The Astrophysical Journal, 940:51 (14pp), 2022 November 20 https://doi.org/10.

3847/1538-4357/ac9410
© 2022. The Author(s). Published by the American Astronomical Society.

Impact of Rastall Gravity on Mass, Radius, and Sound Speed of the Pulsar PSR
J0740+6620
Waleed El Hanafy
Centre for Theoretical Physics, The British University in Egypt, P.O. Box 43, El Sherouk City, Cairo 11837, Egypt; [email protected]
Received 2022 August 9; revised 2022 September 18; accepted 2022 September 19; published 2022 November 18

Abstract
Millisecond pulsars are perfect laboratories to test possible matter–geometry coupling and its physical implications
in light of recent Neutron Star Interior Composition Explorer (NICER) observations. We apply Rastall field
equations of gravity, where matter and geometry are nonminimally coupled, to Krori–Barua interior spacetime
whereas the matter source is assumed to be anisotropic fluid. We show that all physical quantities inside the star can
be expressed in terms of Rastall, ò, and compactness, C = 2GM/Rc2, parameters. Using NICER and X-ray Multi-
Mirror Newton X-ray-observational constraints on the mass and radius of the pulsar PSR J0740+6620, we deter-
mine the Rastall parameter to be at most ò = 0.041 in the positive range. The obtained solution provides a stable
compact object; in addition the squared sound speed does not violate the conjectured sound speed cs2  c 2 3 unlike
the general relativistic treatment. We note that no equations of state are assumed; the model however fits well with
linear patterns with bag constants. In general, for ò > 0, the theory predicts a slightly larger-size star in comparison to
general relativity for the same mass. This has been explained as an additional force, due to matter–geometry
coupling, in the hydrodynamic equilibrium equation, which contributes to partially diminishing the gravitational
force effect. Consequently, we calculate the maximal compactness as allowed by the strong energy condition to be
C = 0.735, which is ∼2% higher than general relativity prediction. Moreover, for the surface density at saturation
nuclear density ρnuc = 2.7 × 1014 g cm−3, we estimate the maximum mass M = 4Me at radius R = 16 km.
Unified Astronomy Thesaurus concepts: Massive stars (732); Millisecond pulsars (1062); Neutron star cores
(1107); Non-standard theories of gravity (1118); Stellar structures (1631)

+0.15
1. Introduction e.g., PSR J0030+0451 with mass M = 1.44- 0.14 M (Miller
et al. 2019) and independently by Raaijmakers et al. (2019)
Neutron stars (NSs) provide a unique laboratory to test +0.15
where M = 1.34- .16 M, while others, e.g., PSR J0437-4715
matter at extremely high-density conditions, a few times the
with mass M = 1.44 ± 0.07Me (Reardon et al. 2016), are in
nuclear saturation density ρnuc ≈ 2.7 × 1014 g cm−3, which are
progress (Balsamo et al. 2014). Notably, for the isolated pulsar
terrestrially inaccessible. The nature of their cores are poorly
PSR J0030+0451, two independent analyses of NICER data
understood due to a lack of knowledge of the equation of state +1.24
have been done to measure its radius, R = 13.02- 1.06 km
(EoS) at these densities (Özel & Freire 2016). Many EoSs are +1.14
proposed to describe the NS cores by including baryonic or (Miller et al. 2019), and R = 12.71-1.19 km (Raaijmakers et al.
exotic matter or possible combinations. One way to test these 2019). Although these studies assume different patterns of the
EoSs is to simultaneously determine the NS mass and radius. hot spots, both agree on the measured value of the pulsar
This represents the primary aim of several astrophysical radius. Additionally, some MSP with mass ∼2 Me, e.g., PSR
observations nowadays. The pulsar timing measurement— J1614-2230 with mass M = 1.908 ± 0.016Me (Demorest et al.
which depends on the determination of radio pulse times of 2010; Fonseca et al. 2016; Arzoumanian et al. 2018a), PSR
arrival in comparison with a stable reference clock—of pulses J0348+0432 with mass M = 2.01 ± 0.04Me (Antoniadis et al.
2013), and PSR J0740+6620 with mass M = 2.08 ± 0.07Me
is being used for many decades to determine the pulsars’
using the relativistic Shapiro time delay (Cromartie et al. 2019;
masses. The pulse period for millisecond pulsars (MSPs) ran-
Fonseca et al. 2021), are of a great interest because they
ges from 1.39 to 30 ms, slow down rate „10−19 s s−1 with a
approach the upper limit of an NS or the lower limit of a black
characteristic age 109 yr. Those are very useful to test relati-
hole (BH). In particular, the pulsar PSR J0740+6020 is in a
vistic theories (see Stairs 2003; Reardon et al. 2016).
binary system, which provides an independent measurements
Recently X-ray and gravitational-wave signal observations
of mass and inclination. So its mass can be determined with
have opened new windows to determine NSs masses and radii.
higher precision; however its low NICER count rate relative to
Neutron Star Interior Composition Explorer (NICER) mission
PSR J0348+0432 represents a challenge. Notably both NICER
is devoted to measure mass and radius (and consequently EoS)
and X-ray Multi-Mirror (XMM) Newton data sets have been
of MSPs by analyzing the gravitational light bending and the
used to determine the radius of the pulsar PSR J0740+6020 by
X-ray light curves produced by rotating hot spots on their +2.6
Miller et al. (2021), R = 13.7- 1.5 km, and independently by
surfaces (Bogdanov et al. 2019a, 2019b). Some MSP with +1.30
masses ∼1.5 Me have been observed and analyzed by NICER, Riley et al. (2021), R = 12.39- 0.98 km (68% credible level),
while from NICER+XMM, based on Gaussian process
applying a nonparameteric EoS approach, the mass and radius
Original content from this work may be used under the terms +1.89
of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 licence. Any further are given as M = 2.07 ± 0.11Me, and R = 12.34- 1.67 km
distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the title (Legred et al. 2021), which is in agreement with Landry et al.
of the work, journal citation and DOI. (2020) at 68% credible level.

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The Astrophysical Journal, 940:51 (14pp), 2022 November 20 El Hanafy

Gravitational-wave signals provide another window to test stability as obtained by the present model. In Section 5, we
matter at high density. This research is led by Laser Inter- confront the model to more pulsars data. In Section 6, we
ferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) and Virgo estimate the maximum compactness as allowed by physical
collaboration (Abbott et al. 2016). For example, GW190814, a conditions. Consequently, we plot the mass–radius curves for
binary compact system merger with a companion of mass different choices of surface densities showing the maximal
∼2.6 Me (Abbott et al. 2020b), provides the first-observed mass in each case for a stable configuration. In Section 7, we
compact object in the hypothesized lower-mass gap 2.5–5 Me. conclude the work.
This may point out some kind of modified gravity as suggested
by Moffat (2020). Also, GW170817 (Abbott et al. 2017, 2018) 2. Rastall Gravity
and GW190425 (Abbott et al. 2020a) signals indicate no tidal The contracted Bianchi identity, in Riemannian geometry,
deformation in the observed patterns of their gravitational implies a covariant divergence-free Einstein tensor
waves, which in turn inform that the EoS is not too stiff. This is
unlike what is usually assumed for high-mass compact objects. 1
a Gab = a ⎛R ab - gab R⎞ º 0, (1 )
Remarkably, NICER observations of PSR J0030+0451 and ⎝ 2 ⎠
PSR J0740+6020 provide an evidence against more squeez-
able models. The latter has much more mass than the former where Gab denotes the Einstein tensor, R ab denotes the Ricci
while both are almost the same size. Then it is reasonable to tensor, and R = gab R ab denotes the Ricci invariant. On the
assume some mechanisms to justify the nonsqueezability of an other hand, applying the minimal coupling procedure, one
NS when it gains more mass. On the other hand, the existence requires a divergence-free energy momentum
of high-mass pulsars ∼ 2Me such as PSR J0740+6020 is a T ab = 0. (2 )
known to favor violation of the upper sound speed conformal
limit cs2 = c 2 3, which represents another challenge for Therefore, the GR field equations, as formulated by Einstein,
theoretical models even at low-density cases as shown by are given
Bedaque & Steiner (2015; see also Cherman & Cohen 2009;
Landry et al. 2020). For the pulsar PSR J0740+6020, in Gab = kE Tab , (3 )
particular, Legred et al. (2021) in their study concluded that the where the Einstein coupling constant κE = 8πG/c4 with G is
conformal sound speed is strongly violated at the NS core the Newtonian gravitational constant, and c is the speed of
whereas cs2 = 0.75c 2 with density ∼3.60 ρnuc. light.
When an NS gains more mass, one would expect stronger In Rastall’s gravity, the minimal coupling assumption
gravity and then the NS collapses to be a smaller size (conse- Equation (2) has been replaced by Rastall (1972, 1976)
quently higher density). However, the NICER observations of

