GENERAL BIOLOGY I

First Quarter Periodical Exam Reviewer

💗
By SciTech Org ‘24 - ‘25

Lesson 1 - Cell Theory ○ He believed that cells

crystalized from the material
between other cells (blastema)
Classical Cell Theory
● 1839 - Theodor Schwann who
1. All organisms are made up of one
observed slides of animal cells
or more cells - René Dutrochet
concluded that all animals are made
2. The cell is the basic unit of
up of cells
structure and organization in
○ He believed that cells came
organisms - Matthias Schleiden
from pre-existing cells
(plants) & Theodor Schwann
● 1855 - Rudolf Virchow shared that
(animals)
cells in fact came from pre-existing
3. All cells come from pre-existing
cells or “Omnis cellula e cellula”
cells - Rudolf Virchow

Lesson 2 - Cell Organelles

Modern Cell Theory
1. The cells contain hereditary
information in the form of DNA Organelles - small “organs” inside a cell to
2. All cells have basic chemical let it function
composition
3. Energy flow occurs within the cells 1. Nucleus
- Contains most of the genes that
control the cell
History of the Cell Theory
● 1957 - Hans and Zacharias Jansen
invents the first microscope
● 1665 - Anton van Leeuwenhoek
makes his own version of the
microscope.
○ Looked into his dental
scrapings and discovered
“animalcules”
○ Sent his discoveries to Robert
Hooke
● 1666 - Robert Hooke coined the term
“cell” referring to the room-like 2. Endoplasmic Reticulum
structures he saw from thin slices of ● Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
his cork tissue. - Synthesis of lipids
● 1824 - René Dutrochet recognized - Detoxification of drugs &
the importance of individual cells in poisons
the functioning of an organism, - Stores calcium ions
resulting in the creation of the first ● Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
postulate of the classical cell theory - Synthesis of proteins and some
● 1838 - Matthias Schleiden, a botanist fats
who studied plants under the - Contains ribosomes
microscope came to the conclusion - Membrane factory
that all plants are made of cells
 5. Mitochondrion
- The powerhouse of the cell

3. Golgi Apparatus
- A series of f;attened sacs in convex 6. Chloroplast
shapes - Contains pigments called chlorophyll
- Processes and packages proteins and
substances produced by cells
- Found in plant and animal cells

4. Lysosome 7. Vacuoles
- Spherical vesicle containing digestive - Storage for water, food, enzymes,
enzymes that break down wastes wastes, pigments, etc.
- Autophagy “self eating”
- Phagocytosis (cells engulf other cells)
- Helps in programmed cell death
(Apoptosis)
8. Peroxisome
- Single-membrane microbody
- Contains enzymes that transfer H2
from various substrates to O2
producing H2O2
- H2O2: toxic peroxisome converts it to
H2O

11. Cell Wall

- Rigid. Protective barrier
- Located outside of the cell
membrane

9. Ribosomes
- Sites where the cell assembles
proteins
- Not bound by a cell membrane
- Two types: Free & Bound

10. Centrioles
- Aids in cell division by helping move
the genetic material
- Involved in organizing microtubules
(cytoskeleton) in the cytoplasm
Lesson 3 - Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells

1. Red Blood Cell/Erythrocyte

- Function: Carry oxygen
throughout the body
- Characteristics: No nucleus,
biconcave, contains
hemoglobin

2. White Blood Cell/Leukocytes

- Function: Important role in the
immune system
- Characteristics: Irregular
shape, produces antibodies
and antitoxins

3. Sperm Cell/Spermtozoon
- Function: Fertilize egg cells
- Characteristics: Long tail to
swim (flagella), numerous
mitochondria, chemical on the
head for egg cell entry

4. Egg Cell/Ovum
- Function: Carries genetic
material
- Characteristics: Large and
bulky, chemical change in the
membrane prevents
Lesson 4 - Cell Specialization
fertilization of more than one
- Cell differentiation sperm
- How generic cells change to different
types of cells for special functions 5. Nerve Cell/Neuron
- Function: Carry nerve impulses
through the body
In Animals - Characteristics: Long, thin
axon, branching dendrites,
myelinated
 6. Muscle Cell nutrients throughout
- Function: Facilitate movement the plant
- Characteristics: Elongated and
elastic, numerous 3. Ground Meristem
mitochondria - will form the ground
tissues comprising
In Plants parenchyma,
1. Guard Cell collenchyma, and
- Function: Regulates rate of sclerenchyma cells
transpiration
- Characteristics: Cell wall has 2. Lateral Meristem
varying thickness - SECONDARY growth
- growing in: shoot, stem
2. Photosynthetic Cells 2 types: vascular cambium and
- Function: Produces food cork cambium
through photosynthesis 1. Vascular cambium
- Characteristics: Contains many - gives rise to secondary
chloroplasts xylem and phloem

