ACOUSTICS

Acoustics, as applied to the buildings is the science of sound which assures the optimum conditions for
producing and listening to speech, music actual or reproduced as recorded Music or cinema.
Necessity
Good acoustical conditions promote comfortable living, efficiency of work auditory of public buildings,
etc. Therefore, the modern practices of building design and construction should give due importance to the
improvement of acoustical conditions and sound insulation, so as to exclude and deaden the noise and
consequent disturbances.
Characteristics Of Audible Sound
Sound consists of a series of alternate compressions and rarefactions that are set up by a vibrating body.
This sound, in the form of waves consisting of series of alternate compressions and rarefactions is
travels in all directions through any medium whether solid, liquid or gaseous. The characteristics of
Audible sound are as follows:
1. Frequency or Pitch. It is defined as the number of cycles or vibrations per second. The greater
the number of cycles, the higher will be the pitch. The highest audible sound, has a frequency of
20,000 c.p.s, while the lowest audible sound has a frequency of sound below 20 c.p.s. If
the frequency of sound is below 20c.p.s, then effect of sound is lost. The frequency or pitch is a measure
of the quality of sound and it does not, affects the velocity of sound
2. Intensity or Loudness of Sound. It is defined as flow of energy per second through unit area, the
unit area being perpendicular to the specified direction. So the intensity is the strength of the sensation
received by the human ear. It is proportional to the sound energy in the sound waves. Loudness is a measure
of the quantity of sound energy which is measured in decibels.
3. Tone or tonal structure- The characteristic or quality of sound by which various sounds can
be distinguished from one another. Two sounds with the same frequency and intensity, can be
distinguished by virtue of their different tones.
Behaviour Of Sound And Its effects (Or Principles Of Acoustics)
When a sound originates from any source it is transmitted from the source in all directions.
When it strikes on some surface from where, a part of it is reflected back, a part being absorbed
by the surface where it may die out in the material or be transmitted to another side of the
barrier.
Reflection coefficient' -The reflected sound, which remains in the room, is represented by
Reflection coefficient’. It is most important in acoustical design of the buildings.
'Absorption Coefficient'-Part of sound which is absorbed by the surface and transmitted
through the surfaces are considered together as being absorbed and are represented by the
'Absorption Coefficient'. This absorption coefficient of surface is the ratio of energy absorbed by
the area to the energy striking the area.
Transmission loss - the reduction in intensity of sound (measured in bels) when passing through
a barrier is called as transmission loss. This transmission loss is an index or measure of the
effectiveness of a barrier. This transmission loss varies directly with the frequency of sound.
Acoustical Defects- Perfect acoustic conditions in a room or in an auditorium are obtained when
an average sound rises to a suitable intensity in every part of the auditorium with no echoes or
Page 1 of 9
distortion of the original sound and then dies out quickly enough so as not to interfere with
succeeding sounds.
1. Formation of echoes,
2. Reverberation,
3. Sound foci and dead spots,
4. Insufficient loudness
5. Exterior noise nuisance or outdoor noise
1. Echo- Echo is said to be produced when a reflected sound wave reaches the ear just when the
original sound from the same source has already been reached. The sensation of sound persists
for one-tenth of a second after the source has ceased. Thus an echo forms when the time lag
between the two sounds is about 1/17th of the second. The defect of echoes also occurs when the
shape of the reflected surface is curved with a smooth character
2. Reverberation
When the surfaces of an indoor place are hard and smooth, very small energy is lost at each
impact of sound and many reflections take place before the sound dies down. This repeated
reflection of sound is called prolongation or reverberation. Then if sound exists too long, then
successive words of a speech will overlap and confuse.
The remedy for this defect is to select a correct time of reverberation known as an optimum time
of reverberation. This is achieved by suitably selecting proper absorbent or acoustical materials
for different reflecting surfaces.
3.Sound Foci :
Reflecting concave surfaces cause concentration of reflected sound waves at certain spot,
creating a sound of large intensity. These spots are called sound foci. This defect can be
removed by (a) geometrical designed shapes of the interior faces, including ceilings
(b) providing highly absorbent materials on focusing areas.
4.Dead Spots :
This defect is an outcome of the formation of sound foci. Because of high concentration of
reflected sound at sound foci, there is deficiency of reflected sound at some other points.
These points are known as dead spots, where sound intensity is so low that it is insufficient for
hearing. This defect can be removed by a) installation of suitable diffuser so that there is even
distribution of sound in the hall
5.Insufficient Loudness : This defect is caused due to a lack of sound reflecting flat surface near
the sound source b) excessive sound absorption treatment in the hall. The defect can be removed
by a) providing hard reflecting surface near the source, b) by adjusting the absorption of the hall
so as to get optimum time of reverberation. c) When the length of the hall is more, it may be
desirable to install loud speakers at proper places
6. External Noise: External noise from vehicles, traffic engines, factories, cooling plants etc.
may enter the hall either through the openings (such as doors, windows, ventilators etc.) or
through walls and other structural elements having improper sound insulation.
This defect can be removed by a) proper planning of the hall with respect of its surroundings b)
proper sound insulation of exterior walls.

