ISSF COACH

(SECOND LEVEL)
SPORT SCIENCE
by Claudio Robazza

© 2020 Claudio Robazza

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 SPORT SCIENCE – ISSF COACH (SECOND LEVEL)

TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 3
CHAPTER 1 – MOTOR SKILL LEARNING ................................................................. 5
OVERVIEW.............................................................................................................. 5
MOTOR SKILLS ...................................................................................................... 6
CLASSIFICATION OF MOTOR SKILLS .................................................................. 8
STAGES OF LEARNING ....................................................................................... 11
INSTRUCTIONAL PRIORITIES IN THE STAGES OF LEARNING ....................... 19
SUMMARY............................................................................................................. 22
Suggested Readings.............................................................................................. 23
Self-Evaluating Questions...................................................................................... 24
Practical Activities in the Field for Learning Motor Skills........................................ 24
Power Point Presentation ...................................................................................... 25
CHAPTER 2 – SCHEDULING PRACTICE................................................................ 26
OVERVIEW............................................................................................................ 26
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 27
MASSED AND DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE ........................................................... 29
CONSTANT AND VARIABLE PRACTICE ............................................................. 32
BLOCKED AND RANDOM/SERIAL PRACTICE ................................................... 35
PRACTICE VARIABILITY AND CONTEXTUAL INTERFERENCE: SCHEDULING
ACTIVITIES ........................................................................................................... 42
WHOLE AND PART PRACTICE ........................................................................... 45
SUMMARY............................................................................................................. 48
Suggested Readings.............................................................................................. 50
Self-Evaluating Questions...................................................................................... 51
Practical Activities in the Field to Apply Instructional Principles ............................ 52
Power Point Presentation ...................................................................................... 53
CHAPTER 3 – IMPROVING PERFORMANCE THROUGH MENTAL PRACTICE ... 54
OVERVIEW............................................................................................................ 54
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 55
THE PETTLEP MODEL ......................................................................................... 59
PERFORMANCE ROUTINES ............................................................................... 63
THE FIVE-STEP STRATEGY ................................................................................ 65
IDENTIFYING THE CORE COMPONENTS OF THE ACTION ............................. 67
SUMMARY............................................................................................................. 71
Suggested Readings.............................................................................................. 72
Self-Evaluating Questions...................................................................................... 74
Practical Activities in the Field to Apply Mental Practice and Self-regulation ........ 74
Power Point Presentation ...................................................................................... 76
CHAPTER 4 – BREATHING AND MUSCLE TENSION/RELAXATION FOR
AROUSAL SELF-REGULATION ............................................................................... 77
OVERVIEW............................................................................................................ 77
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 77
BREATHING .......................................................................................................... 79
MUSCLE TENSION/RELAXATION ....................................................................... 83
THE RELAXATION RESPONSE ........................................................................... 85
SUMMARY............................................................................................................. 86

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Suggested Readings.............................................................................................. 87
Self-Evaluating Questions...................................................................................... 88
Practical Activities in the Field to apply breathing and muscle tension/relaxation
techniques for arousal self-regulation .................................................................... 88
Power Point Presentation ...................................................................................... 90
APPENDIX 1. PROGRESSIVE MUSCULAR RELAXATION................................. 91
APPENDIX 2. PASSIVE MUSCULAR RELAXATION ........................................... 93

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 INTRODUCTION

The Sport Science contents of this book are designed for the Coach (second level)

course of the International Shooting Sport Federation (ISSF).

The presentation of this second level Course material builds upon the contents of the

ISSF National Coach (first level) Course and assumes that those contents have been mastered

and applied in the practical setting.

The Sport Science contents include four major areas of interest to coaches:

Chapter 1 – Motor skill learning. In this part we define motor skills and examine

the stages that performers go through while they acquire new patterns of action. Coaches need

to be knowledgeable about the learning stages, given that different instructional strategies

must be applied in function of an individual’s learning stage.

Chapter 2 – Scheduling practice for learning. After examining the

characteristics of the stages of learning, the next step is to identify and implement effective

teaching methods to allow people to improve their performance level and consistency over

time. In this chapter we discuss a number of instructional strategies that complement those

presented in the booklet for the ISSF National Coach (first level) Course (i.e., goal setting,

instructions, demonstrations, and feedback).

Chapter 3 – Improving performance through mental practice. In this chapter

we examine additional instructional and performance strategies that can be applied to improve

and stabilise performance levels in practice and competition. A special emphasis is placed on

mental practice (i.e., the mental rehearsal of actions) and on applied indications on how to

make imagery most effective. A five-step strategy is also presented, which incorporates

imagery into a performance routine.

Chapter 4 – Breathing and muscle tension/relaxation techniques for

arousal self-regulation. In this final chapter, we examine the impact of arousal on

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performance and present bodily self-regulation techniques. Individual arousal is a mixture of

general psychological and physiological activation that exerts functional or dysfunctional

effects on performance. Arousal can be effectively regulated using breathing and muscle

tension/relaxation.

As is the case for ISSF National Coach (first level) Course materials, the contents are

presented in a concise and straightforward way. The interested reader who wish to deepen

their knowledge in the areas of the Sport Science is referred to a number of references

inserted at the end of each chapter. Coaches are strongly recommended to try not only to

apply the many notions and recommendations reported here and in the literature, but also to

develop their own strategies and coaching style.

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 CHAPTER 1 – MOTOR SKILL LEARNING

OVERVIEW

Beginners involved in the learning of a challenging new motor skill can feel frustrated

in the first attempts when they fail. At first, individuals may struggle to understand what to

do, how to coordinate limb movements, how fast the action should be, and how much force is

needed. Initial attempts to deal with the motor task and find suitable solutions often result in

awkward movements, tight muscles, stiff joints, confusion and, ultimately, poor performance.

As practice continues, however, movements become smoother, more consistent and accurate,

and individuals experience a growing sense of confidence as they become more successful.

In the following sections, we will examine the motor skills and the stages of learning

that people go through in acquiring motor skills (for definition of terms, see Table 1.1).

Effective coaches are able to identify the stages of skill learning and to tailor the instructional

and practical experiences to meet the needs of learners in each stage. The ability of coaches to

distinguish the stages through which people progress in the acquisition of motor skills is a

requirement for the implementation of an effective learning environment.

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Table 1.1. Definition of terms.

Terms Definitions
Specific patterns of motion among joints and body segments used to
Movements
accomplish action goals.
Genetically determined potentialities of action that underlie the execution of
movements and skilled performance. They are relatively stable and
enduring characteristics genetically inherited. Abilities can be thought of as
Motor abilities part of the basic “equipment” people inherit to perform various tasks in the
real world. Examples are strength, speed, balance, reaction time, hand-eye
coordination, and speed of limb movements. Note that the term ability is
often used incorrectly to indicate motor skills.
Goal-directed activities or tasks that require voluntary control over
movements of the joints and body segments to achieve predetermined
Motor skills results with maximum certainty, often with the minimum expenditure of
time, energy or both. They are learned and improved by practice. Examples
are the techniques of sport disciplines.
A set of internal processes associated with practice or experience leading to
relatively permanent gains in the capability for skilled performance (i.e., an
increased capability to produce motor skills). Examples of internal
processes that change with learning are attention, memory, perception, and
Motor learning
neuromuscular patterns of activation. Learning is inferred when
performance: (a) increases over time through practice; (b) is more
persistent, consistent, and stable despite challenging environments; and (c)
is flexible to changing situations.
The way the neuromuscular system works to activate and coordinate the
Motor control
muscles and limbs involved in performing a motor skill.
Learned proficiency to achieve a desired outcome on a given task with
Skilled
maximum certainty (i.e., effectiveness) and efficiency—namely, a
performance
minimum expenditure of time, energy, or both.

MOTOR SKILLS

In the sport literature, a motor skill is understood as a complex act or task employed to

achieve a specific goal and that requires the execution of voluntary movements. A motor skill

is not only a reflex action, but involves part or whole body movements to be accomplished.

The notion of ‘skill’ differs from the concept of ‘ability’. Ability represents a potential for

general motor behaviour, widely inherited and underlying skilful behaviour, in contrast to the

more specific concept of ‘skill’.

Almost all motor skills involve three main elements: (1) the cognitive component –

deciding what to do to achieve the performance goal; (2) the perceptual component – deciding

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where and when to do the action in function of relevant environmental features; and (3) the

movement component – deciding how to do the action (i.e., how to organise muscles activity

to generate effective actions). Motor skills are therefore intertwined with cognitive and

perceptual skills, which are necessary for the successful completion of the task.

Cognitive skills enable performers to know what to do and how to do it, while

perceptual skills allow individuals to decide when and how to act. Examples of cognitive

skills outside and within the motor domain include reading, writing, solving math problems,

constructing persuasive arguments, memorizing strategies, and deciding tactical plays in

soccer or other team sports. Perceptual skills involve the ability to detect information or to

discriminate among sensory stimuli in the environment that are of primary importance for

successfully carrying out the task. In clay shooting, for example, the sensory acuity of the

shooters allows them to see the target in flight and its trajectory, thus allowing them to decide

when to start the movement and where to shoot. Perceptual skills are so essential in

accomplishing complex tasks that motor skills are often referred to as perceptual-motor skills.

Motor skills, therefore, are closely linked to the perceptual and cognitive components

necessary for an accurate completion of the task. Along with perceptual and cognitive aspects,

in shooting sports it is also the quality of the movement itself that is of paramount importance.

For instance, a shooter may have no problem knowing what to do (aiming at the target) or

understanding how to do it (taking the correct position, rising the arm, coordinating triggering

and aiming, etc.). However, executing accurate and consistent movements to repeatedly hit

the target remains a challenge.

Importantly, skills are learned. Motor skills embrace a wide range of behaviours

performed primarily through the coordination of limbs and segments of the body. Individuals

acquire a better capacity to achieve desired goals through experience or intentional practice.

People are either unskilled or highly skilled at an activity, depending on their degree of

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learning rather than some underlying capacity or ability genetically acquired. Some skills,

such as walking, running, and jumping, are learned in the early stages of development through

interaction with the environment. Other skills, such as writing and reading, are learned

through repeated and often unintentional practice. Finally, other skills are learned through

intentional (deliberate) practice, as in the case of technical skills in sport.

CLASSIFICATION OF MOTOR SKILLS

Motor skills can be classified based on a limited number of common characteristics

and relevant similarities. Table 1.2 summarizes the main characteristics of different types of

motor skills.

Table 1.2. Different types of motor skills.

Motor skills Characteristics

Motor skills that require the use of large muscle areas to achieve the goal of
Gross
the skill.
Motor skills that require control of small muscles to achieve the goal of the
Fine skill. They generally involve eye-hand coordination and requires a high
degree of precision in the movement of the hand and fingers.
Motor skills with clearly defined starting and ending points of movement,
Discrete
which usually require simple movement.
Motor skills with arbitrary start and end points of movement. These skills
Continuous
usually involve repetitive movements.
Serial Motor skills involving a series of discrete skills.
Motor skills performed in a stationary or relatively stable and predictable
Closed
environment, where the performer determines when to start the action.
Motor skills performed in an unstable or relatively variable environment
Open where changes in context determine the characteristics of the action (e.g.,
how, when, where to perform the action).