Lesson 5 - Plant Tissues 2. Cork cambium

- gives rise to cork cells
which replaces
2 Types of Plant Tissues
epidermis of plants
1. Meristematic Tissues
once they mature
- produces CELLS
- growing areas of plants Cork cambium and cork:
- differentiate into cells with certain - protective covering and penetrates
functions until it reaches the lateral meristem

2 types of Meristematic Tissues Cork cambium, cork, phloem:

1. Apical Meristem - make up the bark
- PRIMARY growth
- growing in: tips of roots, root, Secondary xylem:
terminal bud - gives rise to wood
- derivatives: protoderm,
procambium, ground INTERNAL STRUCTURES OF WOOD
meristem
1. Protoderm Sapwood (outer):
- skin of the plant that - LIVING cells / living xylem and
form the outer layer, phloem
protecting the plant
from the environment Heartwood (graphite):
- DEAD cells / dead xylem
2. Procambium - stability or sturdiness and old age
- will become the xylem
and phloem (vascular
tissues) and will
transport water and
 Root hairs:
- in epidermis in roots and help in
increasing the absorption capacity
of roots

Trichomes:
- in leaves and stems
- hair-like outgrowths that prevent
water loss and reflect excess light

LOWER EPIDERMIS
Guard cells:
- specialized structures that regulate
Organogenesis: the opening and closing of
2. development of the plant organs stomata
and occurs at the shoot system (such
as terminal buds) Stomata:
- slit-like structures which aids in the
3. Permanent Tissues exchange of gases between plants
- NON-dividing cells and the environment
- generally responsible for
photosynthesis LATERAL VIEW
1. Adaxial
2 types of Permanent Tissues - FRONT towards sunlight
1. Simple Permanent 2. Abaxial
- ONE kind of cell - BACK with veins
- 2 types: epidermal and ground

2. Ground
1. Epidermal
- photosynthesis (middle
- Epidermis: covers whole
layer)
body of nonwoody /
- 3 types: parenchyma,
young woody plants
collenchyma,
and is protected by a
sclerenchyma
waxy cuticle
- protects lower and
upper parts of leaves
- Cuticle: prevents loss of
water and invasion of
disease-causing
microorganisms

PARTS OF THE EPIDERMIS

3 TYPES OF GROUND PERMANENT
 2. Phloem
1. Parenchyma
- carries the food prepared by
- synthesis and storage of plant food
the leaves to different parts of
the plant
2. Collenchyma
- flexibility of immature or younger
DIFFERENT TYPES OF PLANT CELLS
parts of plants

3. Sclerenchyma
2 KINDS OF SCLERENCHYMA
1. Sclereids
- strengthen seed coats and
are responsible for
gritty-textured flesh of
some fruits
2. Fibers
- used commercially as
components of rope and
flax fibers

Desert/Hot Region Colder/

Temperate
Region

more parenchyma more

(needs more sclerenchyma
storage) (needs protection
and insulation)

2. Complex Permanent
- TWO or MORE kinds of cells
- 2 types of Vascular Tissues:
xylem and phloem

1. Xylem
- carries water and minerals
from the roots to the leaves

● Tracheids:
- thin and elongated cells where
water passes through

● Vessel Elements:
- have perforated plates that
allow the transport of water
through the vessels
Lesson 6 - Animal Tissues
Hierarchy of Biochemical Organization

SIMPLE COLUMNAR

PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR

Tissues
- groups of cells that are similar in
structure and function
STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS
4 Types of Animal Tissues
1) Epithelial Tissue
2) Connective Tissue
3) Muscular Tissue
4) Nervous Tissue

STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL
1. Epithelial Tissue
- forms the inner and outer lining of
organs, the covering in surfaces, and
the PRIMARY glandular tissue of the
body
- made up of tightly packed cells
because they cover and protect
STRATIFIED COLUMNAR
bodily structures

