Chapter 1: Complex Numbers

1.1 The Imaginary Unit i

The imaginary unit i satisfies:

i2 = −1 (1)
√ 2 2
(± n i) = ni (2)

1.2 Representation of Complex Numbers (x, y)

A complex number can be written as (x, y), where x and y are real numbers:

(x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) (3)

(x1 , y1 ) · (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 , x1 y2 + y1 x2 ) (4)
i = (0, 1) (5)
2
i = (0, 1) · (0, 1) = (−1, 0) (6)
x + yi = (x, 0) + (y, 0) · (0, 1) (7)

1.3 Operations with Complex Numbers

For complex numbers z1 = x1 + y1 i and z2 = x2 + y2 i:

(z1 + y1 i) − (z2 + y2 i) = (z1 + y1 i) + (−z2 − y2 i) (8)

Conjugate: z̄ = x − yi (9)
z z̄ = (x + yi)(x − yi) (10)
z1 z1 z̄2
Division: = (11)
z2 z2 z̄2
1 z̄ x − yi
Reciprocal: = = 2 (12)
z z z̄ x + y2
 
1 x y
z· = (x + yi) − i (13)
z x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2

1.4 Polar (Trigonometric) Form

A complex number z = x + yi can be expressed in polar form:
p
|z| = r = x2 + y 2 (14)
x = r cos θ (15)
y = r sin θ (16)
z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) (17)
z1 z2 = r1 r2 (cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 )) (18)
1
z −1 = (cos(−θ) + i sin(−θ)) (19)
r
z1 r1
= (cos(θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 − θ2 )) (20)
z2 r2
z n = rn (cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ)) (21)

1.5 Finding Roots of Complex Numbers

For the equation wn = z, the n-th roots are:

wn = z (22)
√
 
θ + 2kπ θ + 2kπ
wk = n r cos + i sin , k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1 (23)
n n

1
Chapter 2: Mathematical Induction
2.1 The Principle of Mathematical Induction
Mathematical induction is used to prove statements for all positive integers n. Common results include:

1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) = n2 (24)
n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + n = (25)
2
3n − 1 is divisible by 2 (26)

Chapter 3: Introduction to Vectors

3.1 Vector Operations
Vectors follow these properties:

⃗a + ⃗b = ⃗b + ⃗a (27)
(⃗a + ⃗b) + ⃗c = ⃗a + (⃗b + ⃗c) (28)
k(⃗a + ⃗b) = k⃗a + k⃗b (29)
(k + m)⃗a = k⃗a + m⃗a (30)

3.2 Dot Product (Scalar Product)

The dot product of vectors ⃗a and ⃗b is:

⃗a · ⃗b = |⃗a||⃗b| cos θ (31)

⃗a · ⃗b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 (in 2D) (32)
⃗
⃗a · b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 (in 3D) (33)
√
|⃗a| = ⃗a · ⃗a (34)

3.3 Cross Product (Vector Product)

The cross product of vectors ⃗a and ⃗b in 3D is:

⃗a × ⃗b = |⃗a||⃗b| sin θ n̂ (35)

î ĵ k̂
⃗a × ⃗b = a1 a2 a3 (36)
b1 b2 b3

3.4 Lines and Planes in Space

Equations for lines and planes in 3D:
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
Symmetric form of a line: = = (37)
l m n
Parametric form of a line: x = x1 + lt, y = y1 + mt, z = z1 + nt (38)
Vector form of a line: ⃗r = r⃗0 + t⃗v (39)
Plane equation (point-normal form): ⃗r · n̂ = d (40)
Plane equation (general form): ax + by + cz = d (41)
2 2 2 2
Sphere (center at (h, k, l), radius r): (x − h) + (y − k) + (z − l) = r (42)
2 2 2
General sphere equation: x + y + z + Dx + Ey + F z + G = 0 (43)

2
Chapter 4: Advanced Vector Concepts
4.1 Algebraic Properties of Vector Operations
Properties of dot and cross products:

⃗a · ⃗b = ⃗b · ⃗a (44)
⃗a · (⃗b + ⃗c) = ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗a · ⃗c (45)
(k⃗a) · ⃗b = k(⃗a · ⃗b) (46)
2
⃗a · ⃗a = |⃗a| (47)
⃗a × ⃗b = −(⃗b × ⃗a) (48)
⃗a × (⃗b + ⃗c) = (⃗a × ⃗b) + (⃗a × ⃗c) (49)
(k⃗a) × ⃗b = k(⃗a × ⃗b) (50)
⃗a · (⃗a × ⃗b) = 0 (51)
⃗a × (⃗a × ⃗b) = (⃗a · ⃗b)⃗a − (⃗a · ⃗a)⃗b (52)

4.2 Geometric Interpretations of Vector Products

Geometric properties of dot and cross products:

⃗a · ⃗b = |⃗a||⃗b| cos θ (53)

|⃗a × ⃗b| = |⃗a||⃗b| sin θ (54)
⃗a × ⃗b ⊥ ⃗a and ⃗a × ⃗b ⊥ ⃗b (55)
Area of parallelogram formed by ⃗a and ⃗b = |⃗a × ⃗b| (56)
Volume of parallelepiped formed by ⃗a, ⃗b, ⃗c = |⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c)| (57)

4.3 Cartesian Forms of Lines and Planes

Cartesian equations in 3D:
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
Line through (x1 , y1 , z1 ) with direction (a, b, c) : = = (58)
a b c
Parametric form: x = x0 + at, y = y0 + bt, z = z0 + ct (59)
Plane equation: ax + by + cz + d = 0 (60)
x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
Plane through (x0 , y0 , z0 ) with direction (a, b, c) : = = (61)
a b c
Vector form of a plane: ⃗r = r⃗0 + s⃗u + t⃗v (62)

4.4 Geometry of Lines and Planes in 3D

Forms of lines and planes:

Parametric line: ⃗r = r⃗0 + t⃗v , ⃗v = (a, b, c)

(63)
x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
Symmetric line: = = (64)
a b c
Vector line through two points: ⃗r = r⃗1 + t(r⃗2 − r⃗1 ) (65)
General plane: ax + by + cz + d = 0 (66)
Point-normal plane: ⃗r · ⃗n = d, ⃗n = (a, b, c) (67)
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
Plane through three points (x1 , y1 , z1 ), (x2 , y2 , z2 ), (x3 , y3 , z3 ) : x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 = 0 (68)
x3 − x1 y3 − y1 z3 − z1
|ax0 + by0 + cz0 + d|
Distance from point (x0 , y0 , z0 ) to plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 : √ (69)
a2 + b2 + c2

3
Chapter 5: Counting and Combinatorics
5.1 Multiplication Principle and Factorials
Counting principles:
Number of outcomes for two independent events: = m × n (70)
n! = n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · 1 (71)
0! = 1 (72)

5.2 Permutations
The number of ways to arrange r objects from n distinct objects:
n n!
Pr = (73)
(n − r)!
n
P0 = 1 (74)

5.3 Combinations
The number of ways to choose r objects from n without regard to order:
n n!
Cr = (75)
r!(n − r)!
n
C0 = 1 (76)
n
Cn = 1 (77)
n n
Cr = Cn−r (78)

5.4 Counting with Repetitions and Subsets

Advanced counting techniques:
n!
Permutations with repetitions: = (79)
n1 ! · n2 ! · · · · · nr !
Number of subsets of a set with n elements: = 2n (80)
n
Number of r-element subsets: = Cr (81)

Chapter 6: Conic Sections

6.1 Circles
Equations of a circle:
Standard form (center (h, k), radius r): (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2 (82)
2 2
General form: x + y + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 (83)
2 2 2
Center and radius: h = −g, k = −f, r =g +f −c (84)

6.2 Parabolas with Vertex at Origin

Parabola equations (with p > 0):
y 2 = 4px (Focus: (p, 0), Directrix: x = −p) (85)
2
y = −4px (Focus: (−p, 0), Directrix: x = p) (86)
2
x = 4py (Focus: (0, p), Directrix: y = −p) (87)
2
x = −4py (Focus: (0, −p), Directrix: y = p) (88)

