, Aurangzeb banned fireworks. The firmaan was titled “Restriction on Aatishbaazi”,
and said that the display of fireworks is “forbidden.” It added that no one is to “indulge in
aatishbaazi”.

TRADE IN ANCIENT INDIA

 The Indus civilisation had established commercial connections with Mesopotamia and traded in
gold, silver, copper, coloured gemstones, beads, pearls, sea shells, terracotta pots, etc.
 The period was marked by substantial commercial activities and urban development. Political
economy and military security during ancient times united most of the Indian subcontinent and
trade regulations were carefully planned.
 There were diverse types of coins and weighing practices which used to vary from place to place
with the help of money changers and by resorting to certain commonly accepted weights and
measures.
 Indigenous Banking System As economic life progressed, metals began to supplement other
commodities as money because of its durability and divisibility.
 As money served as a medium of exchange, the introduction of metallic money and its use
accelerated economic activities.
 Documents such as Hundi and Chitti were in use for carrying out transactions in which money
passed from hand to hand.
 Intermediaries played a prominent role in the promotion of trade. They provided considerable
financial security to the manufacturers by assuming responsibility for the risks involved, especially
in foreign trade.
 It comprised commission agents, brokers and distributors both for wholesale and retail goods. An
expanding trade brought in huge amounts of silver bullion into Asia and a large share of that
bullion gravitated towards India.
 Pataliputra: Known as Patna today. It was not only a commercial town, but also a major centre for
export of stones.
 Peshawar: It was an important exporting centre for wool and for the import of horses. It had a huge
share in commercial transactions between India, China and Rome in the first century A.D.
 Taxila: It served as a major centre on the important land route between India and Central Asia. It
was also a city of financial and commercial banks.

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 Indraprastha: It was the commercial junction on the royal road where most routes leading to the
east, west, south and north converged.
 Mathura: It was an emporium of trade and people here subsisted on commerce. Many routes from
South India touched Mathura and Broach.
 Varanasi: It was well placed as it lay both on the Gangetic route and on the highway that linked
North with the East. It grew as a major centre of textile industry and became famous for beautiful
gold silk cloth and sandalwood workmanship. It had links with Taxila and Bharuch.
 Mithila: The traders of Mithila crossed the seas by boats, through the Bay of Bengal to the South
China Sea, and traded at ports on the islands of Java, Sumatra and Borneo. Mithila established
trading colonies in South China, especially in Yunnan.
 Ujjain: Agate, carnelian, muslin and mallow cloth were exported from Ujjain to different centres.
It also had trade relations through the land route with Taxila and Peshawar.
 Surat: It was the emporium of western trade during the Mughal period. Textiles of Surat were
famous for their gold borders (zari). It is noteworthy that Surat hundi was honoured in far off
markets of Egypt and Iran.
 Kanchi: Today known as Kanchipuram, it was here that the Chinese used to come in foreign ships
to purchase pearls, glass and rare stones and in return they sold gold and silk.
 Madura: It was the capital of the Pandayas who controlled the pearl fisheries of the Gulf of
Mannar. It attracted foreign merchants, particularly Romans, for carrying out overseas trade.
 Broach: It was the greatest seat of commerce in Western India. It was situated on the banks of river
Narmada and was linked with all important marts by roadways.
 Kaveripatta: Also known as Kaveripatnam, it was scientific in its construction as a city and
provided loading, unloading and strong facilities of merchandise. Foreign traders had their
headquarters in this city.
 It was a convenient place for trade with Malaysia, Indonesia, China and the Far East. It was the
centre of trade for perfumes, cosmetics, scents, silk, wool, cotton, corals, pearls, gold and precious
stones; and also, for ship building.
 Tamralipti: It was one of the greatest ports connected both by sea and land with the West and the
Far East. It was linked by road to Banaras and Taxila.
 Major Exports and Imports Exports consisted of spices, wheat, sugar, indigo, opium, sesame oil,
cotton, parrot, live animals and animal products—hides, skin, furs, horns, tortoise shells, pearls,
sapphires, quartz, crystal, lapis, lazuli, granites, turquoise and copper etc. Imports included horses,

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animal products, Chinese silk, flax and linen,wine, gold, silver, tin, copper, lead,rubies, coral,
glass, amber, etc.
 India is estimated to have the largest economy of the ancient and medieval world, controlling
about one third and one-fourth of the world’s wealth (timeline).
 The country was often referred to as ‘Swaranbhumi’ and ‘Swarndweep’ in the writings of many
travellers, such as Megasthenes, Faxian (Fa Hien), Xuanzang (Huen Tsang), Al Beruni (11th
century), Ibn Batuta (11th century), Frenchman Francois (17th century) and others. They
repeatedly refer to the prosperity of the country.

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