SIMPLE SQUAMOUS

2. Connective Tissue
- characterized by the presence of
ground substances and fibers that
support, bind, and protect organs

SIMPLE CUBOIDAL
 Examples: hyaline cartilage, fibro
cartilage, elastic cartilage
Function: protection and support

BONE OR OSSEOUS TISSUE

- layers of a very hard matrix with
calcium salts and collagen fibers DENSE CONNECTIVE / DENSE FIBROUS
Examples: skull and ribs TISSUE
Function: protection and support - matrix is predominantly made up of
collagen fibers and has lesser cells
- is a fibroblast or a fiber-forming cell
Examples: tendon and ligament
Function: support

REMEMBER!
CARTILAGE Tendons -> muscle to bone
- more flexible matrix than bone Ligaments -> bone to bone
- cartilage cells called chondrocytes
LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- matrix contains more cells and lesser 3. Muscular Tissue
fibers than dense connective tissue - made up of highly specialized cells
so it is softer that contract to cause movement
Examples: adipose tissue or fat tissue
Function: protection, insulation,
storage, and support

SKELETAL MUSCLE
- attached to the skeleton or bones
Description:
- long, cylindrical, striated (with visible
stripes), and multinucleated (with
more than one nucleus)
Muscle Control: voluntary

SMOOTH MUSCLE
- found in the walls of hollow organs
such as intestines, stomach, bladder,
blood vessels, and uterus
Description:
- made up of nonstriated,
uninucleated, and spindle-shaped
(have pointed ends) cells
BLOOD Muscle Control: involuntary
- plasma
- cellular components consist of blood CARDIAC MUSCLE
cells - found in the heart
- with fibers that are only visible during Description:
clotting because they are made up of - uninucleated (one nucleus) and has
soluble proteins striations
Examples: blood and blood cells - has intercalated disks
Function: transport of substance, Muscle Control: involuntary
immune response, and blood clotting
 4. Nervous Tissue
- mainly contain networks of nerve
cells that possess irritability and
conductivity to allow the
transmission and reception of
electrochemical impulses

MICROGLIAL CELLS
- ovoid cells in the CNS that can
transform into a phagocytic
macrophage to clean neuronal
debris and wastes

EPENDYMAL CELLS
- ciliated cells that line the central
cavities of the brain and the spinal
cord and form a fairly permeable
membrane between the cavities with
cerebrospinal fluid and the tissues of
CNS

[ CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM ] CNS

ASTROCYTES
- star-shaped cells that support and
control the chemical environment OLIGODENDROCYTES
around the neurons - responsible for the production of the
- MOST ABUNDANT glial cell in the myelin sheath in CNS
CNS
 - An unduplicated (single)
chromosome can be considered as a
chromatin
- If DNA is NOT ready for cell division, it
is called chromatin

Chromatid
- Half of a newly duplicated
SCHWANN CELLS chromosome
- surround all the nerve fibers and - Can refer to an unreplicated
produce myelin sheath similar to the chromosome
oligodendrocytes
Chromosome
- Packaged and organized structures
containing DNA of a living organisms
- If DNA is ready for cell division, it is
called chromosome

To help you remember this, imagine the

chromatin to be a very thin string of DNA.
Imagine the string being wound up into a
Lesson 7 - Cell Cycle thick rope. This thick rope is the
- From time it is first formed during chromosome. Now, imagine each half of
division of the parent cell until it that rope to be similar to the other half.
separates on its own into daughter These halves are the chromatids.
cells — and repeats.
- The life cycle of a cell is known as the TL;DR — String: Chromatin
cell cycle, and this describes how cells Rope - Chromosome
grow, develop, and reproduce. Half of rope - Chromatid
- Involves the distribution of DNA to
daughter cells. Chromatin -> Chromatid -> Chromosomes

Why is cell division important? DNA + histone = nucleosome

- Reproduction/formation of new cells
- Replace old/dead cells The Phases
- Growth
In general (whether mitosis or meiosis),
LET’S BE CLEAR! What’s the difference follows PMAT.
between chromatin, chromatid, and
chromosomes? Prophase - Preparation
Metaphase - Middle
Chromatin Anaphase - Away
- Dispersed DNA with its associated Telophase
proteins found in chromosome (8
histones) Interphase
- Condenses into chromosomes - Composed of Gap 1 (G1), Synthesis (S),
and Gap 2 (G2).
 Gap 1 - Growth (Assigned Cdk: D, 4/6) Meiotic interphase:
- Growth of cytoplasm and
doubling of organelles
- Production of proteins
- Highest rate of protein
synthesis
- Movement of centrioles
- Produces spindle fibers

