CLASS XI: COMPUTER SCIENCE NOTES

Unit – 1: Computer Systems and Organisation

Chapter 1: Basic Computer Organization
Computer: A computer is an electronic device that processes data according to a set of instructions
called a program. It can perform a wide variety of tasks by executing different programs, from simple
calculations to complex simulations.

Functions of a Computer

1. Input: Receiving data from the user or another device.

2. Processing: Performing calculations and logical operations on the data.
3. Storage: Saving data and instructions for future use.
4. Output: Displaying or transmitting the results of processing.

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

Block Diagram of A Computer

MEMORY UNIT

SECONDARY

INPUT PRIMARY OUTPUT

CU

ALU

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

Functions of Input Devices:

The following functions are performed by an input unit:
(i) It accepts (or reads) the instructions and data from the outside world.
(ii) It converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable form (i.e., binary form)
because a computer can understand only binary symbols (i.e., 0 and 1).
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(iii) It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system for further
processing.
Some of the commonly used input devices are keyboard, mouse, trackball, joystick, light pen,
touch screen, barcode reader, OMR, OCR, MICR, Smart Card Reader, Biometric Sensor,
Scanner, Mic, Web Cam, etc.
Functions of Output Devices:
The following functions are performed by an output unit
(i) It accepts the results produced by the computer, which are in coded form (i.e., in binary
form), and hence, cannot be easily understood by us.
(ii) It converts these coded results to human acceptable (readable) form.
(iii) It supplies the converted result to the outside world.
Some of the commonly used output devices are Monitor, Printers, Plotter, Speaker,
Headphones, Projector etc.
CPU (Central Processing Unit)

Definition:

The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the primary component of a computer that performs
most of the processing inside a computer. It is often referred to as the "brain" of the computer
because it carries out instructions from programs, executing arithmetic, logic, control, and
input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions.

Components of the CPU:

1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):

o Function: Performs all arithmetic and logical operations.
o Operations:
▪ Arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division.
▪ Logical operations like AND, OR, NOT, and XOR.
2. Control Unit (CU):
o Function: Directs the operation of the processor.
o Operations:
▪ Fetching instructions from memory.
▪ Decoding the instructions to understand what actions are required.
▪ Executing the instructions by sending appropriate signals to other
components.
3. Registers:
o Function: Small, fast storage locations within the CPU that temporarily hold
data and instructions.

Memory Unit: A component of a computer that stores data, instructions, and information for
use in processing.
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CD – Compact Disc

DVD- Digital Versatile Disc

Primary Memory: The memory unit that communicates directly with the CPU is called
main memory or internal memory or primary memory. It is the internal storage memory unit
used by a computer system to hold data and instructions. The primary memory has limited
storage capacity.
Types of Primary Memory: 1. RAM 2. ROM
1. RAM (Random Access Memory): RAM (Random Access Memory) is a type of volatile
memory used in computers and other devices to store data that is currently being used or
processed. It allows data to be read and written quickly in any order, which is why it is called
"random access."

Characteristics of RAM

• Volatile Memory: RAM requires power to maintain the stored information. When the
computer is turned off, all data in RAM is lost.
• Speed: RAM is much faster than secondary storage devices, such as hard drives and
SSDs, which is why it is used for tasks that require quick data access.
• Capacity: The amount of RAM in a system can significantly affect performance,
particularly in tasks that require large amounts of data processing, such as gaming,
video editing, and running multiple applications simultaneously.

Types of RAM:
a) SRAM (Static RAM): It is a type of memory that requires a constant power supply in
order to hold the data and information.
b) DRAM (Dynamic RAM): It stores the information and data in a cell containing a
capacitor and transistor, these cells may be refreshed with electric pulses in few
milliseconds.
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Difference between SRAM and DRAM:

SRAM DRAM

It stores information as long as the power It stores information as long as the power
is supplied. is supplied or a few milliseconds when the
power is switched off.
Transistors are used to store information in Capacitors are used to store data in DRAM.
SRAM.
Capacitors are not used hence no refreshing To store information for a longer time, the
is required. contents of the capacitor need to be
refreshed periodically.
SRAM is faster compared to DRAM. DRAM provides slow access speeds.

These are expensive. These are cheaper.

These are used in cache memories. These are used in main memories.

2. ROM (Read Only Memory): In this type of memory, information once stored
remain fixed, i.e., it cannot be changed. So, ROM can only be used for reading. It
contains a set of start-up instruction, i.e., what to do when a computer is turned ON.
The contents on ROM remain stored even if power is turned OFF. This memory is
often associated with non-volatile type of memory.
Types of ROM:
a) PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory): Once data is written to a PROM
chip, it cannot be modified or erased. This makes PROM suitable for applications
where the data does not need to be changed.
b) EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory): A type of non-
volatile memory that can be reprogrammed and erased multiple times. Unlike
PROM, EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet (UV) light and
reprogrammed using an EPROM programmer.
c) EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory): A
type of non-volatile memory that can be electronically erased and reprogrammed.