Common characteristics are classified along the two ends of a continuum rather than

in dichotomous categories. This continuous approach allows a skill to be classified based on

its main characteristics. Three classifications of motor skills frequently used include (1) the

size of the primary muscle groups needed to perform the skill, (2) the temporal features of the

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skill relative to its beginning and ending, and (3) the stability of the environment in which the

skill is performed. All motor skills can be classified into each of these three dimensions.

Depending on the size of the primary muscle engaged, skills are classified into gross

motor skills and fine motor skills (Figure 1.1). Gross motor skills are those that require the

use of relatively large musculature to produce an action. These skills usually need less

movement precision than fine motor skills. Fundamental motor skills such as walking,

running, jumping, throwing, balancing, and climbing are gross motor skills. Gross motor

skills typically involve many muscle groups and, frequently, movement of the whole body.

On the other hand, fine motor skills are typically performed by recruiting small muscle groups

such as those of the fingers, hands, and forearms, and require little muscle strength or energy

to perform successfully. Examples of fine motor skills include handwriting, sewing, buttoning

a shirt, the use of precision tools, and the triggering action in shooting. In all these cases, it is

the precision of the movement itself, and not the strength with which it is done, that allows to

successfully execute the skill.

Gross skills Fine skills

Intermediate skills

Walking Steering a car Handwriting

Hopping Pitching a golf ball Buttoning a shirt
Jumping Shotgun shooting Triggering in shooting

Figure 1.1. Classification of motor skills along the gross/fine continuum.

A second way of classifying motor skills is based on their temporal characteristics

with respect to their beginning and ending. Accordingly, motor skills are classified as

discrete, continuous, or serial (Figure 1.2). Some skills have specific start and end points and

are classified as discrete motor skills. They are usually completed quickly, in a relatively short

period of time (i.e., a fraction of a second to a few seconds). Examples of discrete motor skills

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include serving a tennis ball, throwing darts, standing up from a sitting position, hitting a

baseball, and shooting in shooting sports. At the other end of the continuum we find

continuous motor skills, those in which both the beginning and the end are arbitrary and

unpredictable. These are often, but not always, repetitive and rhythmic in nature. Examples

are walking, swimming, cycling, running, and rowing. The individual decides when to end a

continuous skill and often when to start it. Between the two extremes lie serial motor skills

consisting of a sequence of discrete elements, such as typing, performing a gymnastics

routine, playing the piano, and dribbling a basketball.

Discrete skills Continuous skills

Serial skills

Tennis serve Playing piano Steering a car

Hitting a baseball Triple jump Running
Shooting Gymnastics routine Swimming

Figure 1.2. Classification of motor skills along the discrete/continuous continuum.

A third way to classify motor skills is based on the stability and predictability of the

environment in which they are performed (Figure 1.3). Closed motor skills are those in which

the environment remains relatively constant and predictable from the time the skill is

performed until the next execution. The performer usually decides (or has some time to

decide) when to start the action, as well as when to stop and start again. For this reason,

closed motor skills are also referred to as self-paced motor skills. Examples of closed skills

are target shooting, dart throwing, bowling, swimming, and volleyball service. Unlike closed

skills, open motor skills are performed in a changing, unstable, and unpredictable

environment. The performer cannot effectively plan the whole action in advance. Examples

are the many skills involved in all situational sport disciplines, such as fencing, wrestling,

tennis, basketball, volleyball, and rugby, in which the performer must adapt to the actions of

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others (i.e., opponents and/or teammates). The correct execution of the skill, or even the

decision as to whether or not a skill should be performed, cannot be precisely planned in

advance. Between closed and open motor skills there are actions carried out in a relatively

unstable environment, which to some extent are predictable and of which the performer has a

certain level of control, as happens in windsurfing, kayaking, and skiing.

Closed skills Open skills

Intermediate skills

Dart throwing Windsurfing Driving a car in traffic

Bowling Kayaking Playing rugby
Shooting Skiing Wrestling

Figure 1.3. Classification of motor skills along the closed/open continuum.

STAGES OF LEARNING

The learning process that individuals go through when acquiring motor skills of

different type and complexity is similar. There are identifiable behavioural stages that all

people experience in the acquisition of motor skills. These phases can be experienced at

different speeds, sometimes markedly different from one individual to another for a same

skill, but the transition through each phase occurs in all people who learn a new skill.

Effective coaches are able to identify in which phase of learning (i.e., initial, intermediate, and

advanced) their athletes are and, consequently, are able to tailor instructional and practical

experiences to best meet the needs of the learners at that moment. Indeed, the ability to

distinguish between the stages through which people progress in the acquisition of motor

skills is a requirement for implementing effective instructional strategies and is one of the

hallmarks of good coaches.

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Fitts and Posner Stages of Learning

In 1967, Paul Fitts and Michael Posner proposed three stages (or phases) of learning:

cognitive, associative, and autonomous (see Figure 1.4, upper part). Since then, the model has

become the most widely accepted and used in the field of learning and teaching of motor

skills. Learners gain a better understanding of the skill and improve their ability to execute the

skill as they move from one stage to the more advanced stage (see Table 1.3). It should be

noted, however, that skill learning is best viewed as a progressive, continuous, and dynamic

process that does not necessarily take place in clearly distinguishable and defined phases.

Cognitive stage Associative stage Autonomous stage

Novice level Advanced level Expert level

Figure 1.4. Fitts and Posner model (upper part) and dynamic systems model of the stages of
learning (lower part).

Different cognitive, perceptual, and motor processes are involved in the different

points of the learning process. In the cognitive stage the learner tries to grasp the basic idea of

the skill and understand what exactly needs to be done. Even when learners initially

understand the idea of the movement and its purpose, they may not understand the correct

movement patterns needed for execution. At this stage, cognitive mental processes dominate,

and movements are controlled in a relatively conscious manner. This stage has also been

labelled “verbal stage” because learners often use overt or covert self-talk (inner dialogue,

sub-verbalization) in an attempt to guide their actions. They tend to pay attention to the step-

by-step execution of the skill and, as a consequence, the resulting movement is relatively

slow, abrupt, and inefficient, and performance is rather inconsistent. The errors are frequent,

large, and very different in type and extent. Learners may perceive that their movements do

not meet the goals of the skill they are learning, but they do not know how to correct them.

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This can lead to feelings of confusion, frustration, and decreased motivation. In this phase

learners do not have the necessary knowledge to understand and use the information that

comes from the environment and their movement, produce correct movement patterns, and

evaluate the results of their action. They need to understand the correct mechanics of the

action and how to interpret and use information from both the environment and their body to

produce the correct action. Therefore, performers depend heavily on the instructions and

feedback provided by an external source (e.g., the coach).

The length of this cognitive phase of motor learning depends on a number of factors.

Learners can pass this phase after making a few attempts or trying the skill for a few minutes,

especially if they have already experienced similar tasks or if the skill to be learned is simple.

For complex skills the duration of the first phase can be much longer, especially for

inexperienced people. With effective practice, however, almost everyone is able to pass this

learning phase for most motor skills and thus reach the next phase.

The associative stage of learning begins when the learner has acquired the basic

movement pattern and the main objectives of a skill. As a result, we can observe a number of

behavioural changes. In this phase, more subtle movement adjustments occur, errors become

less frequent, the type and magnitude of errors decrease, the action is more consistent from

trial to trial, the outcome is more reliable, ineffective co-contractions are gradually reduced,

and the movement becomes smoother and more efficient (i.e., executed with less energy

expenditure compared to the cognitive stage). Much of the irregularities that typify the earlier

learning phase disappear as various components of a skill become more effectively integrated

and connected each other. Furthermore, the need to consciously control every aspect of the

action is progressively lessened. Therefore, at least parts of the movement are performed

under a more automatic control, and more attention can be directed to other aspects of the

performance. Performers begin to integrate aspects of the environment into their performance

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by linking sensory input with appropriate movement responses. This allows the performer to

adapt better to environmental changes. The need for “self-talk” or sub-verbalization decreases

during this stage. Performers can now make changes to movement patterns based on

situational changes, for example by speeding up or slowing down movements in relation to

changes in environmental conditions.

The amount of time a learner will remain in the associative stage (and also in the

cognitive stage) depends on several factors, such as the complexity of the skills, the individual

abilities and skills already acquired, and the quality of teaching. Highly complex skills can

take many weeks or months of practice before the performer is able to move on to the next

stage. Although many learners can reach the associative stage rather quickly, they may not be

able to advance to the next stage. For complex skills, reaching the autonomous stage of

learning may require specific individual skills, adequate motivation, and effective teaching

strategies.

After extensive practice, the performer reaches the autonomous stage. This phase is

characterized by fluent and seemingly effortless movements. The actions are very accurate,

consistent, efficient, with little or no errors and relatively little muscular energy required.

Individuals are able to adapt their movements to a wide range of environmental situations.

The skill is carried out largely automatically, and movement execution requires little or no

attention to the mechanics of the skill. Performers no longer have to think about how to

perform the skill and can even forget how exactly they perform, even though they are able to

execute the skill with high proficiency. Attention can be directed to other areas of interest.

Indeed, an indication that individuals have reached the autonomous stage is their ability to

maintain good performance standards while thinking about something else, to direct attention

to cues unrelated to performance or, conversely, to mentally anticipate events related to

performance in order to adapt the action effectively to environmental changes. Performers are

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able to detect their mistakes, analyse the causes of ineffective performance, and find ways to

correct mistakes and attain their goals. Movements are executed effectively (the goal of the

skill is reached) and efficiently (with an optimal amount of energy invested). Reaching the

autonomous stage typically requires considerable practice, even greater than that necessary to

attain the associative stage, high motivation, motor capabilities, and effective teaching

strategies.

As illustrated in Figure 1.4, progression through stages is best regarded as continuous

rather than discontinuous, with progression advancing through practice from cognitive to

autonomous stages. Progress from stage to stage is most often gradual rather than marked by

sudden shifts in performance. For this reason, it is often difficult to detect at what stage an

individual is at a particular time.

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Table 1.3. Fitts and Posner stages of learning and their characteristics.