the pulsars PSR J0030+0451 and PSR J0740+6020 do not a T ab = ¶b R. (4 )
agree with this mechanism. We argue that, for a high-mass NS, k
one expects the presence of high density to form anisotropy Clearly the nondivergence-free energy-momentum assumption
(Herrera & Santos 1997), whereas radial, pr, and tangential, pt, —proportional to Ricci scalar derivative—reflects a non-
pressures are different. The induced anisotropic force becomes minimal coupling between matter and geometry, where ò/κ is a
repulsive when pt > pr, subsequently acting against the attrac- constant of the proportionality. The local violation of the
tive gravitational force as can be seen from Tolman–Oppen- conservation law, as assumed by Rastall, is a manifestation of
heimer–Volkoff (TOV) equation (Bowers & Liang 1974). This
an interaction between matter and curved spacetime, which no
in return supports the NS to hold its size. On the other hand, we
suggest that a nonminimal coupling between matter and geo- longer exists when spacetime is flat. This, accordingly, led
metry inside compact objects (high curvatured spacetime) plays Rastall to obtain a some kind of generalized field equations
a crucial role to hold the conjectured sound speed limit from the 1 
NS core to its surface unlike the general relativity (GR) case. Gab = R ab - gab R = k ⎛Tab - gab R⎞. (5 )
2 ⎝ k ⎠
In fact, the null covariant divergence of the energy-
momentum tensor is one of the fundamental assumptions of the For vacuum solutions, obviously, the GR theory is restored. By
GR. On the contrary, Rastall attempted to modify GR by contracting Equation (5), we write
dropping this assumption assuming that the covariant deriva-
k ⎛ ¹ 1 ⎞
tive of the energy-momentum tensor is proportional to Ricci R=- T, (6 )
scalar derivative, which directly reflects the nonminimal cou- 1 - 4 ⎝ 4⎠
pling between matter and geometry in curved spacetimes where T = gab Tab is the trace of the energy-momentum ten-
(Rastall 1972, 1976). In flat spacetimes, the interaction term sor. Alternatively, the field equation (Equations (5)) can be
vanishes, and GR would be recovered indeed. Rastall theory written as
(RT) could be strongly tested within stellar structure models in
~
light of the recently unprecedented improvements of mass– Gab = kTab , (7 )
radius observations of astrophysical objects as discussed above.
We arrange the present study as follows: In Section 2, we where the effective energy-momentum tensor is given by
review the modification of the GR as proposed by Rastall. In ~  ⎛ ¹ 1 ⎞.
Section 3, we set up the main assumptions of the present study. Tab = Tab + gab T; (8 )
1 - 4 ⎝ 4⎠
In Section 4, we use the X-ray NICER and XMM observations
of the PSR J0740+6620 to constrain the model parameters. The Newtonian limit of Rastall gravity requires a
Also, we discuss the physical features of the pulsar and its rescaled effective gravitational constant (see Rastall 1972;

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The Astrophysical Journal, 940:51 (14pp), 2022 November 20 El Hanafy

Moradpour et al. 2017a, 2017b) where the prime denotes the derivative with respect to the
radial coordinate. Consequently, we obtain the anisotropy
1 - 4 ⎛ ¹ 1 ⎞
k = h kE and h = , (9 ) parameter, Δ(r) = pt − pr, as follows
1 - 6 ⎝ 6⎠
e-b
where κ acquires the dimension of κE, and κ = κE only if ò = 0 D (r ) =
4kr 2
(i.e., η = 1). In practice, the deviations from GR are given in
terms of the dimensionless Rastall parameter ò via the effective ´ [(2a - a¢b ¢ + a¢2) r 2 - 2 (a¢ + b ¢) r + 4 (eb - 1)].
~ (13)
energy-momentum tensor Tab as well as the effective grav-
itational constant κ. For ò = 0, the conservation law is restored, Remarkably, the matter–geometry coupling due to the trace T
and the GR version of gravity is recovered. In other words, RT does not contribute to the anisotropy once the spherically
generalizes GR by dropping the divergence-free energy- symmetric spacetime configuration is assumed (Nashed &
momentum assumption and replaces it by assuming that the Hanafy 2022). However, for ò ≠ 0 (κ ≠ κE), a slight change in
conservation law can be violated in curved spacetime due to anisotropy is expected. Therefore, deviations from GR due to
existence of a nonminimal coupling between matter and geo- matter–geometry coupling cannot be spoiled with various
metry. It has been argued that RT is a reproduction of GR, and anisotropic effects. For the ò = 0 case, the differential
both theories are completely equivalent as noted by Visser Equations (12) coincide with Einstein field equations of an
(2018). On the contrary, Darabi et al. (2018) have investigated interior spherically symmetrical spacetime (see Roupas &
that the claim showing that the matter–geometry coupling term Nashed 2020).
in RT has been misinterpreted, which led finally to a wrong
conclusion. A counter example has been given by applying 3.1. Krori–Barua Ansatz
Visser’s argument to f (R) gravity; this led to an equivalence
We introduce Krori & Barua (1975) ansatz (hereafter KB),
between f (R) and GR as well, which is not true. In this sense,
stellar structure models are important applications to examine a (r ) = a 0 x 2 + a1, b (r ) = a 2 x 2 , (14)
RT whereas the presence of matter (consequently curved
spacetime) plays a crucial role to determine matter–geometry where the dimensionless radius 0 „ x = r/R „ 1 with R being the
coupling, if any. radius of the star. Additionally, the set of constants {a0, a1, a2}
are dimensionless to be determined by matching conditions on the
3. The Model boundary surface of the star. We further define the dimensionless
variables
We consider a static spherically symmetric line element for a
four-dimensional spacetime, which can be expressed in sphe- r (r ) p (r ) p (r ) ¯ D (r )
rical polar coordinates (t, r, θ, f); r¯ (r ) = , p¯r (r ) = r 2 , p¯t (r ) = t 2 , D (r ) = ,
r r c r c r c2
ds2 = - ea (r ) c2dt 2 + eb (r ) dr 2 + r 2 (dq 2 + sin2 q df 2) , (10) (15)

where α(r) and β(r) be the metric potentials. We further assume where ρå denotes a characteristic density
the energy-momentum tensor for a anisotropic fluid with
1
spherical symmetry, i.e., r = . (16)
kE c 2 R 2
T ab = ( pt + rc2) U aUb + pt d ab + ( pr - pt ) V aVb , (11)
Thus the field equations (Equation (12)) read
where ρ = ρ(r) is the fluid energy density, pr = pr(r) is its radial
e-a 2 x a 2 x 2
2

pressure (in the direction of the time-like four-velocity Uα), hr¯ = (e - 1 + 2a 2 x 2 )

pt = pt(r) is its tangential pressure (perpendicular to Uα), and x2
V α is the unit space-like vector in the radial direction. Then, the 2
+ 2 [(a 0 (a 0 - a 2) x 4 - (2a 2 - 3a 0) x 2 + 1) e-a 2 x - 1] ,
2

energy-momentum tensor takes the diagonal form x

Tab = diag (-rc 2 , pr , pt , pt ). field e-a 2 x
2
Applying Rastall’s
hp¯r = (1 - e a 2 x + 2 a 0 x 2 )
2

