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CIVIL ENGINEERING LICENSURE EXAM

PRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Monday, August 22, 2022 Module 32

THEORY OF STRUCTURES

Deflection of Beams

Methods of Determining Beam Deflections:

 Double Integration Method

 Area – Moment Method
 Strain – Energy Method
 Three – Moment Equation
 Conjugate – Beam Method
 Method of Superposition
 Virtual Work Method

Double Integration Method

M
y" =
EI

Where: x and y are the coordinates (as shown in the figure above)
y = deflection of the beam at any distance x
E = modulus of elasticity of the beam
I = moment of inertia about the neutral axis
M = bending moment at a distance x from the end of the beam
EI = flexural rigidity of the beam

Note: y' = slope of the elastic curve

y” = deflection of the beam at any distance x
In locating the point of maximum deflection, we set the slope of the elastic curve to zero (0).

Area – Moment Method

 Theorem I

The change in slope between the tangents drawn to the elastic curve at any two points A and B is equal to the product of 1/EI multiplied by the
area of the moment diagram between these two points.

1
θAB = (AreaAB )
EI
 Theorem II

The deviation of any point B relative to the tangent drawn to the elastic curve at any other point A, in a direction perpendicular to the original
position of the beam, is equal to the product of 1/EI multiplied by the moment of an area about B of that part of the moment diagram between
points A and B.
1 1
t B/A = EI (AreaAB ) x̅B t A/B = EI (AreaAB ) x̅ A

Rules of Sign:

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Strain Energy, U

P2 L
 For a straight bar subject to a normal force P (tension or compression), U = 2AE

T2 L
 For a circular shaft of length L subject to a torque T, U = 2JG

M2 L
 For a bar of length L subject to a bending moment M, U = 2EI

Three – Moment Equation

If E and I are constant then,

6A1 a̅1 6A2 a̅2 h1 h2
MA L1 + 2MB (L1 + L2 ) + MC L2 + + = 6EI ( + )
L1 L2 L1 L2

6Aa̅ ̅
6Ab
Values of and of Common Loadings:
L L

𝟔𝐀𝐚̅ 𝟔𝐀𝐛̅ 𝟔𝐀𝐚̅ 𝟔𝐀𝐛̅

𝐋 𝐋 𝐋 𝐋

Pa 2 Pb 2 3 2 3 2
(L − a2 ) (L − b2 ) PL PL
L L 8 8

wL3 wL3 5 5
wL3 wL3
4 4 32 32

8 7 7 8
wL3 wL3 wL3 wL3
60 60 60 60

M M
− (3a2 − L2 ) + (3b2 − L2 )
L L

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Conjugate Beam Method

It determines the slopes and deflections of a real beam by calculating the shears and moments of a fictitious
beam called the conjugate beam, loaded with the M/EI diagram. Slope = Shear on conjugate beam, and
Deflection = Moment on conjugate beam.

Properties of Conjugate Beam:

1. The length of a conjugate beam is always equal to the length of the actual beam.
2. The load on the conjugate beam is the M/EI diagram of the loads on the actual beam.
3. A simple support for the real beam remains simple support for the conjugate beam.
4. A fixed end for the real beam becomes free end for the conjugate beam.
5. The point of zero shear for the conjugate beam corresponds to a point of zero slope for the real beam.
6. The point of maximum moment for the conjugate beam corresponds to a point of maximum
deflection for the real beam.

Virtual Work Method

 Virtual Work Equation for Beams and Frames

L M mn dx L M mn dx
δn = ∫0 θ = ∫0
EI EI

 Virtual Work Equation due to Temperature Change

δ = u α (∆T) L

 Virtual Work for Trusses

SuL
δ=∑
AE

Beam Deflection and Slope Formulas

Dynamic or Impact Loadings

Static Deformation, δ
δ 2h
= 1 + √1 +
δst δst

Maximum stress developed due to impact loading

2h
σmax = σst (1 + √1 + )
δst

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For a mass m dropping freely through a height h before striking a stop at the end of a vertical rod of length L as shown.

2L
δ = √ mgh
AE

2AE
σ=√ mgh
AL

2E mv 2
σ=√
AL 2

Indeterminate Beams

Indeterminate beams are those beams in which the number of reactions exceeds the number of equations in static equilibrium.

Degree of indeterminacy = Number of reactions – Number of equilibrium equations

In such a case, it is necessary to supplement the equilibrium equations with additional equations arising from the deformation of the beam.

Moment Distribution Method

 Carry – Over Moment – moment induced at the fixed end of a beam by the action of a moment applied at the other end.

 Beam Stiffness, K – the moment required by the simply supported end of a beam to produce a unit rotation of that end, the other end being rigidly fixed.

4EI I
Absolute K = Relative K = L
L

 Fixed End Moments (FEM)

In the moment distribution method, we first assume the individual spans to be fully restrained at both ends, then we compute the fixed end moments. As a
rule of sign, counterclockwise moment acting on the beam (clockwise reaction) are considered to be positive, and clockwise moment acting on the beam
(counterclockwise reaction) are considered to be negative.

The following are the fixed end moments for common types of loading:

 Distribution Factor, DF

In a continuous beam, the moments between any two adjacent spans are generally not equal. The unbalanced moment must be distributed to the other end of
each span. The ratio of distribution to any beam is called the distribution factor.

K
DF =
∑K

DF = 0 for fixed end

DF = 1 for hinged or roller end
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Steps in using moment distribution method:

1. Assume that all supports are fixed or locked and compute the fixed end moments.
2. Unlock each support and distribute the unbalanced moment at each one to each adjacent span using the distribution factor.
3. After distribution, carry-over “one-half” of the moment in step 2 with the same sign, to the other end of each span.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 until the carry-over moment becomes zero or negligibly small.

For faster distribution, first distribute the joints with large unbalanced moment (especially those hinge or roller end), and carry-over the moment to the
interior support, then begin distributing the rest of the moments.

Slope – Deflection Method

In this method, the moment at the end of each member is expressed in terms of the (a) fixed-end moment due to external loads, (b) the rotation of the tangent at the end
of each elastic curve, and (c) the rotation of the chord joining the ends of the elastic curve.

MAB = FEMAB + K (2θA + θB − 3α)

MBA = FEMBA + K (θA + 2θB − 3α)

α=∆/L Absolute K = 2EI / L Relative K = I / L

Propped Beam Formulas

Influence Lines for Beams

Properties of Influence Lines:

1. The value of a function due to a single concentrated moving load equals the magnitude of the load multiplied by the ordinate of the influence diagram.

2. The value of a function due to several concentrated moving loads equals the algebraic sum of the effects of each load described in property no. 1.

3. The value of a function due to a uniformly distributed load equals the product of w and the area of the influence line under the uniform load.

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