INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

LESSON OBJECTIVES
After completing the lesson the learner should be able to:
1. Define and Describe research
2. Distinguish between research and scientific method, giving examples,
and
discussing why they would fall into one or the other of the two areas.
3. Explain the hallmarks of scientific investigations
4. Describe the building blocks of scientific investigation
5. Discuss the various sources of knowledge in research.
6. Explain why managers should know about research
7. Discuss how an educator might apply the knowledge gained about
research
Just close your eyes for a minute and utter the word research to yourself.
What kind
of image does this word conjure up for you?
Research Defined
 The process of arriving at dependable solutions/ conclusions through
planned, systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data.
 Scientific, systematic search or rigorous investigation or inquiry into
pertinent information, situation or problem in order to generate new
knowledge or validate
existing knowledge. It includes collection, presentation, analysis and
interpretation of facts that lines an individual’s speculation with reality.
 It is the carrying out a diligent inquiry or a critical examination of a
given phenomenon. It implies exhaustive study, investigation or
experimentation following some logical sequence.
 Research is formal work which is undertaken systematically to increase the
stock of knowledge, including knowledge of humanity, culture and society,
and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications (OECD,
2002). Research often is used to establish or confirm facts, reaffirm the

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results of previous work, solve new or existing problems, support theorems,
or develop new theories.
 According to Kothari (2004), Research refers to a search for
knowledge. He asserts that it is the scientific and systematic search for
pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an art of
scientific investigation.
Research therefore involves the following
 Defining and redefining problems
 Formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions
 Collecting, organizing and evaluating data
 Making deductions and reaching conclusions
 Testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulated
hypothesis
Education Research (what is education research?)
Education research can be defined as an organized, systematic, data-
based, critical,
objective, scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific Education
problem undertaken
with the purpose describing it, explaining it, predicting it and finding
answers or
solutions to it.
Research and the Educators. (why do Educators require research?
 In all organizations Educators are often faced with big or small
problems in various fields and which they have to solve by making the right
decisions.
 In Education research is usually primarily conducted to resolve
problematic issues in areas of leadership, administration, management,
psychology, financing etc.
Approaches to Education Research
These two approaches also reflect the purpose of research.

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1) Applied research approach is when research is done to solve current
problems
faced by Educators in the work setting, demanding timely solutions. For
example,
a particular school may not be doing well in exams and the Educators might
want to find
the reasons for this in order to take corrective action.
2) Basic Research Approach
It is research done chiefly to enhance the understanding of certain
problems that commonly occur in organizational setup, and seeking
ways of solving them. Done to generate a body of knowledge by trying to
understand how certain problems that occur in Education organization can
be resolved. It should be noted that such knowledge generated in basic
research is usually later applied in organizational setup for problem solving.
3) Quantitative Approach: involves the generation of data in quantitative
form which can be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and
rigid fashion. It can be further divided into:
 Inferential Approach: The purpose of inferential approach to research is to
form a data base from which to infer characteristics or relationships of
population.
 Experimental Approach: is characterized by much greater control over the
research environment and in this case some variables are manipulated to
observe their effect on other variables.
 Simulation Approach: involves the construction of an artificial environment
within which relevant information and data can be generated. This permits
an observation of the dynamic behaviour of a system (or its sub-system)
under controlled conditions.
4) Qualitative Approach: to research is concerned with subjective
assessment of attitudes, opinions and behaviour. Research in such a
situation is a function of researcher’s insights and impressions. Such an
approach to research generates results either in non-quantitative form or in

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the form which are not subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis. Generally,
the techniques of focus group interviews, projective techniques and depth
interviews are used.
Purposes of Research/Objectives of Research
The tangible outcomes to be achieved
1. To discover new knowledge: this involves the discovery of new facts, their
correct
interpretation and practical application
2. To describe a phenomenon: it aids in gaining accurate identification of any
events
through description.
3. To enable predictions. It gives the ability to be able to estimate
phenomenon
A. given phenomenon B. ability to predict performance given certain
factors in a classroom
4. To enable control. In scientific research, control revolves around being
able to regulate the phenomenon under study. For instance, scientific
experiments. With the ever increasing complexity of modern
organizations, and the uncertainty of the environment they face,
research has become one of the constant areas of trouble shooting in
the work place. It therefore enables Educators to see or sense problems
before they get out of control.
5. To enable explanation of phenomena. Explanation involves correct
observation and measurement of a phenomena
6. To enable theory development: this involves formulating concepts,
laws and generalizations about a given phenomena
In summary the purpose of research is to describe, predict, control and
explain
Value of Research to Professional Educators
Being knowledgeable about research and research methods helps
professional managers