Equations (7) to the spacetime (Equation (10)) where the matter x 2

sector is as given by Equation (11), we obtain the following 2
- 2 [(a 0 (a 0 - a 2) x 4 - (2a 2 - 3a 0) x 2 + 1) e-a 2 x - 1] ,
2

e-b b k x
krc2 = (e + b ¢r - 1) - (rc2 - pr - 2pt ) , hp¯t = e-a 2 x (2a 0 - a 2 + a 0 (a 0 - a 2) x 2)
2
r 2 1 - 4
e-b k 2
- 2 [(a 0 (a 0 - a 2) x 4 - (2a 2 - 3a 0) x 2 + 1) e-a 2 x - 1] ,
2
kpr = 2 (1 - eb + a¢r ) + (rc2 - pr - 2pt ) ,
r 1 - 4 x
e-b (17)
kpt = [(2a - a¢b ¢ + a¢2) r + 2 (a¢ - b ¢)]
4r and the anisotropy factor (Equation (13)) becomes
k
+ (rc2 - pr - 2pt ) , -a 2 x 2
1 - 4 ¯ = e
hD [e a 2 x - 1 + a 0 (a 0 - a 2 ) x 4 - a 2 x 2 ].
2
(18)
(12) x2

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The Astrophysical Journal, 940:51 (14pp), 2022 November 20 El Hanafy

The mass content within a radius r is given by the mass Taking the limit ò → 0, the set of constants (Equation (25))
function reduces to the GR version (Roupas & Nashed 2020)
r C
a0 =
M (r ) = 4 p ò0 r (r¯) r¯2dr. (19) 2 (1 - C )
,

C
Substitute the density (Equation (17)); we obtain a1 = ln (1 - C ) - , a 2 = - ln (1 - C ). (27)
2 (1 - C )
M -a 2 x 2 Interestingly all physical quantities of KB spacetime within a
M (x ) = [x (e a 2 x - 1) +  z (x )] ,
2
e (20)
C given star, 0 „ x „ 1, can be written as dimensionless forms in
terms of Rastall and the compactness parameters, i.e., r¯ ( , C ),
where the compactness parameter C and the function ζ(x) are p¯r ( , C ), and p¯t ( , C ). In practice the compactness parameter
is determined by observational data, which sets a direct con-
2GM
C= , straint to estimate the nonminimal coupling between matter and
c 2R
geometry as assumed in Rastall gravity. On the other hand, it
-9 9 3 2
z (x ) = a 2 2 ⎧⎛2xa 22 - a 0 p a 22 (a 2 + a 0) erf ( a 2 x ) ⎞ e a2 x gives a chance to set an upper bound of the allowed com-
⎨
⎩ ⎝ 4 ⎠ pactness for anisotropic NS and consequently the maximum
3 5 7 3 9
mass. This will be discussed in details in Section 6.
+ x ⎡⎛ a 0 a 22 + a 22 (a 0 x 2 + ) ⎞ a 0 - (a 0 x 2 + 2) a 22 ⎤ ⎫.
⎢
⎣⎝ 2 2 ⎠ ⎥
⎦⎬ ⎭
(21) 3.3. Radial Gradients
We derive the radial gradients of the fluid density, pressures
We note that the mass function (Equation (20)) reduces to the as obtained by Equations (17).
GR version where ò = 0 (Roupas & Nashed 2020).
2e-a 2 x
2

r¢
¯ = {1 - e a 2 x - 2a 22 x 4 + a 2 x 2 - 2 [1 - e a 2 x
2 2

3
x R
3.2. Matching Conditions
Since vacuum solutions of both GR and RT are equivalent, - a 0 a 2 (a 2 - a 0 ) x 6
the exterior solution is nothing but Schwarzschild’s one, - [2 (a 2 - a 0 )2 - a 02] x 4 + a 2 x 2]},
(28)
2GM
= - ⎛1 - 2 ⎞ c2dt 2
ds2 -2e-a2 x2
2 2
⎝ c r ⎠ p¯ ¢r = {1 - e a2 x + 2a 0 a 2 x 4 + a 2 x 2 - 2 [1 - e a2 x
x 3R
dr 2
+ + r 2 (dq 2 + sin2 qdf 2). (22) - a 0 a 2 (a 2 - a 0) x 6 - [2 (a 2 - a 0 ) 2 - a 02] x 4 + a 2 x 2]},
( 2GM
1 - c 2r ) (29)

Recalling the interior spacetime (Equation (10)), we thus take 2e-a 2 x2

p¯ ¢t =
x 3R
a (x = 1) = ln (1 - C ) , b (x = 1) = - ln (1 - C ). (23) {a 0 a 2 (a 2 - a 0) x 6 + [a 2 (a 2 - 3a 0) + a 02] x 4 + 2 ´
[1 - e a 2 x - a 0 a 2 (a 2 - a 0 ) x 6
2
In addition, we make the radial pressure vanish on the
boundary, i.e., - [2 (a 2 - a 0 )2 - a 02] x 4 + a 2 x 2]},
(30)
p¯r (x = 1) = 0. (24)
where ¢ = R-1d
dx . Those gradients are of a great importance
Using KB ansatz (Equation (14)) and the radial pressure because they determine the physical stability of the compact
(Equation (17)) along with the above boundary conditions, we object as will be discussed in the following section.
derive
4. Observational Constraints and Stability Conditions
3 1 c + (1 - C ) In this section, we use the precise X-ray mass and radius
a0 = - - ln (1 - C ) - ,
2 2 2  (1 - C ) constraints on the pulsar PSR J0740+6620 from NICER
3 3 c + (1 - C ) +XMM based on Gaussian process applying a nonparameteric
a1 = + ln (1 - C ) + , EoS approach; the mass and radius are given as
2 2 2  (1 - C ) +1.89
M = 2.07 ± 0.11Me and R = 12.34- 1.67 km (Legred et al.
a 2 = - ln (1 - C ) , (25) 2021) where the solar mass Me = 1.9891 × 1030 kg. For a
stellar model to be physically well behaved, it needs to satisfy
where the conditions as labeled from (i) to (xii) as follows:

c =  2 (1 - C )2 ln (1 - C )2 - 2 (1 +  )(1 - C )2 ln (1 - C ) 4.1. Zeldovich Condition and Rastall Parameter

- (1 - C )[(5C - 9)  2 - 2 (2C - 3)  - (1 - C )]. Condition (i). According to Zeldovich & Novikov (1971),
(26) the central radial pressure must be less than or equal to the

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The Astrophysical Journal, 940:51 (14pp), 2022 November 20 El Hanafy