S Phase (Assigned Cdk: E, 2 — in

between G1 and S)
- Copying / synthesizing of
existing DNA

*To see assigned Cdk in table form, please

Gap 2 (Assigned Cdk: A, 2)
refer to “Cyclin-Cdk Complexes”
- Continued growth
- Protein synthesis, but not as
In between the phases during the cell cycle,
much as G1
there are checkpoints. But what exactly is
the need for checkpoints?

Mitosis or Meiosis (not a part of

- Checkpoints are there because it
interphase !) (Assigned Cdk: B, 1)
answers why it should proceed to the
- Division of genetic material
next phase.
- Each checkpoint has questions
Mitotic interphase:
unique to it.

Gap 1 - S Phase
- Is there any damage in the cell’s
DNA?
- Is the cell large enough? Does it have
the necessary energy reserves and
doubled organelles?
- If not -> Gap 0 (resting phase)
0 gap phase
- Is the environment suitable?

Gap 2 - M phase * M phase can refer to

either mitosis or meiosis
- Is the environment favourable for
division?
- Was DNA properly replicated?
- Presence of DNA?

Metaphase - Anaphase
- Are spindle fibers properly attached?
Aside from checkpoints, there are
regulatory proteins. These change
concentration when needed.

Cyclin
- Rise and fall at specific times

Kinase
- Speeds up phosphorylation (catalyst)

Phosphorylation = turning ON
Dephosphorylation = turning OFF
Metaphase
- Sister chromatid aligning at
Cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk)
metaphase plate
- Becomes activated during
- Nucleolus and nuclear
phosphorylation
envelope disappear
completely
- Each chromosome receives
spindle fibers from the pair of
centrioles which are attached
to the kinetochores*.

* Kinetochores - specialized structure on the

centromere to which the microtubular
spindle fibers attach to.

Lesson 8 - Mitosis and Meiosis

MITOSIS

Prophase
- Chromatin condenses into
chromosome
- Nucleolus disintegrates ** Centromere - Binds 2 sister chromatids
- Mitotic spindle starts to form *** Telomere - Shrinks over time because of
- When nuclear membrane aging, the telomere on jelly fish last more as
disappears, they spread along the they live longer. It also serves as protection
cytoplasm for genetic material.

Anaphase
- The mitotic spindle pulls and
separates the sister
chromatids apart.
 - The chromatids, now called Telophase - Cytokinesis (splitting of
daughter chromatids, are then cytoplasm)
pulled toward the opposite - Centrioles and all organelles
poles. are distributed in each
- The double-stranded daughter cell.
chromosomes separate - Complete separation of the
(centromere breakage) and cytoplasm produces two
move to the direction of the identical DIPLOID* daughter
centrioles. cells.
- A cleavage furrow* is produced * Has 2 sets of chromosomes.
to the opposite pull of the
centrioles.
Called cleavage furrow in animal cells and
cell plate in plant cells. Both result in the
appearance by which the cell is about to be
torn apart.

Q: If there are 100 cells that will undergo

mitosis, how many daughter cells will be
formed?
A: 200

Q: After mitosis, what will be the

chromosome number of daughter cells
Telophase - Karyokinesis (splitting of from a cell with 2n = 16 chromosomes?
nucleus) A: 16
- Spindle fibers disappear,
releasing the chromatids.
- Nucleolus and nuclear MEIOSIS I
envelope reappear. Prophase I
- Though the process of meiosis
is divided into two parts, the
preparation time of our cells or
interphase happens only once.
The cell duplicates everything
including the DNA and
chromosomes.
- Nucleolus is visible.
 - Cleavage furrow / cell plate
becomes visible.

Metaphase I
- Nuclear envelope and
nucleolus disappear Telophase - Karyokinesis I
completely. - Spindle fibers disappear.
- Centrioles produce spindle - Nuclear envelope and nucleoli
fibers that will attach to the reappear.
kinetochore of the
homologous chromosomes.
- Homologous chromosomes
align to the metaphase plate.
- Notice that the loci or arms
of each sister chromatid vary
in color, this is because they
obtained a different but
same set of genes during
crossing-over.