Page 2 of 9
General Principles and Factors in Acoustical Design. Some of the general planning principles
and factors which play an important role in creating good acoustical conditions are as follows:
A. Site selection and planning
B. Volume, i.e., size and height.
C. Shape.
D. Treatment of interior surfaces.
E. Reverberation.
F. Seat, seating arrangement and audience.
G. Sound absorption.
A. Site Selection and Planning: - The site selected should be in the quietest surroundings. It is
particularly necessary to keep the outdoor noise level low by proper orientation and site selection
B Volume (i.e., Size and Height). The volume of the room should be in proportion to the
intensity of sounds to be generated in it. The volume of musical concert should be quite large for
proper distribution of music. For theatres, halls of small volumes are used. Where an auditorium
is to be used for both, an intermediate volume is used.
The following values may be taken as a rough guide for deciding the volume of an auditorium:
(i) Public Lecture Halls = 2.8 to 3.7 m3/person.
(ii) Musical Concert Halls = 4.2 to 5.6 m3/person
(iii) Cinema Theatres = 3.7 to 4.2m3/person.(for sound films)
C. Shape. For better distribution of the intensity of sound, the shape of hall plays an important
role. Shape determines the geometrical arrangement of walls, floors and ceiling. Shape is
expressed in terms of the ratio of height, width and length of the hall.
The height of hall used for speech and music is kept varying from 1/3rd to 2/3rd of the width of the hall.
The floor plan of the auditorium can have shapes, such as rectangular, fan-shaped, horse shoe, circular,
oval etc.
D. Treatment of Interior Surfaces. The treatment of interior surfaces, i.e., ceiling and side walls also play
an influential part in the acoustical design. The ceilings and side walls should provide favorable reflections
or reinforce the sound that reaches the rear parts of a large auditorium. In case of
long halls, all reflections of the original sound must reach the listener within 45 milliseconds of the direct
sound. Any sound reaching after 45 milli-seconds of the arrival of direct sound will be heard as echo.
In order to avoid the interfering echoes, reflective ceiling and wall reflectors should be within 8 m of the
sound source. The side walls should also be splayed or spread out to reinforce the sound.
Plain side walls are normally found suitable. The concave ceiling surfaces must be avoided.
To avoid echoes further, a smooth ceiling should not be parallel to the floor.

Page 3 of 9
 E. Reverberation. The time of reverberation is another factor which affects the good acoustics of
building. The following general principles should be remembered by the designer.
(i)A shorter optimum reverberation period is required for reproduced sound such as of gramophone,
sound films, etc., than that of the original one.
(ii) For direct orchestral music, the reverberation time required is about 15% longer than that for
unaided speech, and for choral music it is about 40% longer.
(iii) While providing absorption power in the hall, it should be considered that the reverberation time
is not uniform throughout the auditorium. If the average time of reverberation is 1.3 seconds, then it may
be 1.5 seconds in the main hall, 1.2 seconds in balconies and 1.l seconds below the balcony.
E Seats, Seating Arrangement and Audience:- The seat and seating arrangement, furnishings
and audience contribute to a great extent to the absorption in the room of which audience is the
largest. To ensure optimum absorption-

Page 4 of 9
 (i) the seats are arranged so that the heads in one row do not intercept the passage of direct sound to the
persons in the row immediately behind them.