central density, so then we write The redshift should be finite and positive everywhere inside the
star and decreases monotonically toward the boundary, i.e.,
p¯r (0) Z > 0 and Z ¢ < 0 .
 1. (31)
r¯ (0) Obviously condition (iv) is satisfied for the pulsar PSR J0740
+6620 as obtained by Figure 3.
We obtain the density, radial, and tangential pressures at the At the center, Z(0) ≈ 0.75 (less than the GR value Z
center (0) ≈ 0.8) is maximum while at the surface ZR ≈ 0.4 (similar to
the GR value), less than the upper redshift bound ZR = 2 as
r (x = 0 ) = 6 (a 0 - a 2 )  + 3 a 2 ; obtained by Buchdahl (1959); see also Ivanov (2002), Barraco
pr (x = 0) = - 6 (a 0 - a 2)  - a 2 + 2a 0 = pt (x = 0). (32) et al. (2003) for anisotropic case and Böhmer & Harko (2006)
in presence of a cosmological constant. We note that the
For the pulsar PSR J0740+6620, we evaluate its compactness maximal redshift constraint is not a very strict condition; sub-
parameter C = 0.510 ± 0.0999. Then, by applying Zeldovich sequently it cannot provide a proper way to put an upper bound
condition (Equation (31)), we choose a reasonable valid on the compactness as already concluded by some work (see
interval of Rastall parameter 0 „ ò „ 0.278 ± 0.0067 where ò is Ivanov 2002; Barraco et al. 2003; Böhmer & Harko 2006).
expected to be close to the GR version (ò = 0). This conclusion is altered when using the energy conditions on
the matter sector, which provide much better constraints; see
4.2. Mass and Radius Observational Constraints from PSR Roupas & Nashed (2020).
J0740+6620
Recalling the X-ray mass and radius constraints on the pulsar 4.4. Matter Sector
PSR J0740+6620 from NICER+XMM, the mass function
(Equation (20)) estimates a total mass M = 1.96Me at a radius of Condition (v). For a solution to be regular, the density,
R = 13.04 km with compactness C = 0.491 in agreement with the radial, and tangential pressures of the fluid should be non-
+1.89
observed value, (M = 2.07 ± 0.11Me, and R = 12.34- 1.67 km; singular everywhere inside the star. Additionally, these physi-
Legred et al. 2021), for a choice of Rastall parameter ò = 0.041. cal quantities should have maximum values at the center and
This determines the coupling constant, Equation (9)), and the monotonically decrease toward the surface of the star, i.e.,
set of constants, Equations (25), {κ = 2.302 × 10−43 N−1, a0 =
0.438, a1 = −1.114, a2 = 0.676}. These values clearly satisfy 1. ρ(r = 0) > 0, r¢ (r = 0) = 0 , ρ″(r = 0) < 0,
Zeldovich condition (Equation (31)). We plot the mass function and r¢ (0 < r  R) < 0 ;
pattern in Figure 1 to show the agreement of the predicted mass– 1. pr(r = 0) > 0, pr ¢ (r = 0) = 0 , pr″(r = 0) < 0,
radius of the pulsar PSR J0740+6620 and their observed values and pr ¢ (0 < r  R) < 0 ;
as obtained by NICER+XMM data. In comparison with the GR 1. pt(r = 0) > 0, pt ¢ (r = 0) = 0 , pt″(r = 0) < 0,
prediction, RT with positive ò estimates the same mass as in GR and pt ¢ (0 < r  R) < 0 .
but within a larger-size star (or less mass at the same size). In Condition (vi). The density, radial, and tangential pressures of
other words, RT predicts compactness value lesser than GR for a the fluid within the star (0 < r < R) should be positive, i.e., ρ
given mass. This reflects the capability of RT to allow for more (0 < r < R) > 0, pr(0 < r < R) > 0, and pt(0 < r < R) > 0.
masses or equivalently higher values of compactness while the Condition (vii). The radial pressure of the fluid should vanish at
stability conditions are being still fulfilled. This will be discussed the boundary surface of the star, i.e., pr(r = R) = 0. This is not
in more details in Section 6. Notably, for ò < 0, the matter–geo- necessarily for the tangential pressure.
metry coupling turns the star to slightly smaller sizes in com- Obviously conditions (v)–(vii) are satisfied for the pulsar
parison with GR for the same mass (Nashed & Hanafy 2022); and PSR J0740+6620 as obtained by Figures 4(a)–(b).
therefore we omit this choice in the present work. We note that the model estimates an NS core density
rcore » 5.6 ´ 1014 g cm–3 ≈ 2.1ρnuc of the pulsar PSR J0740
4.3. Geometric Sector
+6620, which does not exclude the possibility of the pulsar
Condition (ii). For the geometric sector, the metric potentials core being neutrons. In addition, at this density, the anaiso-
gtt and grr should be free from coordinate and physical singu- tropic fluid would be a realistic assumption.
larities within the interior region of the star 0 „ r „ R, where Condition (vii). The anisotropy parameter Δ should vanish at
the center (boundary) is at r = 0 (r = R) respectively. the center of the star, i.e., pr(r = 0) = pt(r = 0), increasing
Obviously the metric (Equation (10)) satisfies these conditions toward the boundary, i.e., D¢ (0  r  R) > 0 . Consequently
whereas at the center, gtt (x = 0) = -e a1, and grr(x = 0) = 1, the anisotropic force Fa = 2Δ/r vanishes at the center. Taking
and they are finite everywhere inside the star 0 „ x „ 1. the limit x → 0 in Equation (18), we obtain Δ → 0.
Condition (iii). The metric potentials of the interior solution Obviously condition (vii) is satisfied for the pulsar PSR
and the exterior should match smoothly at the boundary. J0740+6620 as obtained by Figure 4(f).
Obviously conditions (ii) and (iii) are satisfied for the pulsar Also, one finds that the anaistropy parameter Δ(r > 0) > 0
PSR J0740+6620 as obtained by Figure 2. (i.e., pt > pr), which is necessarily for the induced anaisotropic
Condition (iv). We define the gravitational redshift of the force to be repulsive, and therefore allows for larger NS size in
metric (Equation (10)) comparison with the isotropic perfect fluid case. However, for
ò > 0, the anisotropy in RT is slightly less than GR due to
1 1
Z= -1= - 1. (33) larger coupling constant κ of Rastall relative to the Einstein one
- gtt e a 0 x + a1
2
κE as obtained by Equation (13).

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Figure 1. The plot of the mass function (Equation (20)) of the pulsar PSR J0740 Figure 3. The redshift function (Equation (33)) of the pulsar PSR J0740+6620.
+6620. The shaded area represents the feasible region as imposed by NICER The plot confirms that condition (iv) is satisfied.
+1.89
+XMM observational data (M = 2.07 ± 0.11Me, and R = 12.34- 1.67 km;
Legred et al. 2021). For Rastall case, we use {ò = 0.041, κ = 2.302 × 10−43 N−1,
C = 0.491, a0 = 0.438, a = −1.114, a2 = 0.676}. For GR case (ò = 0), the
1

corresponding values are {κ = κE = 2.077 × 10−43 N−1, a0 = 0.491, a1 =

−1.176, a2 = 0.684}. arbitrary time-like vector, and ℓ α is an arbitrary future directed
null vector. This imposes four conditions on the energy-
momentum tensor Tab , and those are the energy conditions.
These could be extended to modified gravity. In the particular
case of Rastall’s gravity, the energy conditions could be written
~a
in terms of the effective energy-momentum tensor T b =
~ ~
( 1
diag (-r˜ c 2 , p˜r , p˜t , p˜t ), since R ab = k Tab - 2 gab T .)
Condition (viii). A physical model should satisfy the mod-
ified energy conditions as stated below:
1. for weak energy condition (WEC), r˜  0 , r˜ c 2 + p˜r > 0,
r˜ c 2 + p˜t > 0 ;
2. for null energy condition (NEC),
r˜ c 2 + p˜r  0 , r˜ c 2 + p˜t  0 ;
3. for strong energy condition (SEC), r˜ c 2 + p˜r + 2p˜t  0 ,
r˜ c 2 + p˜r  0, r˜ c 2 + p˜t  0 ;
4. for dominant energy conditions (DEC), r˜  0 ,
r˜ c 2 - p˜r  0 , and r˜ c 2 - p˜t  0 .
We rewrite the field equations (Equation (12)) in the following
form:

r˜ c2 = rc2 + (rc2 - pr - 2pt ) ,
1 - 4

p˜r = pr - (rc2 - pr - 2pt ) ,
Figure 2. The KB potentials of the pulsar PSR J0740+6620 are finite every- 1 - 4
where inside the star and match smoothly the Schwarzschild exterior vacuum 
solution. The plot confirms that conditions (ii) and (iii) are satisfied.
p˜t = pt - (rc2 - pr - 2pt ). (34)
1 - 4
For ò = 0, the GR is restored. It is straightforward to prove that,
4.5. Energy Conditions
once the NEC is fulfilled in GR, it is also fulfilled in RT
In the context of GR, the focusing theorem implies the whereas r˜ c 2 + p˜r = rc 2 + pr , and r˜ c 2 + p˜t = rc 2 + pt . By
positivity of the tidal tensor trace R ab uaub  0 and virtue of conditions (v) and (vi), explicitly the density and the
R ab ℓ aℓ b  0 in Raychaudhuri equation, where u α is an pressures are positive within the star; the NEC is satisfied.