Cognitive stage (beginner)

• Many errors
• Great variability in errors
• Irregular movement patterns
• Blocked joints, rigidity, and movement limited
• Stiff muscles in complex movements
• Slow response time
• Conscious attention directed to control most skill elements
• Sub-verbalization (“self-talk”)
• Stereotyped movements not adaptable to environmental changes
• Slow, inconsistent, and ineffective movements
• Considerable cognitive activity
• Poor performance
Associative stage (intermediate)
• Decreased frequency of errors
• Less pronounced errors
• Understanding of basic skill requirements
• Faster, smoother, and more effective movements
• Joints released; wider and more flexible movements as synergies develop
• Automatic execution of some movement segments and conscious control of other parts
• Greater movement adaptability to environmental changes
• Less cognitive activity required
• Higher performance
Autonomous stage (advanced)
• Few errors
• Small variability in errors
• Smooth, fluid, coordinated action
• Quick response in skill execution and fast decision making
• Integration and connection of all skill components
• Movement execution in interaction with the external environment
• Ability to attend to performance-related or unrelated cues while executing
• Great movement adaptability to environmental changes and different contexts
• Ability to detect errors and find solutions
• Minimum (optimal) energy expenditure
• Accurate, consistent, and effective actions
• Low or no cognitive activity required
• Movement largely controlled automatically
• High performance

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Dynamic Systems Model Stages of Learning

Another perspective of the learning process is offered by the dynamic systems theory.

This theory recognizes the same behavioural characteristics of the Fitts and Posner model that

learners manifest as they acquire motor skills, however the interpretation is different. A

fundamental principle of the theory is that movement patterns emerge from the interaction

between the organism (the performer), the task to be performed, and the environment in

which the action takes place (Figure 1.5). The constraints derived from the interaction of these

three components provide the boundaries of the possibilities of movement and shape

movement in preferred patterns. Constraints do not impose particular movement patterns, but

make certain patterns more likely to emerge, those that produce the highest degree of stability.

Coordination emerges as learners adapt their movement behaviours to the constraints imposed

on them and learn to exploit their movement environment in order to take greater advantage

of these constraints. The fundamental challenge faced by learners is how to control the vast

number of movement possibilities they have. According to this view, coordination (i.e.,

learning skills) is the learning process to control the many possibilities (i.e., degrees of

freedom) available within the human movement system.

Organism Perception

Performance

Task Environment
Action

Figure 1.5. Interaction between organism (performer), task, and environment constraints
underlying coordination patterns in goal-directed behaviour.

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 The three learning stages are called novice, advanced, and expert (see Figure 1.4,

lower part). In the novice stage of learning, the main challenge for the learner is how to

control and coordinate the many muscles and joints involved in the movement. This requires

control of many independent possibilities of movement (i.e., degrees of freedom) of the

muscles that control the joints underlying the action. The learner simplifies this difficult task

by reducing the number of individual elements that need to be controlled. This is achieved by

freezing the degrees of freedom in the movement systems involved in the production of the

skill. This entails blocking some joints of the limbs so that they move in a unitary way, rather

than as a system where each joint is free to move independently. For example, a child can

only use the arm to throw a ball. The legs and most part of the trunk do not intervene to assist

the throw as they do in more advanced throwers. Inexperienced throwers also eliminate the

backswing, and the throw is completed almost exclusively by using the elbow joint and part

of the trunk as a single action unit. By freezing some degrees of freedom while keeping

various limbs and regions of the body rigid and fixed, the number of degrees of freedom that

must be controlled by the novice is reduced to a manageable number. This behaviour,

however, is insufficient to allow coordinated and effective control of movements.

Performance improvement is only possible when some of the degrees of freedom (i.e., the

possibilities of movement) are released to be independent (or relatively independent) of the

actions of other parts of the body. Learning takes place through trial and error experiences.

Gradually, learners begin to release some degrees of freedom, allowing some joints and

segments of the body to move more freely, and explore movement possibilities and outcomes.

At this point, joints can be controlled more flexibly, independently, and effectively.

In the advanced stage of learning, after exploring the possibilities of action, the

performers learn to free more and more degrees of freedom of their movement in order to

achieve optimal coordination patterns. At this stage, previously frozen joints can be

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incorporated into larger and more sophisticated units of action. These are called coordinated

structures or synergies. Synergies are groups of muscles that often span multiple joints linked

together and act as a single unit when activated. Through the learning stages, performers

acquire the ability to control many more independent movements of muscles and joints. They

become able to coordinate complex actions that often involve whole-body movement patterns.

The action is fluid, well-coordinated, and relatively effective.

After achieving movement coordination, in the expert stage of learning the performers

are able to exploit the passive and reactive forces in the body system (i.e., muscles and joints)

and in the environment. In this phase, the performer continues to release degrees of freedom

and to rearrange the others in order to obtain the most efficient movement patterns in terms of

energy expenditure. The main focus at this stage, however, is on the exploitation of internal

and external forces, which can significantly contribute to the effectiveness of the movement.

In the example of throwing a ball, the child froze most of the body’s movements and rigidly

move the arm and torso as a single unit of action. In the advanced stage, the child can take

advantage of some combinations of arm extension and torsion of the trunk and recognize that

some movements are more effective than others to produce strength. Through the continuous

exploration of the possibilities of movement, the child will learn to spread the legs, twist the

upper body, and extend the arm well before throwing the ball, thus taking advantage of the

elastic properties of the musculature and the biomechanical forces inherent in the action.

Learners also acquire the ability to exploit the physical properties of the environment such as

the inertia, friction, and gravity intrinsic to the environmental context, thus achieving better

coordination, greater performance competence, and wider flexibility of movement.

INSTRUCTIONAL PRIORITIES IN THE STAGES OF LEARNING

As performers progress through the stages of learning, they need different

instructional strategies. Teaching strategies that can be helpful in one stage can actually be

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less effective in another stage or even hinder learning. As previously discussed, beginners

have to voluntarily control the action and develop a cognitive understanding of a skill, while

at a later stage they can start to control the action more automatically.

A number of fundamental instructional strategies will be presented in detail in the next

chapters, while others, regarding goal setting, instructions, demonstrations, and feedback,

have been discussed in the sports science booklet of the ISSF National Coach (first level)

Course. Table 1.4 contains a summary of important instructional strategies coaches should use

with their athletes across the stages of learning based on Fitts and Posner and the dynamic

systems model classifications.

Table 1.4. Instructional strategies in the stages of learning based on Fitts and Posner and the
dynamic systems model classification.

FITTS AND POSNER DYNAMIC SYSTEMS

Cognitive stage (beginner) Novice stage
• Use verbal instructions and demonstrations to • Present the learner with the goal of the
help learners mentally form a basic idea of the skill to perform
skill and the goals of the action • Facilitate and encourage the learner’s
• Involve learners in the goal setting process attempts to explore action possibilities
• Provide short information and keep it concise and to discover movement solutions
• Help learners identify and differentiate • Ask questions to direct the learner’s
appropriate sources of information on the attention to relevant cues and
environment perceptual information and provide
• Highlight to learners how their acquired skills adequate feedback
and knowledge can be transferred to the new • Change task demands (e.g., balance,
situation timing) according to the learner’s
• Provide relatively frequent feedback regarding ability to adapt
main errors • Change environmental constraints
• Reinforce individual’s performance (e.g., distance, target, rules) according
improvements, participation, and efforts in to the learner’s ability to adapt
order to enhance motivation and interest
• If necessary, simplify techniques, for example
when the skill is very complex, or the
individual level is very low
Table 1.4. continues

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Table 1.4. continued

Associative stage (intermediate) Advanced stage

• Encourage learners to identify and respond to • Continue to encourage learners to
changes in environmental conditions rather explore movement possibilities while
than focusing primarily on movement changing movement requirements and
mechanics environmental demands
• Increase movement variability • Change practice environments
• Gradually withdraw the amount and type of • Change task demands systematically
feedback provided to learners (e.g., balance, timing, movement
• Encourage learners to evaluate and correct symmetrisation)
their errors on their own • Change environmental constraints
• Reinforce correct movement behaviours systematically (e.g., light, distance,
• Instruct learners to redirect attentional target, rules, weather conditions)
resources (especially visual ones) to
appropriate cues in the environment
• Continue to reinforce improvements,
participation, commitment, and effort
Autonomous stage (advanced) Expert stage
• Try to keep learners’ motivation levels high, • Design variable training sessions that
despite the difficulties that can be encountered encourage performers to further
in reaching even small improvements in improve and extend their problem
performance solving and adaptation skills to the
• Emphasise that improvements can be achieved situational demands
through continuous involvement and • Continue to change practice
dedication environments
• Focus instructions on how to refine • Simulate competition
movements and adapt them to varying • Continue to change task demands
situations systematically (e.g., balance, timing,
• Help learners to refine and adapt their well- movement symmetrisation)
learned skills to meet the demands of a wide • Change individual constraints (e.g.,
range of environmental conditions fatigue, physical activation, stress,
• Encourage learners to analyse in detail their emotions)
performance and find personal solutions to the • Continue to change environmental
difficulties encountered in both practice and constraints systematically (e.g., light,
competition contexts distance, target, rules, weather
conditions)

Fully engage performers in the learning

process across all stages of learning

The applied indications deriving from the two different models can be harmonized in

effective instructional activities. The Fitts and Posner model is more focused on individual

changes during the learning phases, while the dynamic systems model considers the

interaction between individual, task, and environment in explaining motor behaviour and the

21
acquisition of skills, and in identifying instructional strategies. Both models contribute to our

understanding of how people learn motor skills and offer practical indications that can be used

to structure, design, and implement instructional activities according to the individual’s needs

and learning stages.

SUMMARY

Motor skills, including many different technics in sport, involve three important

aspects: (1) the cognitive component – deciding what to do to attain the performance goal; (2)

the perceptual component – deciding where and when to do it in function of environmental

cues; and (3) the movement component – deciding how to do it (i.e., how to organise muscles

activity to generate effective actions).

Motor skills can be classified along the two ends of a continuum as: (1) gross–fine,

based on the size of the primary muscle groups involved, (2) discrete–continuous, depending

on the temporal features of the skill relative to its beginning and ending, and (3) closed–open,

in function of the stability of the environment in which the skill is performed. All motor skills

can be classified into each of these three dimensions.

In learning motor skills, the performers go through different stages typified by specific

cognitive processes, behaviours, and interactions with the environment. According to both

Fitts and Posner and dynamic systems models, in the initial phase of learning (the cognitive or

novice stage), novices struggle to grasp the basics of action in an attempt to form a mental

picture of the goals of movement and correct mechanics of a skill. Most elements of a skill are

controlled in a relatively intentional (conscious) way. The errors are frequent and large in

magnitude, and performance is poor. The learner tends to block (“freeze”) some joints while

coupling others, maintain the rigidity of the body, and limit the movement of joints, limbs and

body components.

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 In the intermediate phase (the associative or advanced stage), the need to control

every aspect of the action is gradually reduced. Therefore, more parts of the skill are executed

under automatic control and, consequently, more attention can be directed towards other

aspects of the performance. Movements become more consistent, precise, economical in

terms of energy expenditure, and effective in terms of the goals that can be achieved. The

performer can release (“free”) frozen joints and limbs as synergies develop. The control of

action and movement flexibility are improved.