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to:
1. Identify and effectively solve minor problems in the work place.
2. Know how to discriminate good from bad research.
3. Appreciate and be constantly aware of the multiple influences and
multiple effects of factors impinging on a situation.
4. Make intelligent, educated and well calculated risks in decision making,
knowing full well the probabilities associated with different possible outcome
attached to
failures or successes of their decisions. Research is therefore a useful
decision-making tool rather than a mass of incomprehensible statistical
information.
5. Prevent possible vested interests from exercising their influence in a
situation.
This is because Educators have become more knowledgeable about
scientific investigations. Distortion or manipulation of information becomes
impossible as managers are more aware of likely research biases
6. Relates to hired researchers and consultants more effectively
7. Combine experience with scientific knowledge while making decisions.
Research and the Scientific Method
 Research may not be theory guided and may be based on hunches,
experience and intuition. This is because sometimes the problem is so
simple that it does not require elaborate research, and past experience
might be necessary to offer solution.
 Scientific method on the other hand is an organized system, data-based,
critical, objective scientific inquiry that focuses on solving problems using a
step by step logical, organized, and rigorous method to identify the
problems, gather data, analyze them and draw valid conclusions therefrom.
 Scientific method is purposive and rigorous and empirical.
 It helps the researchers to state their findings with accuracy and
confidence. This helps other organizations to apply those solutions when
they encounter similar problems.

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 Scientific method must be theory guided, thus are referred to as applied
research.
 Scientific method is based on sound reasoning-finding correct premises,
testing and connections between their facts and assumption, making
claims based on adequate evidence.
 In the reasoning process, deduction, induction, observation, and hypothesis
testing can be combined in a systematic way.
Deduction and Induction research
Deduction is the process by which we arrive at a reasoned
conclusion by logical generalization of a known fact. It involves moving
from general to making specific
conclusion. For example it is known that all high performers are highly
proficient in their
jobs. If peter is a high performer, we can conclude he is highly proficient in
his job.
Example of deductive reasoning- All employees at senior school can be
trusted to observe the ethical code, Sara is an employee of senor school and
therefore Sara can be trusted to observe the ethical code.
Induction is a process where we observe certain characteristics of
phenomenon and on
the basis of these characteristics, we arrive at conclusions. In induction
we logically establish a general proposition based on observed facts and
characteristics. Inductive logic follows a trail, picking up clues that lead
to the end of an argument. It entails looking for traits or reasons that lead
to conclusion.
For instance:
1. I loaned my friend sh. 5000 in November and he refused to pay
2. I loaned him another sh. 5000 just before Christmas, which he hasn’t paid
back.
3. I loaned him yet another sh. 2500 in January, which is still unpaid
4. Thus the logical conclusion is that he’s never going to pay me back.

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 Scientific method aims at developing theories and the existence of
viable
theories facilitating progress in science and all other areas of human
endeavors.
Scientific method forms basic research.
Characteristics of Scientific Method
The hall marks or main distinguishing characteristics of scientific method
may be:
 Purposiveness: it must have a definite purpose or aim.
 Rigour
 Testability
 Replicability
 Precision and confidence
 Objectivity
 Generalizability
 Parsimony
The characteristics are discussed using this example: Consider a case of an
Educator who is interested in how employee/teachers commitment in an
organization can be increased.
 Purposiveness: it must have a definite purpose or aim. The focus from the
above case is on increasing the commitment of employees to the
organization.
 Rigour: Rigour connotes carefulness, scrupulousness, and high degree
of exactitude in research investigation. A good theoretical base and
sound methodological design would add rigour to a purposive study. E.g if
the manager in an organization asks about 7-8 of its employees to indicate
what would increase their level of commitment. If the manager
reaches conclusions based on their response only, then the study would be
unscientific
 Testability: Scientific research lends itself to testing logically
developed hypotheses to see whether or not the data collected support