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Figure 4. The patterns of the density, radial, and tangential pressures, Equations (17), of the pulsar PSR J0740+6620 are given by panels (a)–(c). The radial gradients
of these quantities are given by panels (d) and (e) for GR and RT cases. (f) The plots of the anisotropy parameter Δ, Equation (18). The plots confirm that conditions
(v)–(vii) are satisfied.

Additionally, we show that According to the above results, one can see that the energy
2
conditions for the effective fluid are strongly related to the
r˜ c 2 - p˜r = (rc 2 - pr ) +
1 - 4
(rc 2 - pr - 2pt ), matter fluid in RT, but not identical in all cases as expected (see
2 Moradpour et al. 2017b; Li et al. 2019). However, the DEC in
r˜ c 2 - p˜t = (rc 2 - pt ) + (rc 2 - pr - 2pt ), the matter sector ρc2 − pr − 2pt 0 is the core condition that
1 - 4
r˜ c 2 + p˜r + 2p˜t = (rc 2 + pr + 2pt ) allows for other conditions to be satisfied in general whereas
2 the matter density and pressures are positive and 0 < ò < 1/4.
- (rc 2 - pr - 2pt ). (35) Similar constraints on Rastall parameter motivated by ther-
1 - 4
 modynamics aspects (positivity of the horizon entropy) have
Given that the fraction 1 - 4 > 0 for 0 < ò < 1/4 (in our case been obtained by Moradpour & Salako (2016). Furthermore, in
ò = 0.041) in addition to ρ 0, pr 0 and pt 0, it remains to cosmological applications, it has been shown that the second
show that ρc2 − pr 0, ρc2 − pt 0, and ρc2 − pr − 2pt 0 to law of thermodynamics is fulfilled in RT, if the WEC is verified
grant the verification of the energy conditions (a)–(d). for the matter sector (Moradpour 2016).
Obviously the energy condition (viii) is satisfied for the
pulsar PSR J0740+6620 as obtained by Figures 5(a)–(c). 4.6. Causality and Stability Conditions
Finally we note that the dominance of energy density over
the total pressure is guaranteed in RT as long as it is fulfilled in We define the square of the sound speed in radial and tan-
1
GR, since r˜ c 2 - p˜r - 2p˜t = 1 - 4 (rc 2 - pr - 2pt ) whereas gential directions,
0 „ ò < 1/4. This latter constraint has been referred to as a
dpr p˜ ¢ dpt p˜ ¢
strong energy condition by some authors (see Kolassis et al. vr2 = = r, vt2 = = t, (36)
1988; Ivanov 2017; Das et al. 2019; Roupas & Nashed 2020). dr r¯ ¢ dr r¯ ¢
However, we will call it a dominant energy condition keeping
in mind that the imposed constraints by this condition for where the density and pressures of radial gradients are given by
matter or effective fluids are identical. Equations (28)–(30).

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Figure 5. The patterns of the energy conditions according to the solution (Equation (12)) of the pulsar PSR J0740+6620. The plots confirm that energy conditions
(viii) all are satisfied.

Condition (ix). The stellar structure should be causal, i.e., (Heintzmann & Hillebrandt 1975). Second, we investigate the
satisfies the causality condition: sound speeds should be posi- validity of TOV equation (Oppenheimer & Volkoff 1939;
tive and smaller than unity everywhere inside the star (0 „ vr/ Tolman 1939; Ponce de Leon 1993) by assuming the sphere is
c „ 1, 0 „ vt/c „ 1), and monotonically decrease toward the in a hydrostatic equilibrium everywhere inside the star where
boundary (v¢r2 < 0, v¢t2 < 0 ). the acting forces neutralize each other. The modified version of
Condition (x). The stellar structure should be stable, i.e., TOV equation according to the newly introduced Rastall force
satisfies the stability condition -1 < (vt2 - vr2 ) c 2 < 0
FR can be written as
everywhere inside the star (Herrera 1992).
Obviously the causality and stability conditions (ix) and (x) Fa + Fg + Fh + FR = 0, (38)
are satisfied for the pulsar PSR J0740+6620 as obtained by
Figures 6(a)–(c). where Fg and Fh denote the gravitational and the hydrostatic
Although the sound speed fulfills the causality and stability forces. Here we have
conditions for the pulsar PSR J0740+6620, the GR prediction Mg
of the sound speed within the region r  10.14 km from the Fa = 2D r , Fg = - (rc2 + pr ) ed 2 ,
center exceeds the conjectured conformal upper bound on the r

sound speed vr2 = cs2  c 2 3. This violation is strongly sug- Fh = - p¢r , FR = - (c 2 r ¢ - p ¢ r - 2 p ¢ t ) , (39)
gested for NS with radii less than ∼11.8 km (Bedaque & 1 - 4
Steiner 2015). Also, the violation of the conformal upper limit where δ ≡ δ(r) = α − β, and the mass (energy) Mg for an iso-
of the sound speed has been obtained in other models when lated time-independent systems within 3-space V (t = constant)
hadronic EoS is assumed (Cherman & Cohen 2009; Landry is given by Tolman mass formula (Tolman 1930, 1934)
et al. 2020) or when a nonparametric EoS approach based on
òV (-T tt + T rr + T qq + Tf)
Gaussian processes is applied to the pulsar PSR J0740+6620 f
Mg (r ) = - g dV
using the X-ray NICER+XMM observations (Legred et al.
2021). On the contrary, as seen in Figure 6(a), the conformal (e a 2 ) ¢ b 2 a¢ - d 2
bound on the sound speed for the pulsar PSR J0740+6620 is = a
e r= re . (40)
e 2
not violated in RT from the core to the surface.
a r
This reads the gravitational force Fg = - R02 (rc 2 + pr ). Now
4.7. Adiabatic Indices and Hydrodynamic Equilibrium we state explicitly the stability conditions related to the relati-
We apply two further tests to examine the stability of the vistic adiabatic indices and the modified TOV equation.
obtained model within Rastall gravity. First, we investigate the Condition (xi). The anisotropic stellar model is in a stable
relativistic adiabatic indices of a spherically symmetric, which equilibrium whereas the adiabatic indices satisfy the conditions
define the ratio of two specific heats (Chandrasekhar 1964; Γr > γ and Γt > γ everywhere inside the star. Recalling the
Merafina & Ruffini 1989; Chan et al. 1993). density and pressures (Equation (17) and the radial gradients
(Equations (28)–(30)), we plot the adiabatic indices
4⎛ Fa ⎞ rc 2 + pr 2 rc 2 + pt 2 (Equation (37)) of the pulsar PSR J0740+6620 for GR and RT
g= ⎜1+ ⎟ , Gr = vr , Gt = vt . cases in Figure 7. Note that γ = 4/3 for the isotropic sphere.
3⎝ 2∣ p¢r ∣ ⎠max pr pt
Obviously the adiabatic indices stability conditions (xi) are
(37) satisfied for the pulsar PSR J0740+6620 as obtained by
Figure 7.
For anisotropic fluid, the sphere is in a neutral (stable) Condition (xii). The anisotropic stellar model is in a hydro-
equilibrium where the adiabatic indices Γ = γ (Γ > γ) (see dynamic equilibrium whereas the forces satisfy the modified
Chan et al. 1993). Clearly the adiabatic indices reduce to TOV (Equation (38)). We use Equations (17) and (28)–(30) to
the isotropic sphere case where γ = 4/3, and Γr = Γt evaluate the forces (Equation (39)), which are plotted in

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Figure 6. The radial and tangential sound speeds (Equation (36)) of the pulsar PSR J0740+6620. The plots confirm that the causality and stability conditions (ix) and
(x) are satisfied.