In the final phase (the autonomous or expert stage), performers automatically execute

most or all components of a skill without depleting attentional resources. Movement

coordination is high, and performers are able to effectively adapt the patterns of their action to

deal with environmental changes. Performers use (“exploit”) the passive and reactive forces

of the body system and the external environment that contribute to the dynamics of the

movement.

Coaches should be aware of the need to apply different teaching strategies as people

progress through the learning stages. Numerous teaching strategies are identified in the

different stages of learning based on the Fitts and Posner and Dynamic Systems models.

Suggested Readings

Edwards, W. H. (2011). Motor learning and control: From theory to practice. Belmont, CA:

Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Chapters 2 & 7.

Ives, J. C. (2014). Motor behavior: Connecting mind and body for optimal performance.

Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins. Chapters 6 & 7.

Magill, R. A., & Anderson, D. I. (2017). Motor learning and control: Concepts and

applications (11th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Chapters 1 & 12.

Renshaw, I., Davids, K., Newcombe, D., & Roberts, W. (2019). The constraints-led approach:

Principles for sports coaching and practice design. New York, NY: Routledge.

23
Schmidt, R. A., & Lee, T. D. (2020). Motor learning and performance: From principles to

application (6th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Chapters 1, 8, & 9.

Self-Evaluating Questions

• How are motor skills defined and what are their main elements?

• What is the difference between motor abilities and motor skills?

• What factors influence the performance of motor skills?

• How can motor skills be meaningfully classified?

• Provide examples for each of the three classifications of motor skills.

• Compare and contrast the learning stages according to the Fitts and Posner and

Dynamic System models.

• Discuss the instructional priorities for each stage of learning based on the Fitts and

Posner and Dynamic System classifications.

• Choose a technical shooting skill and discuss the behavioural aspects of performance

for a shooter in each of the three learning stages and develop strategies to instruct the

shooter in each stage.

• Discuss how you can change task demands, individual constraints, and environmental

constraints to improve and refine the performance of an expert shooter.

Practical Activities in the Field for Learning Motor Skills

• Use instructional strategies based on the Fitts and Posner classification to help your

novice shooter learn a technical skill.

• Drawing on the dynamic systems classification, use instructional strategies to help

your novice shooter learn a technical skill.

• Invite your expert athlete to analyse in detail their performance and find personal

solutions to the difficulties encountered in both practice and competition contexts.

• Change task demands to improve and refine performance of an expert shooter.

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 • Change individual constraints to improve and refine performance of an expert shooter.

• Change environmental constraints to improve and refine performance of an expert

shooter.

• Design training methods based on the Fitts and Posner and dynamic systems

classifications and ask your expert shooter to try both:

FITTS AND POSNER DYNAMIC SYSTEMS

Autonomous stage (advanced) Expert stage

Power Point Presentation

Slides 1 to 25.

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 CHAPTER 2 – SCHEDULING PRACTICE

OVERVIEW

Practice is essential for learning. It is the main factor that determines the transition

from an initial stage of learning to more advanced phases of proficiency and expertise in

sport. Simply put, practice is learning. People have innate abilities that can make learning a

particular skill relatively easy. Nevertheless, a great deal of practice is still required to

improve and optimize the performance of complex actions.

Although individual physical and cognitive maturation influences skilled performance

behaviour, motor learning is specifically defined with respect to changes that occur as a result

of experience or dedication to practice. Performance improvement through learning consists

of a change in the quality of movement production (increase in efficiency) and/or a greater

probability of success in achieving the results of the action (increase in effectiveness, such as

improvement in response consistency or error reduction).

Practice is so critical for learning to occur that sometimes coaches tend to focus on

repetition and neglect the quality of practice experiences. However, simply repeating skills

over and over does not guarantee good levels of success. In fact, the quality of practice is as

important as the time spent practicing. Researchers and practitioners have highlighted a wide

range of instructional methods that coaches should adopt when designing practice experiences

of quality. The methods coaches choose and how those methods are arranged during training

play a major role in the acquisition and retention of skills.

The effectiveness on learning of one particular form of practice compared to another

depends on variables such as age, experience, and type of skill. However, the same amount of

practice can either result in little learning or, conversely, in substantial improvement in skill

level, depending on how practice experiences are designed. Table 2.1 contains some of the

most important instructional schedules presented in this chapter.

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Table 2.1. Instructional schedules for learning.

Distribution of practice: massed vs distributed

How the frequency and amount of rest are scheduled
Distribution of practice
between practice sessions and within the session.
A practice schedule in which the amount of rest between
Massed practice
practice sessions or trials is relatively short.
A practice schedule in which the amount of rest between
Distributed practice
practice sessions or trials is relatively long.
Practice variability: constant vs variable
The variety of movement and context characteristics that a
Practice variability
person experiences while practicing a skill.
A same skill is repeated in the same way, without
Constant practice
variations, in a fixed context in a series of trials.
A same skill is repeated in a variety of different ways and
Varied practice
contexts.
Contextual interference: blocked vs random or serial practice
The memory and performance difficulties (i.e.,
Contextual interference interference) that result from performing multiple skills,
variations of a skill, or both within the context of practice.
A single motor skill is practiced completely before moving
Blocked practice
to the next motor skill and so forth.
A number of skills are practiced in an unpredictable order
Random or serial practice (i.e., random) or in a pre-ordered sequence (i.e., serial) for
several times.
The learning benefit resulting from performing multiple
skills in a high contextual interference practice schedule
Contextual interference effect (i.e., random or serial practice), instead of performing the
skills in a low contextual interference schedule (i.e.,
blocked practice).
Part vs whole practice
Simplified performance of a skill, involving either the
initial practice of component parts of the skill or the
Part practice
simplification of environmental features in which the skill
is performed.
Practice of a skill in its entirety as it is intended to be
Whole practice
performed as a result of practice.

INTRODUCTION

There is consensus among theorists and practitioners that practice is the single most

important factor in the learning of motor skills. According to the law of practice, performance

improvement continues providing that practice continues, even though the rate at which

improvement occurs gradually decreases over time or number of trials.

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 When learning of a new motor skill, rapid performance improvements usually occur

during the initial training periods. As practice continues, the rate of performance improvement

slows down while the time needed to observe small changes begins to take longer and longer.

This negatively accelerated performance curve is represented in Figure 2.1 considering the

stages of learning discussed in the previous chapter. This typical pattern of behavioural

change depicts learning rate of virtually all motor skills. The upper limit of learning is

progressively reached with training. Although potential improvements are always possible,

performance tends to stabilise over time.

Performance level

Autonomous – Expert

Associative – Advanced

Cognitive – Novice

Time
Figure 2.1. Learning stages over practice time.

The amount of practice is of paramount importance, but alone is not enough and must

be combined with quality of practice. Practice quality, in fact, is essential to improve and

optimize learning, as it plays a fundamental role with respect to the speed, stability, and level

of acquisition that will result.

When planning training sessions, coaches must make a number of decisions about

scheduling activities. These include the way in which sessions are distributed over time,

whether skills should be practiced in a constant manner or in a variety of ways, the order in

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which skills should be practiced, and whether to learn complex skills in parts or as whole

actions.

Importantly, coaches should be aware that many ways of scheduling training sessions,

which stem from common beliefs and often seem intuitively out of question, are not the most

effective ways to teach motor skills. Although learning manifests itself in changes in

behavioural outcomes, the internal processes and states that influence an individual’s current

performance are not necessarily related to learning. For example, fatigue after a long training

session can result in significantly reduced performance, or the presence of a particular

incentive could push an individual to a high but atypical level of performance. Therefore,

immediate conclusions about the effectiveness of a practical intervention could be masked by

these temporary performance factors. Instead of focusing on short-term (immediate)

improvements, which are often very instable, coaches would do better to devise intervention

strategies to help their performers: (a) achieve long-term lasting results, and (b) transfer skills

acquired from practice to competition.

MASSED AND DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE

A decision that coaches must make concerns the distribution of practice, namely,

balancing the periods of work and rest between and within the practice schedules (see Figure

2.2). The questions are:

• Is it better to condense the practice sessions more closely over time (massed practice),

or is it preferable to space the sessions over longer periods of time (distributed

practice)? This problem concerns practice distribution between sessions.

• Should a single practice session contain short rest periods between trials (massed

practice), or should the session include longer break periods (distributed practice)?

This question regards practice distribution within a session.

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 Between
Close sessions Spaced sessions
sessions

MASSED DISTRIBUTED
PRACTICE PRACTICE

Within a Short rest between Long rest between

session trials trials

Figure 2.2. Distribution of practice for learning.

Practice Distribution Between Sessions

There is a general consensus among researchers and practitioners that distributed

practice benefits learning more than massed practice. In general, for the same overall practice

time and total number of repetitions of a skill, shorter practice sessions, distributed over

longer periods of time, are more effective for learning than sessions where the practice is

concentrated in longer sessions and shorter periods of time.

But why is distributed practice between sessions better than massed practice? There

are several explanations.

• One possible reason is related to the memory encoding and consolidation. Memory

traces in the brain are made permanent through a series of biochemical processes that

take time to complete. The distribution of practice allows more time for these

encoding and consolidation processes to take place.

• A second explanation concerns the brain processes that occur during sleep. Sleep has

been shown to be essential for the consolidation of memory traces, including motor

skills. The distribution of practice over time translates into a greater number of

training experiences followed by periods of sleep. This would lead to greater

reinforcement of memory traces in the brain.

• Another reason relies on the cognitive effort and motivation effects associated with

distributed practice. Spacing practice, in fact, can increase the amount of cognitive

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 effort in the learners whose cognitive acquisition processes are continuously

stimulated over time. On the contrary, the repetitive practice experiences that

characterize massed practice can become monotonous and boring. This would lead to

lower learning outcomes as learners decrease the amount of cognitive effort they exert

to perform the motor task.

Taking these reasons into account, it can be concluded that the distribution of learning

experiences over long periods (months or years) promotes better learning than concentrating

practice sessions over short periods of time.

Practice Distribution Within a Session

As for the practice of skills within a single session, it is important to distinguish the

effects of the practice on continuous or discrete motor skills. In continuous motor skills, the

beginning and end of the action are unpredictable and not obvious (see Chapter 1,

classification of motor skills). Examples are repetitive and rhythmic actions, such as walking,

running, cycling, and swimming, but also tracking skills, such as steering a car. On the other

hand, in discrete motor skills, the starting and ending points of an action are clearly defined,

observable, and predictable. Actions of this type are typically performed in a relatively short

period of time. Examples include serving a volleyball, hitting a penalty kick in soccer, and

throwing darts.

Shooting sports involve executing discrete skills in which the technical components

are organized and integrated in a sequential order into a continuous movement pattern. In this

sense, shooting can be considered a serial skill, in which discrete actions are tied together to

make a new and complex movement (see Chapter 1, Figure 1.2).