(ii) Seating arrangement should be such as to ensure good audibility and visibility.
(iii)the distance of the front row should be about 3.5m for drama and it should be 4.5 m
or more for cinema purposes.
(v)The width of seat should be between 45cm to 55 cm.
(vi)The back-to-back distance of chairs in successive rows of seats should be at least 85 cm but
may be more up to 105 cm depending upon the comfort desired
G. Sound Absorption. To keep the optimum reverberation time within limits, carefully located
sound absorbing materials or acoustical materials are used
Practical Cases of Some Acoustical Buildings.
The factors to be considered in the acoustical design of some of the buildings are explained here.
A. Open Air Theatres,
B. Cinema Theatres of Sound Films,
C. Radio Broadcasting Studios,
D. Concert Halls,
E. Multi-purpose Theatres,
F. Public Lecture Halls, and,
G. Class-Lecture Rooms.
A. Open Air Theatres. In an open air theatre there are no side walls hence there is no reverberation.
The following points require special attention in acoustical design of the open air theatres:
(i) Quietness is the most important of all acoustical considerations in the selection of the
site.
(ii) The average noise level should not exceed 40 dB
(iii) The slope of the seating area should not be less than about 12 degrees for good audibility
and visibility.
(iv)A properly designed orchestra shell is a must for an open-air theatre. This is required for
two purposes, viz., (i) the reflective power of the shell raises the average sound level
throughout the area uniformly, and (ii) the shell enables the stage performers to hear each
other more easily.
(v) The simplest type orchestra shell consists of a hard reflective wall behind the stage.
(vi) A sound amplification system should be provided, especially where the strength of
audience will be more than 600.

Page 5 of 9
 (vii) The direction of wind at the time of program is an important factor in either helping
or obstructing the passage of sound
B. Cinema Theatres for Sound Films. The following considerations should be made in the
acoustical design and planning of the cinema theatres for sound films.

(i)A fan-shaped plan is the best shape.

(iii) The proportion of height, width and length should be approximately as 1:2:3
(iv) The surfaces near the source of sound should be polished hard and reflective than those
of distant or rear walls of absorbent material.

Page 6 of 9
 (v) The volume for a sound film theatre should be between 3.5 to 4.5 m3 per seat.
(vi) The echo defect should be prevented by avoiding curved surfaces and using sound absorbing
materials on the rear walls.
(vii) Optimum reverberation time should be attained finally after acoustical analysis and
treatment for correction.
C. Radio-Broadcasting Studios. The term 'studio ‘is used to indicate a room where sound is
picked up by a microphone and it includes radio broadcasting station, television station, and
sound recording studio.
The basic requirements of a Radio Broadcasting studio are:
(i) Perfect sound-proofing or noise insulation, and
(ii) Variable reverberation time analysis
To meet these two requirements, the following special considerations should be made in the
acoustic design of the studios:
(i) To accomplish the first requirement, the floors, walls and ceiling must be of rigid, massive
construction to minimize transmission of sound and reduce reflection to a minimum.
(ii) To achieve variable reverberation times is very important. This requirement is fulfilled by
several means as given below:
a) A Number of Studio Rooms. Each with different absorption suited to a particular type of
broadcast are provided..
b) In some studios, arrangement of hinged panels or shutters in the walls is adopted. One
surface of the rotable panel is made absorptive while the other one is kept reflective.

(c) In some studios, the rotable cylinders are fitted in the ceiling of studio to control the
acoustical conditions of the room. . In this arrangement, the rotable cylinders consist of
drums divided into number of parts with different absorptive materials. These surfaces can be rotated
or turned to get any degree of absorption in the room.
The following points should be considered while designing all types of studios, in addition to
The above said points.
(i) The noise level in the studio should be brought down to 25-30 dB.
(ii)The ratio of H:W:L should be equal to 2:3:5
(iii)The shape of studio should be rectangular with flat ceiling