Figure 8 for GR and RT cases. The plots show that the negative Although we do not preassume a particular EoS, we find that
gravitational force compensates (the positive forces) for a the pressure–density relation according to the currant model is in
hydrodynamics equilibrium as required for a stable configura- a good agreement with the linear EoS with the bag constant
tion. The role of Rastall force to resize compact objects will be whereas pr(ρ) = 0.311ρc2 − 9.085, and pt(ρ) = 0.198ρc2 − 3.412
discussed later in Section 6. as seen in Figure 9. Notably the slopes of the fitted lines dpr/
Obviously the hydrodynamic equilibrium condition (xii) is dρ = 0.311c2 and dpt/dρ = 0.198c2 are in agreement with the
satisfied for the pulsar PSR J0740+6620 as obtained by obtained squared sound speeds in radial and tangential directions,
Figure 8. which also confirm the fulfillment of the conjectured conformal
bound on the sound speed cs2  c 2 3 everywhere inside the star.
4.8. Neutron Core, Sound Speed, and Equation of State We also note that the present anisotropic NS model obtains an
EoS, which is not too stiff as usually found for NS models, but in
Using the X-ray NICER+XMM observational data of the agreement with the EoS as expected from gravitational-wave
pulsar PSR J0740+6620, we obtained a reasonable value of signals where no clear evidence on a tidal deformation in the
Rastall parameter ò = 0.041, which characterizes the coupling observed GW patterns.
between matter and geometry in curved spacetime. Accordingly,
we calculate the surface density, which has been found as
ρR ≈ 3.2 × 1014 g cm−3, while at the center the density increases 5. Confronting the Model with More Pulsar Data
up to rcore » 5.6 ´ 1014 g cm−3, which is only ∼2.1 times the In the previous section, we confronted the model with the
nuclear saturation density ρnuc = 2.7 × 1014 g cm−3. We note X-ray NICER+XMM observational data of the pulsar PSR
that the core density in RT with ò > 0 is less than the corresp- J0740+6620 constraining the Rastall parameter to a value of
onding value in GR (ò = 0), because within a given radius, the ò = 0.041. We extend our investigation to include more pulsars
estimated mass by Rastall gravity is less than Einstein’s gravity with different types of observations to examine the applic-
as seen in Figure 1. The central density value suggests that the ability of the model to a wide range of compact stars.
PSR J0740+6620 core is made of neutrons. In Table 1, we list the pulsars according to different types
It is to be noted that the NS with ∼ 2Me with hadronic EoS observations with their corresponding constraints on masses
strongly violates the conjectured conformal bound on the sound and radii. We include the following: (i) four high-mass X-ray
speed cs2  c 2 3 even at low densities; see Bedaque & Steiner binaries; (ii) nine low-mass X-ray binaries, where the mass–
(2015). This may point out a strongly interacting and non- radius constraints are given by using spectral analysis techni-
conformal matter at the NS core; see Cherman & Cohen ques for two quiescent low X-ray binaries (M13 and X7), while
(2009), Landry et al. (2020). A nonparametric EoS approach others are characterized by type I X-ray bursts of thermonuclear
based on Gaussian processes has been applied to investigate the explosions on the NS surface; (iii) four MSPs including two of
implications of the X-ray NICER+XMM observations of the the most massive pulsars from PSR J0348+0432 and PSR
pulsar PSR J0740+6620 in particular on high-density matter; J1614-2230 where the mass–radius constraints are obtained by
see Legred et al. (2021); it has been concluded that the con- measuring the arrival time of pulses; we further include the
formal sound speed is strongly violated at the core whereas recent NICER observational constraints on the two pulsars PSR
cs2 = 0.75c 2 . Interestingly, for the model at hand without J0437-4715 and PSR J0030+0451; (iv) three gravitational-
imposing EoS, we find that the maximum squared sound wave signals including the first-detected NS–NS merger
speeds at the NS core vr2  0.332c 2 (radial direction), and GW170817 in addition to LIGO-Virgo constraints on NS
vt2  0.222c 2 (tangential direction), which satisfy the con- radius from GW170817+GW190814. Notably the companion
jectured conformal bound on the sound speed cs2  c 2 3 at the of the GW190814 binary is the first-detected compact object in
core and also everywhere inside the star; see Figure 6. This is the low-mass gap M = 2.6Me. In addition, we estimate the
unlike the GR case whereas cs2 » 0.37c 2 . values of the pulsars’ masses (corresponding to the observed–

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Figure 7. The adiabatic indices (Equation (37)) of the pulsar PSR J0740 Figure 8. The forces (Equation (39)) of the modified TOV (Equation (38)) of
+6620. The plots confirm that the stability conditions (xi) are satisfied within the pulsar PSR J0740+6620. Dotted (dashed–dotted) curves represent GR (RT)
the pulsar. Dotted (dashed–dotted) curves represent GR (RT) adiabatic indices. forces. The plots confirm that the hydrodynamic stability condition (xii) is
satisfied within the pulsar.

estimated mean value of R) with the corresponding values of 6. Maximum Compactness and Mass–Radius Relation
the model parameters a0, a1, and a2. As seen from the table, the As is shown in the above sections, the physical quantities of
estimated masses are compatible with the corresponding KB interior solution (0 „ x „ 1) are expressed in terms of
observed values. Rastall and compactness parameters. On the other hand,
As mentioned in the Introduction, NICER observations of observational constraints on masses and radii allow us to esti-
PSR J0030+0451 and PSR J0740+6620 represent a challenge mate the Rastall parameter to be at most ò = 0.041. In this
for squeezable models, because the latter has much more mass section, we follow Roupas & Nashed (2020) utilizing the
than the former while both are almost the same size. We note energy dominance condition,1 namely ρc2 − pr − 2pt 0 with
that the present model estimates (M = 1.266Me, R = 12.71 km) ò = 0.041, to set an upper bound on the compactness value for
and (M = 1.313Me, R = 13.02 km) for the pulsar PSR J0030 the model at hand showing the role of Rastall parameter to
+0451 in agreement with its NICER observational constraints support higher compactness values in comparison to GR pre-
as reported by Raaijmakers et al. (2019) and Miller et al. (2019) dictions. In addition, we plot the mass–radius relation for some
respectively. At the same time, it estimates (M = 1.96Me, boundary conditions on the surface density compatible with
R = 13.04 km) for the pulsar PSR J0740+6620 in agreement nuclear density showing the maximum mass and radius for
with NICER+XMM measurements (Legred et al. 2021). This each case in comparison to GR predictions.
is in agreement with our claim that, when a pulsar gains more
mass and subsequently higher density, the induced anisotropic 6.1. Maximum Compactness
force becomes relevant to hold the NS size. Recalling the dimensionless energy density and pressures
We further examine the stability of the model according to (Equation (17)) where the model parameters {a0, a1, a2} are
the criteria given in the previous section. We list the physical given by Equation (25), we use the energy density dominance
quantities of the most interest in Table 2. The results show the constraint to set an upper bound on the compactness, which has
capability of the model to predict the stable compact stellar been found to be C|ò=0.041 „ 0.735 satisfying Buchdahl com-
structure compatible with observations. Interestingly, for all pactness bound C „ 8/9 (for isotropic sphere, see Buchdahl
categories, the sound speeds as obtained by this model are in 1959). In Figure 10, we plot the energy density dominance
agreement with the conformal bound cs2  c 2 3. It is to be patterns for GR (ò = 0) and RT (ò = 0.041) using different
noted that for the low-mass X-ray binaries 4U 1608-52 and KS compactness values. The GR prediction of the maximum
1731-260, in particular, the general relativistic version of this compactness is C = 0.715 in agreement with Roupas & Nashed
(2020); however the contribution of the matter–geometry
study predicted cs2 = 0.34 at the center above the conformal
nonminimal coupling as assumed in RT allows ∼2% maximum
bound as obtained by Roupas & Nashed (2020). Similar to our
compactness higher in comparison to GR limits.
previous discussion on the sound speed of the pulsar PSR This result is in agreement with our earlier conclusion that RT
J0740+6620, the results of Table 2 confirm that the sound with ò > 0 predicts larger pulsar size relative to GR for a given
speed violation is avoided in the present study. This shows that
the possible role of the geometry-matter coupling is to hold this 1
We note that any imposed constraints from the DEC for matter or effective
upper bound everywhere inside the compact object. fluids are identical as discussed in Section 4.5.