Research evidence on continuous skills supports the conclusion that distributed

practice promotes better performance and learning than massed practice. This may appear to

be a rather obvious conclusion. Distributed practice, indeed, leads to less physiological and

31
psychological fatigue because of the inclusion of multiple pauses between tasks. Conversely,

imposing higher demands on learners through massed practice tends to increase the level of

fatigue and decrease the ability to act skilfully during training.

Research findings do not lead to such clear conclusions for the learning of discrete

(and serial) motor skills. However, available evidence suggests that massed practice is more

effective than distributed practice for the learning of discrete motor skills. Most experts

believe that mass practice, although it may depress immediate performance, promotes long-

term learning and retention. Within session, therefore, massed practice schedules for discrete

skills are preferable over distributed schedules.

The suggestion to use massed practice schedules agrees with the need to provide

learners with sufficient practice experiences. Given the limited time normally available in

actual training contexts, removing unnecessary rest breaks between discrete (or serial) tasks

allows for more time devoted to the activity. Indeed, as previously pointed out, the amount of

practice time and number of task repetitions are essential ingredients for learning.

An alternative and effective way of using distributed practice is to insert

demonstrations, observation of others’ execution, instructions, reflective thinking, self-

evaluation of performance (see the booklet for the ISSF National Coach – first level –

Course), and imagery (see Chapter 3 in this booklet) during breaks between practice trials.

Instead of seeing rest as lost time, performers can use their breaks productively to improve

motor learning while recovering from fatigue.

CONSTANT AND VARIABLE PRACTICE

Practice variability can be conceptualised as the practice that includes variations of the

skill itself or the context in which the skill is performed. In the continuum ranging from

constant to variable, constant practice occurs when the skill is performed each time in the

32
same ways and conditions, while variable practice refers to variations in the execution of the

skill or in the conditions in which the task is performed (Figure 2.3).

Constant practice Variable practice

Skill performed in: Skill performed in:

• same ways • different ways
• same conditions • different conditions

Figure 2.3. The constant/variable practice continuum.

Variable practice has been shown to be superior to constant practice for learning a

wide range of motor skills, especially (but not only) in youngsters. Variable practice tends to

improve the individual’s ability to perform the skill in a variety of ways and in different

environmental contexts and circumstances (e.g., practice and competition). The benefits of

variable practice may not appear in immediate performance but rather emerge in the long

term. Variability can actually adversely affect immediate performance during learning, but

will ultimately improve learning. Furthermore, there is agreement that variable practice is

more productive after the learner has passed beyond the first stage of learning and has grasped

the basics of the skill. This would prevent to overwhelm the learner with too much variability

too early.

Variable practice is very important in open skills (see Chapter 1, classification of

motor skills) because these inherently include variability. But even in closed skills there are

benefits from variable practice. Variations in execution can involve a change in movement

parameters, such as speed, force, direction, trajectory, and distance. In pistol and rifle, for

example, the task can be completed with different speeds by alternating between slow, fast,

and normal shooting speed or pacing between shots. It should be emphasized that the

shooter’s ability to adapt the shooting action to environmental constraints, such as light, wind,

and sudden changes in weather conditions, is a requirement for good results.

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 In clay target shooting, the variations are naturally found in the vast assortment of

trajectories, angles, speeds, elevations, and distances that targets are thrown at. Therefore, the

goal of training is to acquire the ability to perform shooting in a variety of different

circumstances. More generally, the goal of the practice is to improve the ability to perform

skills in new ways, in different environments, and in different conditions.

Different theoretical perspectives converge on the idea that practice variability is

beneficial for long-term learning. Practice variability leads to a better development of the

memory traces underlying the skill, because the memory of the skill can be generalized in the

different ways in which the action can be performed. According to the variability of practice

principle, therefore, variations in the task are fundamental for the development of the memory

of a skill. This translates into better learning than constant experiences. According to dynamic

systems theory, variability offers learners the opportunity to explore and discover the

perceptual motor range of possibilities so that they can assemble functional motor patterns.

Beyond memory effects, and similarly to the previously discussed distribution of

practice schedule, the benefits of practice variability on learning can be due to cognitive effort

and motivation. Variability, indeed, requires more cognitive effort and attention from

learners, and these conditions can enhance motivation and commitment to the task. Constant

repetitive practice, on the other hand, can easily lead to boredom and decreased motivation.

Linked to the concept of practice variability is the principle of practice specificity.

According to this principle, the transfer between what is learned during practice and what has

to be done later in real-world contexts depends on the similarity between the elements of the

practice and subsequent performance conditions. In other words, the greater the degree of

similarity between the various elements of training with those of the performance setting (e.g.,

competition), the greater the degree of transfer between the two areas and the better the

learning outcomes. Therefore, effective training experiences should reflect the variability in

34
the execution of the skills and environmental conditions in which future performance will

take place.

It should be noted, however, that there are occasions when relatively good

performance during acquisition is more easily achieved through constant practice rather than

varied practice. For example, constant practice can be more useful when the skill is very

complex for the individual or during the early stage of learning, when novices may experience

skill variations as too confusing. Sometimes it is also possible to schedule constant practice

during the most advanced stages of learning when the goal is to stabilize behaviour. Hence,

the decision to employ varied practice requires careful consideration of the learning stages,

skill complexity, and learner’s ability.

BLOCKED AND RANDOM/SERIAL PRACTICE

In the previous section, we examined variable practice of a single skill. Variability can

also be viewed as the scheduling of repetitions among several skills. This type of variability is

also known as inter-skill or between-skill practice and, once again, it can be represented along

a continuum ranging from blocked practice to random/serial practice (Figure 2.4).

Blocked practice Random/serial practice

Different skills performed Different skills performed

in blocks in random or serial order
Low contextual interference High contextual interference

Figure 2.4. The blocked/random(serial) practice continuum.

It should be noted that practicing a variety of different skills during a session is the

most common type of training. But how can different skills be arranged in one session? To

answer this question, we need to understand the difference between blocked and

random/serial organisation of practice.

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Blocked Practice

Blocked practice is when different skills are performed in blocks without interference

of other skills, thus leading to low contextual interference. On the other hand, random or

serial practice is when a number of skills are executed in random or serial order, thus resulting

in high contextual interference. In a blocked schedule, for example, a tennis player may

continuously practice 15 forehand strokes, 15 backhand strokes, and 15 serves, for a total of

45 trials. In a random practice, the player may perform two or more attempts of each skill in a

random order for a total of 45 trials. In a serial practice arrangement (a version of random

practice), the player may perform 5 forehand strokes, 5 backhand strokes, 5 serves, and repeat

the whole sequence three times. It is important to note that the number of repetitions of each

skill (i.e., 15) and the total number of strokes (i.e., 45) remain unchanged across the three

practice organisation schedules.

Blocked practice typically leads to good immediate performance. This is because

individuals can devote all their attention and memory resources to the skill and to the most

appropriate environmental cues, while coaches can easily provide consistent instructions and

feedback to help maintain high levels of performance. By repeating the same skill over and

over, learners make adjustments from one trial to the next and refine their performance

through repetition. Hence, skills in a blocked schedule have the best chance of being

performed optimally. Performance improvement can momentarily enhance an individual’s

motivation because of high perceived success levels. However, these transient benefits tend to

dissipate once practice is over.

Blocked practice, therefore, is not always the most effective arrangement of training

experiences if the goal is to promote learning and retention over time. Immediate

performance, indeed, is not always the best predictor of learning. There is strong research

evidence across different tasks, people of all ages, and different levels of performance

36
showing that blocked practice enhances short-term performance, but random practice leads to

better learning, retention, and transfer. This outcome is termed the contextual interference

effect.

Contextual Interference

Blocked practice is related to low contextual interference because the context in which

skills are practiced remains constant from trial to trial, and the representation in memory of

the skills remains fairly stable over practice attempts. Random practice, conversely,

determines high contextual interference because the practice context changes constantly,

leading to changes in memory states between practice attempts. As previously stated, there is

robust research evidence showing that high contextual interference (i.e., random/serial

practice) generally promotes better learning of motor skills compared to low contextual

interference (i.e., blocked practice), although this advantage is often masked by poor

immediate performance during acquisition. Indeed, despite creating problems with immediate

performance during practice, contextual interference positively influences long-term learning.

Good short-term performance (but poor long-term learning) achieved through blocked

practice can mislead those athletes and coaches who struggle to reach ‘perfect’ performance

during training. Thus, it is important that athletes and coaches acquire a more accurate sense

of how learning progresses and the objectives of random/serial schedules.

Boyce and Del Ray (1990) found the contextual interference effect in a college riflery

instructional setting, wherein participants were required to practice at different target

locations. In a related study, Keller, Li, Weiss, and Relyea (2006) used pistol-shooting skills

to examine the effects of blocked versus serial practice in adult beginners. Pistol shooting

skills were learned in three stages. In a first stage participants were required to shoot four

targets at graduated distances (i.e., from 6 to 15 yards) from the starting box using a sweeping

motion from left to right or right to left as quickly as possible. In the second stage participants

37
hit three targets arranged in close proximity while avoiding two other targets in the same area.

In the last stage participants had to hit three targets arranged at three different angles from the

shooting box.

A blocked group and a serial group were formed with half of the participants

randomly assigned to each group. The blocked group performed 10 shots at each of the three

stages, with all shots executed at one stage before proceeding to the next. The serial group

executed the same number of shots at each stage using a serial format, with five trials

performed at each stage before switching to the next. This procedure was repeated for a total

of 30 shots. Findings showed that the serial schedule, despite having initially depressed

performance, allowed to maintain better complex shooting skill performance over time

compared to blocked practice. Although having a low cognitive complexity, the pistol

shooting tasks involved high motor and perceptual process demands. In the condition of serial

practice, when the participants were asked to move between the three stages, they were forced

to switch the sensorimotor system from a readiness to perform at one stage to a readiness to

perform at another stage.

Explaining the Contextual Interference Effect

There are several hypotheses put forward to explain the contextual interference effect.

The two most important are the elaboration and the action plan reconstruction hypotheses.

The elaboration hypothesis assumes that when learners practice randomly and

serially, they use more strategies to execute the skill rather than sticking to a plan as happens

in the blocked situation. All the skills are kept in working memory at the same time, thus

allowing the learner to elaborate the memory representations of the skills or skill variations.

In particular, random practice offers more opportunities for learners to distinguish both

similarities and differences among skills, including initial conditions, response parameters,

and sensory consequences, thereby making the memory trace for each skill more distinct,

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meaningful, rich, and easy to recall. In a blocked practice condition, on the other hand, the

attention focus is more on the specific features of a single task and on a rote execution of the

task. This kind of focus of attention tends to exclude the cognitive processing necessary to

enrich the mental representation of the task.