Cache Memory: A small, high-speed volatile memory located close to the CPU, designed to
store frequently accessed data and instructions to speed up overall processing.

Characteristics of Cache Memory:

• High Speed: Faster than main memory (RAM), reducing the time the CPU takes to
access data.
• Small Size: Typically much smaller in capacity compared to RAM, ranging from a
few kilobytes to several megabytes.
• Volatile: Data is lost when power is turned off, similar to RAM.
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• Expensive: Cache Memory is very expensive.

Secondary Memory / Storage Devices: This memory is also known as secondary storage or
auxiliary memory. It is the slower and cheaper form of memory. CPU does not access the
secondary memory directly. It is a permanent storage device and non-volatile in nature, i.e.,
the information cannot be erased even power is switched OFF and data will not be destructed
until or unless the user erases it.
Difference Between RAM and ROM:
Feature RAM (Random Access ROM (Read-Only
Memory) Memory)
Purpose Temporary storage for Permanent storage for
active processes firmware and boot
instructions
Volatility Volatile (data is lost when Non-volatile (data is
power is off) retained even when power is
off)
Read/Write Capability Read and write Read-only
Speed High-speed Generally slower compared
to RAM
Usage Used for running Used for storing firmware,
applications and active tasks BIOS, and system boot
instructions
Data Modification Data can be easily modified. Data is usually pre-
programmed and not easily
altered
Capacity Usually larger capacity (GB Usually smaller capacity
range) (MB range)
Price More expensive Less expensive

Units of Memory:
Bit: The smallest unit of data in computing, representing a binary digit (either 0 or 1).
1 Nibble = 4 bits 1 Byte = 8 bits
1 Kilobyte (KB) = 1024 bytes 1 Megabyte (MB): 1024 KB
1 Gigabyte (GB): 1024 MB 1 Terabyte (TB): 1024 GB
1 Petabyte (PB): 1024 TB 1 Exabyte (EB): 1024 PB
1 Zettabyte (ZB): 1024 EB 1 Yottabyte (YB): 1024 ZB
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Chapter 2: Software Concepts

A computer system consists of Hardware and Software for its proper functioning.
Hardware: The physical electronic components of a computer are called Hardware. For
Example: Input Devices (Keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphone, webcam), Output Devices
(Monitor, printer, speakers, headphones), Storage Devices (HDD, SSD, CD, DVD),
Processing Devices (CPU), Motherboard, Memory (RAM).
Software: Software is a collection of instructions, data, or programs used to operate
computers and execute specific tasks.
Types of Software:
1. System Software 2. Application Software
1.System Software: System software is a type of computer software designed to manage and
control the hardware components and provide a platform for running application software. It
acts as an intermediary between the hardware and the user applications, ensuring that the
computer hardware operates efficiently and effectively.

System Software

Language
Operating System Device Driver Utility Software
Translator

Operating System: An operating system (OS) is a system software that manages computer
hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. It
acts as an intermediary between users and the computer hardware, ensuring that applications
can function properly on the device.
Some examples of different types of operating systems across various categories:

Desktop and Server Operating Systems: Windows, Linux, Unix, MacOS

Mobile Operating Systems: Android, iOS, KaiOS
Functions of an Operating System

1. Process Management:
o Manages the execution of multiple processes, ensuring that each application gets
adequate CPU time.
o Handles process creation, scheduling, and termination.
2. Memory Management:
o Manages the computer's memory, including the allocation and deallocation of
memory space as needed by different programs.
o Ensures that each application has enough memory to execute and that they do not
interfere with each other.
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3. File System Management:

o Organizes and manages files on storage devices.
o Provides a way for users and applications to create, delete, read, write, and modify
files and directories.
4. Device Management:
o Manages hardware devices such as printers, disk drives, and display screens.
o Provides drivers and interfaces for hardware communication.

5. Security and Access Control:

o Protects data and system resources from unauthorized access.
o Implements authentication mechanisms, such as passwords and biometrics, and
permissions to control access to files and applications.
6. User Interface:
o Provides a user interface (UI), which can be a command-line interface (CLI) or a
graphical user interface (GUI), to interact with the system.
o Enables users to run applications, manage files, and configure system settings.

Types of Operating Systems:

1. Batch Operating Systems

2. Time-Sharing Operating Systems
3. Distributed Operating Systems
4. Real-Time Operating Systems (RTOS)
5. Single – User Operating System
6. Multi – User Operating System
7. Multi – Tasking Operating System

Needs of Operating System:

A computer would be useless without operating system because it cannot do anything itself.
It needs an operating system to drive it and to make it do some task.

The following points describes the needs of an operating system in computer

(i) The application programs do not access the hardware resources directly. Therefore, an
operating system is required to access and use the hardware resources. In a desktop computer,
these resources include the processor, memory, disk space, etc. (On a cell phone, they include
the keypad, the screen, the address book, the phone dialer, the battery and the network
connection).