6.3 Parabolas with Vertex at (h, k)

Parabola equations (with p > 0):
(y − k)2 = 4p(x − h) (Focus: (h + p, k), Directrix: x = h − p) (89)
2
(y − k) = −4p(x − h) (Focus: (h − p, k), Directrix: x = h + p) (90)
2
(x − h) = 4p(y − k) (Focus: (h, k + p), Directrix: y = k − p) (91)
2
(x − h) = −4p(y − k) (Focus: (h, k − p), Directrix: y = k + p) (92)

4
6.4 Coordinate Rotation
Rotation of axes by angle θ:

x = x′ cos θ − y ′ sin θ (93)

′ ′
y = x sin θ + y cos θ (94)
′
x = x cos θ + y sin θ (95)
y ′ = −x sin θ + y cos θ (96)

6.5 Eliminating the xy-Term

To eliminate the xy-term in Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0:

A′ = A cos2 θ + B cos θ sin θ + C sin2 θ (97)

′
B = B cos 2θ + (C − A) sin 2θ (98)
′ 2 2
C = A sin θ − B sin θ cos θ + C cos θ (99)
′
D = D cos θ + E sin θ (100)
′
E = −D sin θ + E cos θ (101)
F′ = F (102)
A−C
Set B ′ = 0 : cot 2θ = (103)
B

Chapter 7: Trigonometric Functions

7.1 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Values and properties of inverse trigonometric functions:
 
1 π
sin−1 = (104)
2 6
 
1 2π
cos−1 − = (105)
2 3
−1
√ π
tan (− 3) = − (106)
  3
5π π
sin−1 sin = (107)
6 6
sin−1 (−x) = − sin−1 x (108)
−1 −1
cos x + cos (−x) = π (109)

5
Chapter 8: Differentiation
8.1 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
Key trigonometric derivatives:
sin x
lim =1 (110)
x→0 x
d
sin x = cos x (111)
dx
d du
sin u = cos u · (112)
dx dx
d
cos x = − sin x (113)
dx
d du
cos u = − sin u · (114)
dx dx
d 2
tan x = sec x (115)
dx
d du
tan u = sec2 u · (116)
dx dx
d 2
cot x = − csc x (117)
dx
d du
cot u = − csc2 u · (118)
dx dx
d
sec x = sec x tan x (119)
dx
d du
sec u = sec u tan u · (120)
dx dx
d
csc x = − csc x cot x (121)
dx
d du
csc u = − csc x cot u · (122)
dx dx

8.2 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions

Derivatives of logarithmic functions:
d 1
ln x = (123)
dx x
d logb e
logb x = (124)
dx x
d 1
ln |x| = (125)
dx x
d 1 du
ln u = · (126)
dx u dx
d 1
log10 x = (127)
dx x ln 10
Examples:
d 1 1
(ln x · log10 x) = ln x · · log10 e + log10 x · (128)
dx x x
d x 2
ln √ = (129)
dx x2 + 2 x(x2 + 2)
d x2 2x log10 x − x log10 e
= (130)
dx log10 x (log10 x)2
Using logarithmic differentiation:
 
1 dy p 1 2x 2(x − 1)
for y = (x2 + 1)(x − 1)2 = + (131)
y dx 2 x2 + 1 (x − 1)2
 
dy p x 2
= (x2 + 1)(x − 1)2 + (132)
dx x2 + 1 x − 1
1 dy x sin x 1 1
for y = √ = + cot x − tan x (133)
y dx sec x x 2
 
dy x sin x 1 1
=√ + cot x − tan x (134)
dx sec x x 2

6
8.3 Exercises on Logarithmic Differentiation
Derivatives using logarithmic rules:
d 4x
ln(2x2 + 3) = 2 (135)
dx 2x + 3
d 1
ln |x| = (136)
dx x
d 2 1
(x log2 x) = 2x log2 x + x2 · (137)
dx x ln 2
d 1
(sin 3x · log10 (x + 1)) = cos 3x · log10 (x + 1) + sin 3x · (138)
dx (x + 1) ln 10
d √ 1 5
ln 5x − 4 = · (139)
dx 2 5x − 4
d 1 1
ln(ln x) = · (140)
dx ln x x