The action plan reconstruction hypothesis (or forgetting hypothesis) is grounded on

the limited capacity of short-term memory. According to this hypothesis, learners involved in

random and serial schedules experience partial or total forgetting of a skill during the periods

in which they are working on other skills. Upon returning to the ‘forgotten’ skill, they have to

reprogram the way in which they will perform it. In particular, when learners perform a skill,

they process the relevant incoming sensory information and retrieve the action plan to guide

the execution of the skill. When they shift to another skill, the action plan kept in short-term

memory is replaced with the action plan for the other skill. The next time the previous skill is

executed, the action plan for it must be reconstructed. This ongoing process of constructing,

forgetting, and reconstructing the plan of action for a skill strengthens the memory trace of the

skill. It is the cognitive effort associated with the recovery and construction of action plans

that, in the long run, strengthens the consolidation process, thus promoting learning. In a

blocked practice condition, in contrast, the action plan can be retrieved and kept in memory

with little additional processing for each subsequent execution of the skill.

Both the elaboration and action plan reconstruction hypotheses provide convincing

explanations for the contextual interference effect and, presumably, both are correct. It is

interesting to note that both points of view highlight the increased attention and cognitive

effort required of learners when practicing in random conditions compared to blocked

conditions, as tasks to be performed constantly vary. Thus, a common thread in the

elaboration and reconstruction hypotheses is that both suggest that contextual interference is a

39
function of the increased cognitive effort prompted by high contextual interference and

reduced cognitive effort resulting from low contextual interference.

An alternative perspective to the elaboration and reconstruction hypotheses that

deserves to be mentioned is the implicit learning hypothesis. This hypothesis provides an

explanation of the contextual interference effect that derives from the theory of implicit motor

learning. This type of learning refers to the acquisition of motor skills with a minimal

awareness of the step-by-step processes underlying the actions, thus reducing reliance on

memory. Motor skills are often acquired implicitly when performers execute without

attempting to consciously analyse their movement patterns. During random/serial practice the

cognitive resources to detect and correct errors can be so overwhelmed by the information

required to switch tasks that learners are unable to concentrate on movement solutions or

memorize rules and information related to the task. Therefore, random/serial practice can

involve high levels of cognitive activity, but this activity is not directly assigned to the

development of movement solutions.

In short, the implicit learning hypothesis concurs with the elaboration and

reconstruction assumptions that high contextual interference evokes higher levels of cognitive

effort than low contextual interference, but suggests that the cognitive processing caused by

task switching can prevent learners from actively processing their previous movement

solutions. In high contextual interference, the individual’s cognitive resources could be so

engaged by the high demands of random/serial practice that conscious learning is prevented.

Eventually, performers during high contextual interference learn more implicitly than

performers involved in low contextual interference who have more attention capacity

available for conscious interpretation and planning of their movements.

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Implications for Practice

The well documented benefits of contextual interference during the acquisition of

motor skills have strong implications for the design and implementation of training

programmes. As a general guideline, coaches should arrange learning sessions according to

random or serial schedules. The long-term benefits of contextual interference should outweigh

the concerns about small improvements in the short-term performance of learners involved in

random or serial practice.

An important question, however, is when to introduce high contextual interference

during learning. The decision depends on a number of factors, such as the individual’s age,

experience, and ability level. With high contextual interference, novices can be overwhelmed

by the high complexity of cognitive demands and movement coordination patterns required to

accomplish the task. Random or serial schedules, in fact, present a greater immediate

challenge for younger or less skilled learners who may not benefit from the effects of high

contextual interference unless they have developed an elementary mastery of the skill.

Therefore, acquiring new skills may require that tasks be presented in blocks for some time.

More complex skills may entail a longer period of blocked practice before starting random or

serial practice. The transition to random or serial schedules should take place as soon as the

learner acquires a basic knowledge of the task and is able to approximate the movement

patterns. In the second phase of learning (the associative/advanced stage), high contextual

interference is more effective than low contextual interference.

41
PRACTICE VARIABILITY AND CONTEXTUAL INTERFERENCE: SCHEDULING

ACTIVITIES

In order to create effective learning conditions, another important question for the

coach is how to combine contextual interference with practice variability. As shown in Figure

2.5, skills can be practiced in a blocked or random/serial manner under constant or variable

conditions.

Random/serial practice

High interference
interference

Random/serial Random/serial
Constant Variable

Low variability High variability

Constant Variable
Practice variability
practice practice
Contextual

Blocked Blocked
Constant Variable

Low interference

Blocked practice

Figure 2.5. The relationship between variability of practice and contextual interference.

The blocked–constant practice represents the simplest condition that can be used in the

first stage of the learning new skills or when teaching complex skills. In the more advanced

phases of learning, practice can progress towards a random/serial–variable practice condition

as indicated in Figure 2.5 by the curved arrows.

42
 The way to organize the four types of practice is illustrated in Figure 2.6. The three

hypothetical skills A, B, and C are executed in series of 12 repetitions without variations

(blocked–constant practice), series of 12 repetitions with 3 variations of each skill (blocked–

variable practice), series of 3 repetition of each skill in alternating order for a total of 12

repetition of each skill (serial–constant practice), and series of 3 repetition of each skill in

alternating order with variations for a total of 12 repetition of each skill (serial–variable

practice).

LOW a) Blocked–constant practice

INTERFERENCE (series of skills A, B, C)

AAAAAAAAAAAA BBBBBBBBBBBB CCCCCCCCCCCC

b) Blocked–variable practice
(series of skills A, B, C with variations 1, 2, 3)

A1A2A3A1A2A3A1A2A3A1A2A3 B1B2B3B1B2B3B1B2B3B1B2B3
C1C2C3C1C2C3C1C2C3C1C2C3

c) Serial–constant practice
(series of skills A, B, C in alternating order)

AAABBBCCC AAABBBCCC AAABBBCCC

AAABBBCCC

d) Serial–variable practice
(series of skills A, B, C with variations in alternating order)

HIGH A1A2A3B1B2B3C1C2C3 A1A2A3B1B2B3C1C2C3

INTERFERENCE A1A2A3B1B2B3C1C2C3 A1A2A3B1B2B3C1C2C3

Figure 2.6. Practice schedule designs varying from low to high contextual interference for
three skills and three variations of each skill.

A hypothetical example in pistol shooting may involve practicing three skills, 15

repetitions each, in four conditions, as shown in Table 2.2. Examples of training variations of

the “Lifting” skill aimed at stimulating balance consist in alternating pistol lifting with feet

naturally spread apart, with feet together, and on one foot. Of course, the 15 repetitions

43
suggested, or a given amount of time, is just to provide an example. The number of repetitions

or the amount of time, as well as the skills practiced, can vary in function of the training time

available, the training goals, and other individual variables (e.g., age, experience, skill level).

Table 2.2. Contextual interference and variability organisation: a hypothetical example with
pistol shooting skills (rep = repetitions; var = variations).

Blocked–constant Blocked–variable Serial–constant Serial–variable

practice practice practice practice
The simplest A condition of A condition of The most challenging
condition intermediate intermediate condition
difficulty difficulty
1) Lifting: 1) Lifting: 1) Lifting: 1) Lifting:
15 rep, no var 5 rep, var 1 5 rep, no var 5 rep, var 1
5 rep, var 2
2) Sighting: 5 rep, var 3 Sighting: Sighting:
15 rep, no var 5 rep, no var 5 rep, var 1
2) Sighting:
3) Triggering: 5 rep, var 1 Triggering: Triggering:
15 rep, no var 5 rep, var 2 5 rep, no var 5 rep, var 1
5 rep, var 3
2) Lifting: 2) Lifting:
3) Triggering: 5 rep, no var 5 rep, var 2
5 rep, var 1
5 rep, var 2 Sighting: Sighting:
5 rep, var 3 5 rep, no var 5 rep, var 2

Triggering: Triggering:
5 rep, no var 5 rep, var 2

3) Lifting: 3) Lifting:
5 rep, no var 5 rep, var 3

Sighting: Sighting:
5 rep, no var 5 rep, var 3

Triggering: Triggering:
5 rep, no var 5 rep, var 3

Total: 45 rep Total: 45 rep Total: 45 rep Total: 45 rep

44
WHOLE AND PART PRACTICE

An important decision when teaching a new skill is whether it is better for the

beginner to practice the technical skill in its entirety (i.e., the whole practice) or if it is

preferable to break the technique into parts (i.e., part practice).

When the whole practice is used, the skill is usually briefly described or demonstrated

and then performed as a whole, from start to finish. This method is particularly suitable for

skills that cannot be easily separated into subparts. Practicing the skill as a whole helps the

performer to get better feelings of flow, timing, and movement outcome, while practicing the

skill in parts reduces the complexity of the task and allows a correct execution before the

whole skill is put together. Whole practice is not suitable for complex or potentially

dangerous skills (e.g., acrobatic tasks).

When learning complex skills, learners can feel overwhelmed by the difficulties

associated with task execution. The inability to accomplish the task correctly can increase

feelings of frustration, which can cause novices to withdraw from practice. As a result, part

practice is often used as an instructional strategy aimed at reducing the demands of the task.

An otherwise complex skill is presented in a more simplified form to enable learners to

experience success and improve further.

Two aspects of a skill can be considered when deciding whether to practice the task as

a whole or in parts: Task complexity and task organisation (Figure 2.7).

Low Task complexity High

Combination of whole
Whole practice Part practice
and part practice

High Task organisation Low

Figure 2.7. The relationship of task complexity and task organisation to whole and part
practice.

45
 Task complexity refers to the number of parts or components of a skill and to the

cognitive demands of the task. These include the level of attention needed to perform

(attention demands) and the number of parts to remember (memory demands). A very

complex skill, like a gymnastics routine, is composed of many parts and requires a high level

of attention especially for a beginner, while a low complex skill, such as throwing a ball, is

made of few components and requires relatively little attention. It is important to distinguish

complexity from difficulty. Lifting a heavy barbell off the floor can be very difficult although

the task is fairly simple.

Task organisation refers to the relationship between the components of the task. A

dance routine has a relatively low degree of task organisation because the order of the

elements can change. On the other hand, the organization of the movements in clay target

shooting is very high because the parts of the actions are dynamically related to each other

through a common spatiotemporal pattern inherent to the whole skill. For example, the

shouldering of the gun in skeet requires to concurrently lift the gun and rotate the body in the

direction of the target. As such it is an organised (and complex) set of individual actions that

are performed simultaneously.

Applying the Principles

As a general rule, whole practice is recommended when the skill is low in complexity

and high in organisation. On the contrary, part practice can be the best choice when the task is

highly complex and little organized. However, it is often difficult to apply this rule because

not all skills can be categorized into one side or the other of the continuum of complexity and

organization. Some skills, indeed, fall into the middle of the continuum and may therefore

require a combination of whole and part practice (i.e., learning skills as a whole at times, and

in part at other times), or progressive part practice in which the parts are gradually chained

together.

46
 A related (mixed) method is the whole-part-whole practice. The learner first tries to

perform the entire task to get the feel of whole performance and to establish the easy and

difficult elements. The coach then extracts the difficult parts and the performer practices them

before putting them back into the whole performance.