Telophase - Cytokinesis I
- Complete separation of
cytoplasm and organelles with
two haploid daughter cells.

Anaphase I
- Reduces diploid homologous
number to haploid. Centrioles
pull each diploid homologous
pair to opposite poles of the
cell. Haploid sister chromatids
are formed.
MEIOSIS II

* Immediately after telophase - cytokinesis I,

Meiosis II will begin. There is NO interphase
stage.

With the absence of an interphase stage,

chromosomes and DNA will not be
replicated, thus the cells maintain their Anaphase II
haploid chromosomal number. - Haploid chromosomes
separate (centromere
In Meiosis II, the target of the cells is to breakage) and move to the
divide like with the mechanisms observed direction of centrioles. A
in Mitosis. cleavage furrow / cell plate is
produced due to the opposite
Prophase II pull of the centrioles.
- Nuclear envelope starts to
disappear.
- Nucleoli are still visible.
- Centrioles are doubled.

Telophase - Karyokinesis II
- Spindle fibers disappear,
releasing chromatids while the
nuclear envelope and
Metaphase II nucleolus reappears.
- Nuclear envelopes and - Results in UNDUPLICATED
nucleoli disappear completely. chromosomes.
- Each haploid chromosome
receives spindle fibers from
the pair of centrioles which are
attached to the kinetochores.
Haploid chromosomes align to
the central metaphase plate.

Telophase - Cytokinesis II
- Complete separation of each
cytoplasm and organelles,
forming four haploid daughter
cells.
 ANEUPLOIDY
- state in which a cell has an abnormal
number of chromosomes
- in diploid organism, the most
common forms of aneuploidy are
monosomy and trisomy
* The four daughter cells containing haploid
chromosomes are ready to become 4 sperm CHROMOSOMAL CONDITIONS
cells in the testes of males or 3 polar bodies 1. Down Syndrome or Trisomy 21
and 1 egg cell in the ovary of females. - extra chromosome 21
- some physical characteristics of the
down syndrome include the
following:
- protruding tongue,
Lesson 9 - Chromosomal Conditions - small stature, and a
- short neck,
- eyes that slant upward
NON-DISJUNCTION

- Nondisjunction is failure of paired

chromosomes to move to opposite
poles of the spindle during mitosis or
meiosis
- If nondisjunction occurs during
meiosis, the resulting embryo
inherits an extra chromosome
(trisomy) or lacks a chromosome
(monosomy)
2. Klinefelter Syndrome
- more commonly in people with
- extra X chromosome in boys
structural chromosomal
- typically have small testes
abnormalities, such as nonbalanced
- may have low muscle tone and
translocations
problems with coordination
- increases dramatically with maternal
age
 4. Turner’s Syndrome
- all X chromosomes is missing in girls
3. Cri-du-chat Syndrome - below average in height
- chromosome 5 is missing - experience early loss of ovarian
- high-pitched cry that sounds function
like that of a cat,
- small head size,
- low birth weight, and
- weak muscle tone
- widely set eyes,
- low-set ears,
- a small jaw, and a
- rounded face
Lesson 10 - Cell Membrane/Plasma Phospholipids
Membrane - Two layers of lipids (phospholipid
bilayer)
Consists of 3 Biomolecules - Hydrophilic head & hydrophobic tail
● Lipids
● Proteins
● Carbohydrates

Fluid Mosaic Model

- Is neither rigid nor static
- Highly flexible
- Can change its shape and
composition through time Cholesterol
- Fluid part: phospholipids - Restrains movement of
- Mosaic: embedded proteins & phospholipids at warm temperatures
carbohydrates - Maintains fluidity at cool
temperatures (prevents tight
packing)

Phytosterol vs Cholesterol

- Individual lipid molecules are able to

move in their own monolayer

Functions of Cell Membrane

1. Define the boundaries and act as

permeability barriers

- As a boundary: Keeps desirable

substances in and undesirable
substances out
- As permeability barrier:
Hydrophobic core prevents
 transport of ions and polar 3. Provide mechanisms for cell-to-cell
molecules contact and communication
- Cells in multicellular
organisms are in contact with
other cells
- Direct communication
through gap junctions

Polar vs non-polar molecules

Polar - uneven distribution of charges
(both negative and positive) :
Water(H2O), Ammonia (NH3)
Non-polar - neutral; charges shared
equally: Methane(CH4)

Can I pass through the cell membrane?