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Figure 9. The pressures–density relation of the pulsar PSR J0740+6620 is in a good agreement with the linear EoS with bag constant whereas the slopes dpr/
dρ = 0.312c2 and dpt/dρ = 0.199c2 evidently confirm that the NS matters fulfill the conjectured conformal bound on the sound speed cs2  c 2 3 everywhere inside
the star.

Table 1
Observed Mass–Radius of Twenty Pulsars and the Corresponding Model Parameters (ò = 0.06)

Pulsar Reference Observed Mass Observed Radius Estimated Mass a0 a1 a2

(Me) (km) (Me)
High-mass X-ray binaries

Her X-1 Abubekerov et al. (2008) 0.85 ± 0.15 8.1 ± 0.41 0.767 0.199 −0.570 0.371
4U 1538-52 Gangopadhyay et al. (2013) 0.87 ± 0.07 7.866 ± 0.21 0.804 0.223 −0.631 0.407
LMC X-4 Rawls et al. (2011) 1.04 ± 0.09 8.301 ± 0.2 0.954 0.269 −0.742 0.472
Cen X-3 Naik et al. (2011) 1.49 ± 0.49 9.178 ± 0.13 1.344 0.417 −1.070 0.653

Low-mass X-ray binaries (quiescence–thermonuclear bursts)

EXO 1785-248 Özel et al. (2009) 1.3 ± 0.2 8.849 ± 0.4 1.172 0.344 −0.914 0.569
M13 Webb & Barret (2007) 1.38 ± 0.2 9.95 ± 0.27 1.245 0.311 −0.838 0.527
X7 Bogdanov et al. (2016) 1.1 ± 0.35 12 1.073 0.183 −0.530 0.347
4U 1820-30 Ozel et al. (2016) 1.46 ± 0.2 11.1 ± 1.8 1.317 0.284 −0.775 0.492
4U 1608-52 Marshall & Angelini (1996) 1.57 ± 0.3 9.8 ± 1.8 1.470 0.438 −1.114 0.676
KS 1731-260 Özel et al. (2009) 1.61 ± 0.37 10 ± 2.2 1.452 0.410 −1.055 0.646
EXO 1745-268 Özel et al. (2009) 1.65 ± 0.25 10.5 ± 1.8 1.488 0.391 −1.015 0.624
4U 1724-207 Özel et al. (2009) 1.81 ± 0.27 12.2 ± 1.4 1.632 0.351 −0.928 0.577
SAX J1748.9-2021 Özel et al. (2009) 1.81 ± 0.3 11.7 ± 1.7 1.632 0.379 −0.990 0.611

Millisecond pulsars

PSR J0030+0451 Raaijmakers et al. (2019) 1.34 ± 0.16 12.71 ± 1.19 1.266 0.215 −0.610 0.395
PSR J0030+0451 Miller et al. (2019) 1.44 ± 0.16 13.02 ± 1.24 1.313 0.219 −0.620 0.401
PSR J0037-4715 Reardon et al. (2016) 1.44 ± 0.07 13.6 ± 0.9 1.387 0.223 −0.629 0.407
PSR J1614-2230 Arzoumanian et al. (2018b) 1.908 ± 0.016 13 ± 2 1.894 0.413 −1.06 0.649
PSR J0348+0432 Antoniadis et al. (2013) 2.01 ± 0.04 13 ± 2 1.975 0.387 −1.008 0.620

Gravitational-wave signals

LIGO-Virgo Abbott et al. (2020b) 1.4 12.9 ± 0.8 1.400 0.246 −0.685 0.440
GW170817-1 Abbott et al. (2018) 1.45 ± 0.09 11.9 ± 1.4 1.263 0.209 −0.596 0.387
GW170817-2 Abbott et al. (2018) 1.27 ± 0.09 11.9 ± 1.4 1.210 0.222 −0.627 0.405

mass; see Figure 1. Recalling TOV equation of the hydrodynamic that Buchdahl upper bound on the compactness can be
equilibrium (38), we find that the Rastall force contributes to violated in anisotropic stable compact stars (Dev & Gleiser
oppose partially the gravitational force (see Figure 8) to com- 2004; Böhmer & Harko 2006); also it sets a stronger
pensate for a larger size of a compact object of a given mass. restriction on the maximally allowed compactness than
We further note that the obtained result of the upper the corresponding limits due to surface redshift constraints
bound on the compactness is in contrast to the suggestions (Ivanov 2002).

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Table 2
Calculated Physical Quantities of the Most Interest

Pulsar ρ (g cm−3) vr2 c 2 vt2 c 2 DEC (dyne cm−2) ZR

Center Surface Center Surface Center Surface Center Surface
High-mass X-ray binaries

Her X-1 7.89 × 10 14

5.80 × 10 14
0.255 0.228 0.153 0.118 5.72 × 1035 4.80 × 1035 0.204
4U 1538-52 9.19 × 1014 6.55 × 1014 0.264 0.233 0.161 0.122 6.49 × 1035 5.38 × 1035 0.226
LMC X-4 9.59 × 1014 6.49 × 1014 0.279 0.242 0.175 0.131 6.42 × 1035 5.23 × 1035 0.266
Cen X-3 1.10 × 1015 6.39 × 1014 0.326 0.271 0.217 0.158 6.12 × 1035 4.83 × 1035 0.386

Low-mass X-ray binaries (quiescence–thermonuclear bursts)

EXO 1785–248 1.02 × 10 15

6.38 × 1014 0.303 0.257 0.197 0.145 6.25 × 1035 4.98 × 1035 0.329
M13 7.46 × 1014 4.83 × 1014 0.292 0.251 0.188 0.139 4.76 × 1035 3.82 × 1035 0.302
X7 3.36 × 1014 2.51 × 1014 0.250 0.224 0.147 0.114 2.48 × 1035 2.10 × 1035 0.189
4U 1820-30 5.59 × 1014 3.72 × 1014 0.284 0.245 0.180 0.134 3.68 × 1035 2.98 × 1035 0.279
4U 1608-52 9.91 × 1014 5.70 × 1014 0.332 0.275 0.222 0.162 5.41 × 1035 4.27 × 1035 0.402
KS 1731-260 9.08 × 1014 5.35 × 1014 0.324 0.270 0.215 0.157 5.13 × 1035 4.06 × 1035 0.381
EXO 1745-268 7.95 × 1014 4.77 × 1014 0.318 0.266 0.210 0.154 4.61 × 1035 3.65 × 1035 0.366
4U 1724-207 5.44 × 1014 3.38 × 1014 0.305 0.286 0.199 0.146 3.31 × 1035 2.63 × 1035 0.334
SAX J1748.9-2021 6.27 × 1014 3.80 × 1014 0.314 0.264 0.207 0.151 3.68 × 1035 2.92 × 1035 0.357

Millisecond pulsars

PSR J0030+0451 3.41 × 10 14

2.46 × 10 14
0.260 0.231 0.158 0.121 2.43 × 1035 2.03 × 1035 0.218
PSR J0030+0451 3.30 × 1014 2.37 × 1014 0.262 0.231 0.159 0.121 2.34 × 1035 1.95 × 1035 0.222
PSR J0037-4715 3.07 × 1014 2.19 × 1014 0.263 0.233 0.160 0.122 2.17 × 1035 1.80 × 1035 0.225
PSR J1614-2230 5.39 × 1014 3.17 × 1014 0.325 0.270 0.216 0.158 3.04 × 1035 2.40 × 1035 0.383
PSR J0348+0432 4.45 × 1014 2.67 × 1014 0.317 0.266 0.209 0.153 2.59 × 1035 2.05 × 1035 0.364

Gravitational-wave signals

LIGO-Virgo 3.69 × 10 14
2.56 × 10 14
0.271 0.238 0.168 0.126 2.54 × 1035 2.09 × 1035 0.246
GW170817-1 3.24 × 1014 2.35 × 1014 0.259 0.230 0.156 0.120 2.32 × 1035 1.94 × 1035 0.213
GW170817-2 3.99 × 1014 2.85 × 1014 0.263 0.233 0.160 0.122 2.82 × 1034 2.34 × 1034 0.225

Note. For the pulsars 4U 1608-52 and KS 1731–260, the sound speed at the core is in agreement with the conjectured conformal bound on the sound speed cs2  c 2 3,
unlike the GR version (Roupas & Nashed 2020). This confirms the role of the matter–geometry coupling to avoid the violation of the upper conformal bound of the
sound speed.