This task is very important, as various programs and input methods compete for the attention
of the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and demand memory, storage and Input/Output (I/O)
bandwidth for their own purpose.

(ii) It provides a stable, consistent way for applications to deal with the hardware without
having to know all the details of the hardware.

This task is especially important if there is to be more than one of a particular type of
computer using the operating system.
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(iii) An operating system prepares the computer for taking instructions from the user. Once it
is ready to take command, it converts the command of the user into the machine code, attach
its own input to the command and then gives it to the CPU to execute.

(iv) The operating system controls and co-ordinates all the activities of a computer system.
Note: An Operating System is the first program that is loaded into the computer’s main
memory, when a computer is switched on.

Goals of Operating System:

1. User – Friendly
2. Efficient.

Language Translator: A language translator in computing refers to a type of software

that converts code written in one programming language into another. This process is
essential for making code understandable and executable by a computer. There are three
main types of language translators: compilers, interpreters, and assemblers.

Compiler: Converts the entire source code of a high-level programming language into
machine code (binary code) in one go.

Interpreter: Converts a high level language program into machine language by

converting it line-by-line.

Assembler: Converts assembly language code, which is a low-level human-readable

representation of machine code, into actual machine code.

Device Driver: A device driver is a specialized software program that allows the
operating system and other software to communicate with hardware devices. Device
drivers act as intermediaries between the operating system and hardware components,
translating software instructions into hardware-specific commands and vice versa.

Examples of Device Drivers

• Graphics Drivers: Enable communication between the operating system and the
graphics card (e.g., NVIDIA GeForce driver, AMD Radeon driver).
• Printer Drivers: Allow the operating system to communicate with and control printer
hardware (e.g., HP printer driver, Canon printer driver).
• Network Drivers: Enable network communication by controlling network interface
cards (NICs) (e.g., Realtek Ethernet driver, Intel wireless driver).
• Audio Drivers: Manage audio hardware, enabling sound input and output (e.g.,
Realtek HD Audio driver, Creative Sound Blaster driver).
• Storage Drivers: Control hard drives, SSDs, and other storage devices (e.g., Intel
Rapid Storage Technology driver, Samsung NVMe driver).
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Utility Software: Utility software is a type of system software designed to help manage,
maintain, and control computer resources. It performs specific tasks that assist in the
optimal functioning of the computer, often by ensuring the operating system and
hardware operate efficiently.

Examples of Utility Software:

a) Disk Clean up Software: Frees up space on your hard drive by deleting

unnecessary files.
b) Antivirus Software: Protects your computer from viruses and other malicious
software.
c) File Compression: Reduces the size of files so they take up less space.
d) Backup Software: Creates copies of your files or entire hard drive to protect
against data loss.
e) System Monitor: Monitors system resources like CPU usage, memory usage, and
network activity.

2.Application Software: Application software, often simply referred to as an "application"

or "app," is a type of software designed to help users perform specific tasks or activities. It
focuses on enabling users to accomplish particular goals.

Application Software

General Purpose Application Software Special Purpose Application Software

General Purpose Application Software: General-purpose application software is

designed to perform a variety of tasks and can be used by a wide range of users for
different purposes. These applications are not specialized for any specific task but are
versatile and commonly used in everyday computing activities.

Examples of General Purpose Application Software:

Word Processors:
• Used for creating and editing text documents.
• Examples: Microsoft Word, Google Docs.
Spreadsheets:
• Used for organizing, analyzing, and storing data in tabular form.
• Examples: Microsoft Excel, Google Sheets.
Presentation Software:
• Used for creating slide show presentations.
• Examples: Microsoft PowerPoint, Google Slides.
Database Management Systems (DBMS):
• Used for creating, managing, and manipulating databases.
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• Examples: Microsoft Access, MySQL.

Email Clients:
• Used for sending, receiving, and managing email.
• Examples: Microsoft Outlook, Mozilla Thunderbird.
Web Browsers:
• Used for accessing and navigating the internet.
• Examples: Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Safari.

Special Purpose Application Software: Special-purpose application software is

designed to perform a specific task or set of tasks for a particular application. These
applications are tailored for specialized requirements and are often used in specific
industries or for particular functions.

Examples of Special Purpose Application Software:

Accounting Software:
• Manages financial transactions and bookkeeping.
• Examples: QuickBooks, FreshBooks.
Graphic Design Software:
• Creates and edits visual content.
• Examples: Adobe Photoshop, CorelDRAW.
Medical Software:
• Manages patient records, medical billing, and other healthcare-related functions.
• Examples: Electronic Health Records (EHR) software, MEDITECH.
Video Editing Software:
• Edits and produces video content.
• Examples: Adobe Premiere Pro, Final Cut Pro.
Educational Software:
• Facilitates learning and teaching.
• Examples: Blackboard, Rosetta Stone.