4. Contain the protein molecules that

act as receptors to detect
extracellular signals

- The cell membrane does not like

molecules with charges

2. Site for biochemical functions

- Cellular respiration &
photosynthesis

5. Transport proteins
- Channel protein: have channels
where water molecules or other
solutes pass
- Carrier protein: alternates between
two shapes, moves a solute across
the membrane during the shape
change
 - Membrane proteins:
- Transport
- Adhesion
- Recognition
- Receptor

Lesson 11 - Cell Transport Mechanisms

- Movement of molecules across the
cell membrane

Cell Membrane Rule in DIffusion - In the absence of

IN other forces, a substance will diffuse from
carbohydrates, sugars, proteins, amino where it is more concentrated to where it is
acids, lipids, salts, O2, H2O less concentrated. Any substance will
diffuse down its concentration gradient. No
OUT work must be done to make it happen.
ammonia, salts, CO2, H2O
Rate at which a molecule crosses a lipid
bilayer depends on its size and polarity
CELL TRANSPORT
- movement of molecules across the Selective Permeability
cell membrane
- Facilitated Diffusion
- Aided by transport proteins
Passive Active
- Diffusion through the
- No energy - Energy (ATP) membrane
required is required
- Lower to - Higher to
higher lower
concentratio concentratio
n n

- Protein channels: Membrane

Passive Transport
becomes semi-permeable
- Simple Diffusion
with protein channels.
- Movement of molecules
- Protein transporters/carriers:
through the membrane from
hold onto their passengers and
a region of high concentration
change shape in a way that
to low concentration
shuttles them across the
membrane
Osmosis
- Diffusion of water through the cell
membrane

1) ISOTONIC
- concentration of dissolved
substances in the solution is the
SAME as the concentration of
dissolved substances inside the cell

2) HYPOTONIC
- water enters a cell by osmosis,
causing the cell to SWELL and
BURST (CYTOLYSIS)
3) HYPERTONIC Active Transport
- water leaves a cell by osmosis, - Energy (ATP) is required
causing the cell to SHRINK - Against the concentration gradient
(PLAMOLYSIS)

Transporters/Carriers
● Uniporters - move one molecule at a
time
● Symporters - two molecules at a
time in the same direction
● Antiporters - two molecules at a
time in opposite directions

Bulk Transport
Endocytosis - taking in material by
enclosing it in a vesicle
● Phagocytosis
● Pinocytosis
● Receptor-mediated endocytosis
 - small molecule can be linked from
end to end in countless ways to form
the polymers

Exocytosis - vesicle fuses with the plasma

membrane and expels its contents to the
outside of the cell

Lesson 12 - Enzymes

PROTEINS
- made up of amino acid monomers
joined by a peptide bond
MONOMERS AND PROTEINS
 TYPES OF METABOLISM
1. Catabolism Anabolism
a) Catabolism (exergonic)
- breakdown of materials

b) Anabolism (endergonic)
- builds complex materials from
simpler ones

TERMS
ENZYMES
- substances (proteins) that catalyze
chemical reactions
- three-dimensional protein
3 PARTS OF AN AMINO ACID configuration, with an active site
from where the substrate binds

CATALYST
- speeds up chemical reactions by
decreasing the activation energy

SUBSTRATE
- often an organic molecule, a
substrate possesses a structural
feature that complements the
geometry of the enzyme’s active site

* The α carbon, carboxyl, and amino groups

are common to all amino acids, so the
R-group is the only unique feature in each
amino acid

Keratin
- protein that is the main component
in hair and nails

METABOLISM
- sum of all the chemical activities
taking place in a organism
 DIFFERENT ENZYME MODELS
1. Lock-and-key model

2. Induced fit model

ENZYMES PROCESS
3. Enzyme-Substrate Complex

* The enzyme binds to the substrate and

forms the enzyme-substrate complex

TYPES OF ENZYMES
 TABLE OF GLANDS AND ENZYME NAME

* The body cannot absorb polysaccharides

such as sucrose as is, so it must first break
sucrose down into its components
* Hydrolysis: water assists in severing the
glycosidic bond to separate the glucose
and fructose molecules; one molecule of
water is needed for each molecule of
sucrose
- reaction naturally occurs very slowly
- presence of sucrase, an enzyme in
the small intestine, accelerates this
reaction