Page 7 of 9
 (iv)Reverberation time should be correct in relation to the volume and surfaces to give
frequency characteristics of the variety of broadcast.
(v)Provision of windows in the studio should be minimum so as to minimize the transfer of
noise from outside to inside of the building.
(vi)The studio rooms should be air tight and ventilated through air conditioners
(vii)Air conditioners installed should be insulated
(viii)To regulate time of reverberation in studios heavy curtains and draperies may be used.
D.Concert Halls :-
(i) The noise level should be brought down to 30-35 dB
(ii) Reverberation time should be at least 1.6 sec. and audience factor can be assumed full.
(iii) ) The volume should be between 4.5 to 6 m3 per seat
(iv)There should be provision for hard reflecting surfaces about the platform, flat ceiling having
lining of reflecting material and absorbent distant walls. The rear walls should be of sound absorbing
material, to avoid backward reflection to the platform
(v)The floor and seating should be absorbent
E. Multi-Purpose Halls :- The acoustical requirements such as noise level, intensity of sound,
Reverberation time, audience factor, volume and shape of auditorium, seats etc., are quite
different for different purposes. It is impossible to have perfect acoustic conditions in such
halls. Therefore compromise has to be made in acoustical design in view of sound intensity,
Reverberation time, geometrical design of the auditorium and degree of absorption.
The only possible solution is to make use of adjustable absorbents.
E. Public-Lecture Halls:- The following precautions should be taken in acoustic design of
these public lecture halls
(1)The optimum reverberation time should not exceed 1.5 seconds even for large halls
(2)The volume per seat should be between 3 and 4 m3
(3)The hard reflecting surface on the back and around the stage, should be provided
(4)The rear walls facing against the stage should be treated with absorbing materials.
G. Class Lecture Rooms. The following precautions and considerations should be exercised
in the acoustic design of the class lecture rooms
(1) The ratio of length to width may be kept as 1.2 to 1 but wide rooms are more satistactory
(2) The noise level should be kept or brought down to 40 dB.
(3) The amount of absorptive material to be used for each classroom for achieving optimum
reverberation depends upon the room size, purpose, capacity and age of students. Hence a class
room of children having less absorption on their account, requires more absorptive material
(4)Optimum reverberation time should be between 0.75 seconds and 9 seconds.
5) The volume per head should be kept as small as possible, usually 12 m3 or less.
6) The audience should be seated near the lecture platform and seats may be arranged
elevating upwards from near the platform.
(7)The walls and ceiling should be properly designed to give favorable reflection of sound
Sound Absorbents Or Acoustical Materials

Page 8 of 9
 For a good acoustical design, sound absorbents or acoustical materials, are used. The sound waves,
on striking the solid material experience greater resistance than while passing through the air.
The efficiency of the sound absorption, depends more upon the porosity of the material used as sound
absorbent. The term 'absorption coefficient' is used to express the percentage of the incident sound that
can be absorbed by a material. An open window is considered to have 100% absorption as it does not
interfere with the free passage of the entire sound. Because, the open window has a coefficient of
absorption as unity and hence, the absorbing capacity of all other materials is compared with this
open window unit as a Standard. Thus, if the absorption coefficient of a material is 0.5, this would
mean that material is capable of absorbing 50% of the incident sound.
Classification of Sound Absorbents Or Acoustical Materials
The sound absorbents or acoustical materials can be broadly classified into 4 groups.
1. Porous absorbents
2. Resonant panel absorbents
3. Cavity resonators
4. Composite type absorbents
1.Porous absorbents:- These are soft materials having large pores with interconnected
channels. When sound waves strike such surfaces, the sound energy is dissipated by the
viscosity of the air and friction against the walls of the channels. The efficiency of the porous
absorbents increases with the increase in porosity, resistance to air flow through the material and
the thickness. Generally these absorb sound of higher frequency. Eg- rock wool, glass wool, wood wool
2. Resonant panel absorbents:- These are semi-hard materials in the form of porous
Fibre boards act as sound absorbent as well as building panels. The absorbent material
is fixed on sound framing with an air gap left out between this material and the wall
behind it.These are effective at the lower frequencies of sound.
3.Cavity resonators:- Cavity resonators consist of a container with a small opening in
which absorption take place by resonance of the air in the container which causes
loss of sound energy. Cavity resonators can be designed to absorb sound of any
frequencies. These are considered suitable for sound absorption of a particular frequency such as
from individual machines, air conditioning plant etc
4. Composite type absorbents:- These absorbents combine all the above described three types.
They consist of a perforated panel fixed over an air space containing porous absorbent.
Mineral wool or glass wool is commonly used as the porous material.

Page 9 of 9