It is important to emphasize that in highly organized and very complex skills, such as

those of shooting sport disciplines, the parts cannot be separated without losing some essential

coordinative characteristics. Coaches can use part practice with beginners to better focus their

attention on specific elements of the action and seek accurate execution. When learners reach

a solid understanding of the components of the action, the parts can be reassembled using

whole practice.

Therefore, parts can be practiced separately and then joined together to form the

complete action. With this method, called segmentation, the shooting technique is broken

down into components (or segments) to be practiced separately until reaching a level of

proficiency. The individual parts are then assembled together, and the shooting practiced as a

whole.

Alternatively, the progressive part practice (or forward chaining method) is a useful

way to integrate the parts into the whole. The shooter can start practicing the first part of a

technique, then move on to the next part of the technique to practice it together with the first

part. The shooter continues proceeding through each part of the technique until the entire

technique is performed. Shooters can also start with the final part of the action and then add

parts backwards, thus working towards the beginning of the technique (this method is called

backward chaining).

Whatever the part practice method used, it is important to help learners understand

how the individual components of the technique they are executing relate to the whole

technique that represents the goal of the training.

47
 Another method, called attentional cueing, is to ask the shooter to execute the entire

action but focusing only on one aspect of the technique including: (a) position elements (feet,

legs, pelvis, limbs, etc.), breathing, aiming, and triggering; (b) movement dynamics (i.e.,

rhythm and speed); and (c) specific details in the visual field (e.g., wind flags). This method is

more suitable for skilled athletes. Performers who are learning the fundamentals of the action

may find difficult to focus on only one aspect.

The whole shooting action can also be simplified. Simplification, for example, can be

carried out by slowing down the shooting action so to allow the learner to pay more attention

to specific technical aspects or to the relevant environmental cues. As soon as the benefits of

reducing movement speed are evident, the whole action must be performed at the optimal

speed.

SUMMARY

Practice is the most important factor in learning motor skills. However, beyond the

quantity of the practice, the quality of the practice is fundamental for improving learning.

Designing effective training programmes requires the application of a number of instructional

principles.

Massed and distributed practice. For discrete skills, such as shooting techniques, a

distributed practice between sessions promotes higher learning, while massed practice within

a session is more effective. However, distributed practice within a session can be effectively

used to insert periods of demonstration, observation, instructions, reflective thinking, self-

evaluation of performance, and imagery.

Constant and variable practice. Variable practice of a single skill enhances the

individual’s ability to perform in a variety of ways and environmental contexts. However,

constant practice can be useful when the task is highly complex or during the early stage of

learning.

48
 Blocked and random/serial practice. Variability of practice (random and serial)

among several skills leads to better long-term learning. The contextual interference effect may

seem a paradox, because a random or serial practice schedule can be detrimental during

acquisition but have a positive long-term effect on learning. With beginners or when teaching

complex skills, however, a period of blocked presentation may be necessary before moving to

a random or serial schedule. The beneficial effects of random/serial practice over blocked

practice can be due to several factors. Random practice:

• compels the learner to engage more actively in the learning process by preventing

simple repetitions of actions;

• creates in the learner more significant and distinguishable memories of the various

tasks, increasing memory strength and decreasing confusion between the tasks;

• causes the learner to forget short-term solutions to the action problem after each task

change and forces the regeneration of the solution in the next trials of the task, which

is beneficial for learning.

Whole and part practice. Practicing the skill as a whole allows the performer to get

better feelings of flow, timing, and outcome associated with the action. When the technical

skill is too complex for the learner, other methods can work better. These include the whole-

part-whole practice, segmentation, progressive part practice (forward and backward chaining

methods), attentional cueing, and simplification.

In applying these principles of practice, coaches must keep in mind the distinction

between short-term performance and long-term learning. Instructional strategies should focus

on long-lasting achievements rather than immediate performance. Particular attention must be

paid to the features of the task (such as difficulty, complexity, and organisation) and to the

characteristics of the learner, including age, experience, motivation, and abilities.

49
Suggested Readings

Abraham, A., & Collins, D. (2011). Effective skill development: How should athletes’ skills

be developed? In D. Collins, A. Button, & H. Richards (Eds.), Performance

psychology: A practitioner’s guide (pp. 207-229). Edinburgh, UK: Churchill

Livingstone Elsevier.

Boyce, B. A., & Del Rey, P. (1990). Designing applied research in a naturalistic setting using

a contextual interference paradigm. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 18, 189-

200.

Dail, T. K., & Christina, R. W. (2004). Distribution of practice and metacognition in learning

and long-term retention of a discrete motor skill. Research Quarterly for Exercise and

Sport, 75, 148-155.

Edwards, W. H. (2011). Motor learning and control: From theory to practice. Belmont, CA:

Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Chapter 11.

Farrow, D., & Buszard, T. (2017). Exploring the applicability of the contextual interference

effect in sports practice. In M. R. Wilson, V. Walsh, & B. Parkin (Eds.). Sport and the

brain: The science of preparing, enduring and winning (Part B, pp. 69-83). Cambridge,

MA: Academic Press.

Guadagnoli, M. A., & Lee, T. D. (2004). Challenge point: A framework for conceptualizing

the effects of various practice conditions in motor learning. Journal of Motor

Behavior, 36, 212-224.

Keller, G. J., Li, Y., Weiss, L. W., & Relyea, G. E. (2006). Contextual interference effect on

acquisition and retention of pistol shooting skills. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 103,

241-252.

Magill, R. A., & Anderson, D. I. (2017). Motor learning and control: Concepts and

applications (11th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Chapters 16, 17, & 18.

50
Ong, N. T., & Hodges, N. J. (2020). Motor learning. In D. Hackfort & R. J. Schinke (Eds.).

The Routledge international encyclopedia of sport and exercise psychology: Volume

1: Theoretical and methodological concepts (pp. 356-374). New York, NY: Routledge.

Schmidt, R. A., & Lee, T. D. (2020). Motor learning and performance: From principles to

application (6th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Chapter 10.

Vickers, J. N. (2011). Skill acquisition: Designing optimal learning environments. In D.

Collins, A. Button, & H. Richards (Eds.), Performance psychology: A practitioner’s

guide (pp. 191-206). Edinburgh, UK: Churchill Livingstone Elsevier.

Wright, D. L., & Kim, T. (2019). Contextual interference: New findings, insights, and

implications for skill acquisition. In N. Hodges & A. Williams (Eds.). Skill acquisition

in sport (3rd ed., pp. 99-118). New York, NY: Routledge.

Wright, D. L., Sekiya, H., & Rhee, J. (2014). Organization of practice. In A. G. Papaioannou

& D. Hackfort (Eds.). Routledge companion to sport and exercise psychology: Global

perspectives and fundamental concepts (pp. 289-307). New York, NY: Routledge.

Self-Evaluating Questions

• Define massed and distributed practice.

• What factors should be considered when deciding to use either a massed or a

distributed practice schedule within a practice session?

• What are the relative benefits of massed and distributed practice over several practice

sessions?

• Define constant and varied practice.

• What factors should be considered when deciding whether to use constant or varied

practice?

• Define contextual interference, and describe how it is related to blocked, serial, and

random practice.

51
 • Define and explain the differences between blocked, serial, and random practice

schedules.

• In general, what are the effects of blocked and random/serial practice schedules on

immediate performance and long-term learning?

• When and how should random/serial practice be introduced into a practice schedule?

• Identify reasons why contextual interference benefits motor skill learning.

• How can practice variability and contextual interference be combined in planning the

training sessions?

• Describe when it is preferable to use part practice or whole practice in learning of

motor skills.

• What is intended with whole-part-whole practice, practice segmentation, progressive

part practice, attentional cueing, and simplification?

Practical Activities in the Field to Apply Instructional Principles

• Use instructional strategies based on the distribution of practice principle to help your

novice shooter learn a technical skill.

• Identify a basic technique in your shooting discipline and drawing on the practice

variability notion apply several variations of the skill to improve learning of your

shooter.

• Choose three technical components of your shooting discipline and apply a serial

schedule in a training session with your shooter.

• Select three technical components of your shooting discipline and three possible

variations. Then apply a serial–variable schedule in a training session with your

shooter.

52
 • Use the four types of training schedules deriving from the combination of the

variability and contextual interference principles (i.e., blocked–constant, blocked–

variable, serial–constant, serial–variable) to design four training sessions aimed at

improving shooting skills. Then, ask one of your shooters to experience each situation:

Blocked–constant Blocked–variable Serial–constant Serial–variable

practice practice practice practice

Total repetitions or Total repetitions or Total repetitions or Total repetitions or

time: time: time: time:

• Apply some technical drills with your shooter using each of the following methods:

whole-part-whole practice, practice segmentation, progressive part practice,

attentional cueing, and simplification.

Power Point Presentation

Slides 26 to 43.

53
 CHAPTER 3 – IMPROVING PERFORMANCE THROUGH

MENTAL PRACTICE

OVERVIEW

Mental practice, also known as motor imagery practice, is the systematic application

of mental imagery for the cognitive rehearsal of a task (i.e., the representation of a given

motor movement) in the absence of overt physical movements.

Humans create mental images for a multitude of purposes. When used properly,

imagery can be a powerful process in improving athletic performance. It has been found to

enhance self-confidence, motivation, attention focus, performance, and learning new skills,

and it is adopted as a method to reduce competitive anxiety, psych up for training or

competition, and develop competitive plans and strategies. Most successful athletes use it!

In his book “With winning in mind”, Lanny Bassham, famous world and Olympic
medallist rifle shooter, wrote the following:

Back in the 1970s, I was shooting good kneeling scores and began approaching the
national record of 396/400. I wanted to set the record at 400, a perfect score. But I had
never actually fired a 400, even in training. Nonetheless, I vividly rehearsed shooting
the first 100, then another and another. I visualized each of the last ten shots building
toward the record. I rehearsed what I knew would happen at the point: I would realize
that I was above the record. Next, I rehearsed hearing a voice say, “That’s OK, I do
this all the time,” Then I imagined shooting the final ten easily and saying to myself,
“Another 400, that’s like me!” I rehearsed this sequence several times a day for two
months. In my first competition since beginning the rehearsal, I started with a 100
kneeling. My next two targets were also 100s. I began my last series with ten, ten, ten,
ten. Only five more to go. Ten. Ten. Ten. Then reality set in. I was above the record. I
heard an internal voice say, “That’s OK, I do this all the time.” I shot two additional
tens, setting the national record at a perfect 400. (Chapter 7, 2011)

Motor imagery can be external, from the perspective of a third person like watching

oneself in a movie, or internal, from the perspective of the performer like seeing with the own

eyes. In addition, imagery in sport can involve a variety of senses, including visual, auditory,

tactile, olfactory, and kinaesthetic senses.

54
 As clearly shown by neuroscience studies, when people create mental images the parts

of the brain that are responsible for actual physical movement increase their activity. When

performers at rest imagine a complex movement, their brain areas responsible for motor

activity, sensory perception, proprioceptive feedback, and motor control show activation.