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the educated conjecture or hypothesis that are developed after a careful
study of the problem situation. An example of a hypothesis may be
“those who perceive greater opportunities for participation in decision
making would have a higher level of commitment”.
 Replicability: the results of the test of hypotheses should be supported
again and yet again when the same type of research is repeated in
other similar circumstances.
 Precision and Confidence:
Precision refers to the closeness of the findings to “reality” based on a
sample. Confidence refers to the probability that the estimations are correct
 Objectivity: the conclusions drawn through interpretation of the results
of the data analysis should be based on the truth, independence of
judgement and impartiality; that is, they should be based on the facts of the
findings derived from actual data, and not on our own subjective or
emotional values. For instance, if had a hypothesis that greater
participation in decision making will increase organizational commitment,
and this was not supported by the results, it make no sense if the
researcher continue to argue that increased opportunity for participation
will still help.
 Generalizability: refers to the degree of applicability of the research
findings in one organizational setting to other settings. The greater the
applicability, the more useful the research to the users. Can the findings
in our case i.e manufacturing sector, be applicable in service sector.
 Parsimony: refer to the simplicity of using few variables to explain
the phenomenon and generate solutions to the problem with greater. It
entails avoiding complex research frameworks that consider
unmanageable number of factors. For instance, if two or three specific
variables in the work situation identified would raise organizational
commitment by 45% then it’s better than considering 10 variables that
would increase organizational commitment by 48%

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 Systematic: This i m p l i e s t h a t t h e p r o c e d u r e s a d o p t e d to
undertake an investigation follow a certain logical sequence. The
different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some procedure must
follow others. It follows certain steps that are logical in order. . These steps
are:
▪ Understanding the nature of problem to be studied and identifying
the related area of knowledge.
▪ Reviewing literature to understand how others have approached or dealt
with the problem.
▪ Collecting data in an organized and controlled manner so as to arrive
at valid decisions.
▪ Analyzing data appropriate to the problem.
▪ Drawing conclusions and making generalizations.
 Controlled: This implies that, in exploring causality in relation of two
variables, one set up the study in a way that minimizes the effects of
other factors affecting the relationship. This can be achieved to
large extent in the physical sciences, as most of the research
is done in a laboratory.
Give example of law of demand
 Valid and Verifiable: the conclusions based on the findings must be
correct and must be verifiable by the researcher and other researchers
using the same methodology and set up.
 Empirical: the conclusions drawn should be based upon hard evidence
gathered through direct or indirect or from information collected from
real-life experiences or observations. It is based on direct experience or
observation by the researcher.
 Critical: S c i e n t i f i c m e t h o d i n v o l v e s critically s c r u t i n i
z i n g th e
procedures used, t h e methods and techniques employed i n c
arrying

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out the research inquiry. The process of investigation must be
fool proof and free from any misgivings. The process adopted and
the procedures used must be able to withstand critical test of scrutiny.
Research exhibits diligent and precise judgment.
 Analytical. Research applies tested analytical procedures in gathering
historical, descriptive, and experimental data, and case study.
Sources of Knowledge for Research.
Human beings acquire knowledge of the world around them in different ways
and from different sources. These includes
 Research/ scientific Method
 Experience- personal experience
 Tradition
 Authority/experts
 Conventional wisdom
 Beliefs
 Emotions
Research/ Scientific Method
Research is a form of disciplined inquiry that generates knowledge.
Hypothesis can be tested, evidential information received and tested and
conclusions arrived at.
Experience- Personal Experience
Experience is a common mode of learning new information. For instance,
after growing grains for several years, a farmer may come to a conclusion
that, beans grow well during the short rains and maize grows well during
long rains
Tradition
Through tradition, knowledge is transmitted through culture. Culture is an
adopted system of rules, norms, standards and values. The socio-cultural
system embodies an accepted view of how things are or should be.
Authority/Expert Opinion

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Experts and authorities in specific fields are a big source of dependable
knowledge. The acceptability and perception of authenticity of such
information depends on the status of such a person, Conventional Wisdom:
wisdom accumulated out of age,
Intuition: an unexplained process in which the knower is directly acquainted
with the object of knowledge without conscious effort. It’s the ability to gain
new knowledge without conscious reasoning, or rational process or senses
QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH
In addition to tenets of scientific method, more characteristics of good
research.
 The purpose of research must be clearly defined and common concepts be
used
 The research procedure used should be described in sufficient details
to enable another researcher to repeat the research for further
advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been attained
 The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield
results that are as objectives as possible
 The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in the
procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings.
 The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its
significance. Method of analysis should be appropriate
 Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of research.
 The researcher should be well experienced and has good reputation
in research and be a person of integrity

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