6.2. Mass–Radius Diagram

From Table 2, one obtains surface densities
2 × 1014  ρR  7 × 1014 g cm−3; and therefore we choose
three surface densities to serve as boundary conditions as fol-
lows: ρR = ρnuc = 2.7 × 1014 g cm−3 at nuclear saturation
density, ρR = 4 × 1014 g cm−3, and ρR = 6 × 1014 g cm−3 to
cover the nuclear solidification density. Then, for Rastall
parameter ò = 0.041, we use the energy density Equation (17)
to obtain a relation between C and R for each boundary con-
dition on the surface density, i.e., ρ(r = R) = ρR. In
Figure 11(a), we plot the compactness–radius curves in corre-
spondence to the chosen boundary density. The plots confirm
that the maximum compactness is C = 0.93, just above Buch-
dahl limit C = 8/9 (represented by a horizontal dotted line) for
the isotropic star. Remarkably the maximal compactness
approaches a saturation-like pattern, which reflects the cap-
ability of the NSs to gain more sizes with small increases of
masses at this limit. However, as we obtained earlier in this
section, the energy dominance constraint sets an upper bound
on the compactness C = 0.735 (represented by a horizontal
dashed line) for stable anisotropic configuration in KB space-
Figure 10. A comparison between GR (ò = 0) and RT (ò = 0.041) violation of
the DEC r¯ - p¯r - 2p¯t > 0 at higher compactness. We conclude that RT can time, which consequently determines the maximal allowed
support stable stellar configurations with higher compactness in comparison radius for each boundary density as represented by the vertical
to GR. dotted lines in Figure 11(a).

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The Astrophysical Journal, 940:51 (14pp), 2022 November 20 El Hanafy

Figure 11. (a) The compactness–radius curves, at different surface densities, show that the maximum compactness is C = 0.93 just above Buchdahl limit C = 8/9
(dotted horizontal line) for isotropic sphere. However, the strong energy condition sets a more strict constraint on the upper bound C = 0.735 (dashed horizontal line)
for an anisotropic compact object to be physically viable. (b) The mass–radius curves show that the DEC (diagonal dashed line) obtains an upper mass of M ≈ 4Me in
the lower-mass gap with radius R ≈ 16 km whereas the surface density chosen to be at the saturation nuclear density ρnuc = 2.7 × 1014 g cm−3. Solid gray circles
represent high-mass X-ray binaries, solid blue circles represent low-mass X-ray binaries, solid green circles represent MSP, and solid red circles represent GW signals
as given from Table 1. (c) Close view on some particular pulsars with most interest. LIGO-Virgo constraints on the radius of a canonical NS, NICER constraints on the
pulsar PSR J0030+0451, and NICER+XMM on the pulsar PSR J0740+6620 all are in agreement with the ρnuc curve.

Next we give the mass–radius curves for each case in addition spacetime; otherwise it reduces to GR. Such effect should be
to the corresponding observational data from Table 1 as obtained well examined by stellar structure of compact objects whereas
by Figure 11(b). For the boundary density at the nuclear satur- the spacetime is highly curvatured. The precise measurements
ation density ρnuc = 2.7 × 1014 g cm−3, applying the DEC con- of mass and radius of the PSR J0740+ by NICER would help
straint (represented by a diagonal dashed line), we calculate the to set a strict estimation of Rastall parameter.
maximum allowed mass Mmax = 4M at a maximum radius of For a spherically symmetric spacetime with anaisotropic
Rmax = 16 km. Notably for the same boundary condition in KB matter source, we showed that the anisotropy in RT is the same
spacetime, the GR predicts a maximum mass Mmax = 4.1M at as in GR, which helps to clearly identify deviations from GR in
maximum radius Rmax = 16.8 km (Roupas & Nashed 2020). In terms of matter–geometry coupling. We applied KB ansatz
comparison to GR predictions, RT with positive parameter where all physical quantities are represented in terms of Rastall
ò = 0.041 predicts almost the same mass within ∼0.8 km smaller parameter ò and the compactness parameter C. The precise
size than GR. Similarly, for the surface densities ρR = 4 × mass–radius observational constraints from X-ray NICER
1014 g cm−3 and ρR = 6 × 1014 g cm−3, which are compatible +XMM observations of PSR J0740+6620 allowed us to esti-
with the nuclear solidification density, we obtain the maximum mate the Rastall parameter to be ò = 0.041 in the positive
masses and radii, (Mmax = 3.28M, Rmax = 13.18 km) and range. This case implies larger size for a given mass in com-
(Mmax = 2.68M, Rmax = 10.77 km), respectively. Maximal parison to GR, which in return allows for higher compactness
radii (masses) allowed by the DEC (diagonal dashed line) are values to be obtained within RT framework. We showed that
represented by vertical (horizontal) dotted lines for each the additional Rastall force contributes in the hydrodynamic
boundary density on the mass–radius graph in Figure 11(b). equilibrium to partially compensate gravitational force allow-
Clearly, all pulsars lie in the physical region as allowed by the ing for larger-size compact stars in comparison to GR for a
DEC. Remarkably, the present model can produce an NS within given mass. We further showed that the upper bound on the
the mass gap 2.5–5Me, which does not exclude that the com- compactness parameter is C = 0.93 just above Buchdahl limit
panion of the binary GW190814 with mass M = 2.6Me is an NS C = 8/9 for isotropic case but never approaches Schwarzschild
with a surface density compatible with nuclear saturation density radius bound. However we utilized the dominant energy con-
with a linear EoS. In this case, the model estimates its radius to dition to constrain the maximum allowed compactness, which
be R = 10.45 km.
has been found to be Cmax = 0.735, that is 2% higher than GR
In Figure 11(c), we focus our discussion on some particular
prediction.
pulsars with most interest. We find that the pulsars PSR J0740
Interestingly, we did not assume a particular EoS for the
+6620 (NICER+XMM) and PSR J0030+0451 (NICER) fit
model however in a perfect agreement with linear EoS with a
well with ρnuc-curve. Also we find that LIGO-Virgo constraints
bag constant. More interestingly, we determined the maximum
on the radius of canonical NS to be compatible with a surface
density at ρnuc. squared sound speeds at the NS core, vr2 = 0.332c 2 (radial
direction), and vt2 = 0.222c 2 (tangential direction), which
satisfy the conjectured conformal bound on the sound speed
7. Conclusion cs2  c 2 3 at the core and also everywhere inside the NS unlike
We investigated the impact of nonminimal coupling between the GR case. This is unlike the hadronic EoS models or
matter and geometry, as assumed by Rastall (1972), on the Gaussian process nonparametric EoS (using NICER+XMM
mass–radius relation of compact objects. The theory assumes a observations of the pulsar PSR J0740+6620), an approach
local violation of energy conservation in presence of curved where the speed of sound is strongly violated; cs2 = 0.75c 2 .

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The Astrophysical Journal, 940:51 (14pp), 2022 November 20 El Hanafy

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