8.4 Derivatives of Exponential Functions

For y = bx , use logarithmic differentiation:
y = bx (141)
ln y = x ln b (142)
1 dy
= ln b (143)
y dx
d x
(b ) = bx ln b (144)
dx
Special case for base e:
d x
(e ) = ex (145)
dx
Examples:
d 3x
(e ) = 3e3x (146)
dx
d −x2 2
(e ) = −2xe−x (147)
dx
d sin x
(e ) = esin x · cos x (148)
dx
d x2 2
(e ) = 2xex (149)
dx

8.5 Implicit and Higher-Order Differentiation

Implicit differentiation and second derivatives:
dy
for x + sin y = cos(xy) (150)
dx
d2 y
for y = x sin x (151)
dx2

Chapter 9: Applications of Differentiation

9.1 Tangent and Normal Lines
The tangent line to y = f (x) at x = a:
y − f (a) = f ′ (a)(x − a) (152)
The normal line (perpendicular to the tangent):
1
y − f (a) = − (x − a) (f ′ (a) ̸= 0) (153)
f ′ (a)
Example with f (x) = x2 at x = 1:
f ′ (x) = 2x, f ′ (1) = 2, f (1) = 1 (154)
Tangent: y − 1 = 2(x − 1) or y = 2x − 1 (155)
1 1 3
Normal: y − 1 = − (x − 1) or y = − x + (156)
2 2 2

7
9.2 Maxima and Minima
To find critical points:

f ′ (x) = 0 (157)

Second derivative test:

f ′′ (x) > 0 (local minimum) (158)

′′
f (x) < 0 (local maximum) (159)

Example with f (x) = x3 − 3x:

f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 3 = 0 ⇒ x = ±1 (160)

′′
f (x) = 6x (161)
′′
f (1) = 6 > 0 (minimum at x = 1) (162)
′′
f (−1) = −6 < 0 (maximum at x = −1) (163)

9.3 Linear Approximation

The linear approximation of f (x) near x = a:

L(x) = f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a) (164)

√
Example with f (x) = x at x = 4:
1 1
f (4) = 2,f ′ (x) = √ , f ′ (4) = (165)
2 x 4
1
L(x) = 2 + (x − 4) (166)
4
√
Approximating 5:
√ 1
5 ≈ L(5) = 2 + (5 − 4) = 2.25 (167)
4

Chapter 10: Techniques of Integration

10.1 Antiderivatives
Basic antiderivatives:
xn+1
Z
xn dx = +C (n ̸= −1) (168)
n+1
Z
ex dx = ex + C (169)
Z
sin x dx = − cos x + C (170)
Z
cos x dx = sin x + C (171)
Z
sec2 x dx = tan x + C (172)

10.2 Substitution Method

f (g(x))g ′ (x) dx, use substitution: let u = g(x), so du = g ′ (x) dx.
R
For integrals of the form

10.3 Integration by Parts

The integration by parts formula:
Z Z
u dv = uv − v du (173)

10.4 Partial Fraction Decomposition

P (x)
For a rational function Q(x) , decompose into partial fractions based on the factors of Q(x).

8
Chapter 11: Applications of Integration
11.1 Fundamentals of Integration
Integration as the area under a curve:
Z b
Area under y = f (x) from x = a to x = b = f (x) dx (174)
a

11.2 Definite Integrals

Properties of definite integrals:
Z b Z b
kf (x) dx = k f (x) dx (175)
a a
Z b Z b Z b
[f (x) ± g(x)] dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx (176)
a a a
Z a
f (x) dx = 0 (177)
a
Z b Z a
f (x) dx = − f (x) dx (178)
a b
Z b Z c Z b
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx (179)
a a c

11.3 Area Under a Curve

Area between a curve y = f (x) and the x-axis:
Z b
Area = |f (x)| dx (use absolute value if f (x) changes sign) (180)
a

11.4 Area Between Curves

Area between two curves y = f (x) and y = g(x) (where f (x) ≥ g(x)):
Z b
Area = [f (x) − g(x)] dx (181)
a

11.5 Volumes of Solids

Volume of a solid with cross-sectional area A(x):
Z b
Volume = A(x) dx (182)
a

Volume by disc method (rotation around x-axis):

Z b
Volume = π [f (x)]2 dx (183)
a

Volume by washer method (rotation around x-axis):

Z b
Volume = π [(f (x))2 − (g(x))2 ] dx (184)
a