Muscular contraction is also observed in those segments of the body involved in the imagined

action.

Motor imagery promotes learning and performance improvement through cognitive,

neurological, and muscular activation. The brain cannot discern the difference between a real

physical event and the vivid imagery of the same event. A vivid imagery can be thought as a

dream or daydream in which the experience is so intense that it is perceived as real. For this

reason, performers can used imagery to repeat, elaborate, improve, and maintain technical

skills, as well as prepare for competition.

INTRODUCTION

Motor imagery can be defined as a dynamic state during which performers simulate

specific motor actions mentally, typically without physical movement, and generate and

transform the image in order to rehearse an action for performance or learning effects. A

performer creates or recreates experiences based on memorial or newly generated information

and in the absence of the actual sensory stimuli.

In particular, a mental representation can be created in the mind in the absence of

external stimuli, can involve one or more physical senses, and is created from information

stored in memory. Research indicates that when individuals engage in a vivid and

multisensorial type of imagery, their brains can interpret these images as identical to the

actual stimuli of the situation and determine similar bodily and muscular responses.

Motor imagery is a skill that can be developed and improved like any other. Athletes,

coaches, and practitioners often use different terms that refer to an athlete’s motor imagery,

55
including mental practice, mental preparation, visualization (a term commonly used by

athletes and coaches), mental rehearsal, cognitive rehearsal, symbolic rehearsal, and covert

practice. Although not synonymous, these terms imply a mental creation, rehearsal, or recover

from the memory of an experience.

There is clear evidence to support the beneficial effects of images regardless of

individual skill levels and the type of sport practiced. This evidence comes from anecdotal

reports, case studies, and scientific experiments that clearly demonstrate the value of imagery

in learning and performing motor skills, and in preparing for competition.

For applied purposes, it is useful to consider the 4 Ws of motor imagery (see Table

3.1). The where and when of imagery use regard the specific situation (e.g., practice or

competition). The why of imagery use refers to motivational or cognitive/behavioural

purposes (e.g., changes in skill execution or strategy). The what of imagery use refers to the

nature and content of the images.

Table 3.1. The 4 Ws of motor imagery.

Where do athletes image?

Most of the use of imagery occurs in practice and competition, with athletes using imagery
more frequently during pre-competition. Athletes should be instructed to use appropriate
imagery before and during training and competitive events.

When do athletes image?

They use or could use imagery: (a) before, during, and after practice; (b) outside of practice
(home, school, work); (c) before, during, or after competition; and (d) during injury
rehabilitation.

Why do athletes image?

To enhance their motivation (e.g., imaging themselves winning an event and receiving a
medal) or to improve their performance (e.g., imaging themselves performing a perfect shot).

What do athletes image?

They image or could image the environment in which performance takes place and optimal
performance outcomes. They should involve in imagery the main senses (i.e., visual, auditory,
tactile, and kinaesthetic) and form a good, clear, controllable image, regardless of whether it
is from an internal (i.e., from the own vantage point) or an external perspective (like watching
a movie).

56
 Athletes can therefore use imagery in various ways to improve both physical and

psychological skills and attitudes, including concentration, motivation, confidence, emotional

control, sport skills and strategies, preparation for competition, coping with pain or injury,

and problem solving. Imagery, of course, does not replace physical practice unless the

performer is injured, fatigued, or over-trained. Imagery is usually combined and integrated

with physical practice to enhance the effects of physical training.

Beyond the 4 Ws of imagery, an additional question is: How does imagery work?

Table 3.2 contains the main perspectives proposed to explain the beneficial effects of imagery

on performance. Although the characteristics of images have specific effects for each

individual, effective images have two key aspects: vividness and controllability. These can be

improved with practice.

Vividness involves the use of the most important senses to make images as vivid and

detailed as possible and close to the real experience. Particular attention should be paid to

environmental details and to the experience of emotions and thoughts that occur during

training and competition. Experiencing concentration, anxiety, frustration, excitement, and

other feelings and emotions associated with performance will make the imagined performance

more real.

Controllability refers to the ability to manipulate the own images at will. This

characteristic is important for creating an accurate and successful execution of the skill in

mind. Seeing oneself performing perfectly and achieving best outcomes boosts self-

confidence and augment the chances of success.

These characteristics are incorporated in the PETTLEP model.

57
Table 3.2. Different perspectives to explain imagery effectiveness.

Psychoneuromuscular theory

When performers image themselves moving, their brains send subliminal electrical signals to
the muscles in the same order as when actual movement occurs. Electrical signals, in
particular, determine which muscles should contract, when and with what intensity (similar
neural pathways to the muscles are used). It is through this mechanism that imagery can aid
skill learning.
Symbolic learning theory

Imagery helps the brain develop a blueprint of the action (movement pattern or plan) that can
be followed when action is required.
Bioinformational theory

Based on the assumption that an image is a functionally organized set of propositions stored
in the brain, the bioinformational theory holds that a description of an image consists of two
main types of statements: stimulus and response propositions. Stimulus propositions describe
specific stimulus features of the imagined scenario, while response propositions describe the
individual’s response (i.e., physiological reactions) to the scenario.
Triple code model

The model focus on three effects referred to as ISM that are essential parts of imagery. The
first is the image (I) itself, which represents the outside world and its objects with a degree of
sensory realism. The second is the somatic response (S), namely, the psychophysiological
changes in the body (e.g., muscular tension, changes in breathing patterns, increased heart
rate, sweating). The third is the meaning (M) of the image. Every image, or sequence of
images, has a particular meaning for each individual.
Psychological perspective

Imagery helps develop psychological skills that are critical for performance improvement. It
increases confidence, motivation, concentration, and decreases anxiety. Imagery also helps
the athlete achieve an optimal level of activation (arousal) and to focus attention on task-
relevant cues, thereby priming the athlete for performance.

58
THE PETTLEP MODEL

Athletes with a higher imagery ability will benefit most from the use of imagery.

However, the use of structured and evidence-based imagery techniques, such as those

described in the PETTLEP model, will help athletes achieve vivid and effective imagery.

Based on research findings in sport psychology and cognitive neuroscience, Holmes

and Collins (2001) developed the PETTLEP model (or method) to produce functionally

equivalent mental simulation of actions and to determine the behavioural matching between

imagery and action (Wakefield, Smith, Moran, & Holmes, 2013). PETTLEP is an acronym,

with each letter standing for an important practical aspect to consider when implementing

imagery interventions: Physical, Environment, Task, Timing, Learning, Emotion, and

Perspective (Figure 3.1).

Physical

Perspective Environment

Motor
imagery
Emotion Task

Learning Timing

Figure 3.1. The PETTLEP model.

The PETTLEP guidelines are intended to closely replicate the sporting situation

through imagery, including physical and emotional feelings associated with performance. The

seven key elements of the model must be considered and applied as fully as possible to make

imagery most effective.

59
 Traditional imagery methods have often been thought of as something separate from

physical practice. The PETTLEP approach, on the contrary, conceptualizes imagery and

physical practice as a continuum. Imagery interventions, to be effective, should be as close as

possible to the physical end of the continuum.

The Physical component refers to the athlete’s physical experience in the sport

situation. Rather than using imagery in a relaxed and undisturbed state, which is in complete

contrast to the athlete’s physical state during performance, athletes should imagine the

movement in the same way the action is carried out. This physical approach to imagery

interventions should include a range of physical sensations. In rifle shooting, for example,

physical sensations involve bodily (e.g., muscle tension, breathing, and heart pounding) and

tactile feelings while keeping the kneeling position and holding the rifle. The shooter should

also wear the same clothes as when performing. In this way the athlete recreates as much as

possible the physical experience associated with the actual execution in order to generate a

realistic imagery experience. Coaches should examine in detail which bodily sensations are

most relevant to the individual athlete, and then try to actually reproduce these feelings to

incorporate them as much as possible in the scenario to be represented.

The Environment component refers to the place where performance takes place.

Before competition, for example, the imaginary environment should be the same or as similar

as possible to the location (e.g., the competitive shooting range) where performance will take

place. If this is not possible, photos, videos, and audios of the venue can be useful in helping

athletes familiarize themselves with the competitive arena. Shooters, for example, may visit

the range prior to competition and observe light and wind conditions at a certain time of day.

The imagined Task must be closely matched to the actual one. Images should contain

same thoughts, feelings, and actions present during physical execution. In addition, the

imagery content (i.e., thoughts, feelings, and actions) should be appropriate to the skill level

60
and individual preferences. To achieve behavioural matching between imagery and action, the

imagery content should be different for elite and inexperienced performers. This is because

skill levels, and therefore the specific skills that are imaged, are different. As novices

improve, it will be necessary to change the content of images based on individual changes.

The Timing component refers to the pace (rhythm, speed) at which the imagery is

completed. Sometimes it may be useful to slow down or stop the movements to focus on

correcting errors, changing specific technical aspect, or the feelings of the action. This type of

practice, however, should be limited because the precise timing is an essential feature in skill

execution. In most cases, imagery must be completed at the same pace at which the action is

executed, as techniques are rarely performed in slow motion or faster than normal.

In the Learning component, the individual’s skill level is considered. The content of

the imagery should be adapted in relation to the learning stage. To retain the behavioural

matching between imagery and the action it is necessary to follow the athlete’s progress and,

therefore, regularly review and update the content of the imagery. Imagery training should

reflect physical training according to the developments in actual technique.

The Emotion component refers to the emotional state included in the imagery. All

feelings, emotional states, and arousal experienced during optimal performance should be

mentally recreated during practice to make imagery realistic. Including realistic emotions in

imagery makes the mental experience much more evocative, thus leading to a more vivid

imagery experience.

Finally, the Perspective component refers to the viewpoint of the performer during

imagery. Imagery can be internal (first person, through the eyes of the performer) or external

(third person, seeing oneself performing as if watching on a video screen). For a behavioural

matching between imagery and action perspective, internal imagery is preferable because

more closely related to the athlete’s view during the execution. However, external imagery

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can also be beneficial. Indeed, advanced performers are able to switch from one perspective to

another and take advantage of both perspectives in terms of imagery experience and

performance. For successful interventions, it is important to consider individual preferences

regarding the imagery perspective.

It is important to remember that imagery can be a feasible alternative to physical

practice in situations where physical practice is not possible, such as when the athlete is

exhausted or injured. However, under normal conditions a combination of physical practice

and imagery is more effective than either method alone. It is therefore recommended to use

physical practice as integrated as possible with imagery practice, according to the indications

stemming from the PETTLEP model.

The different components of the model should be progressively implemented in the

athlete’s mental preparation. This is to avoid the possibility of overloading the athlete with

too much new information and to evaluate the effectiveness of each component of the model

for the individual.

The key recommendations based on the PETTLEP model together with applications in

shooting sports are summarised in Table 3.3.

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Table 3.3. Key recommendations for implementing the PETTLEP model with applications in
shooting.

Component Recommendation Practical examples

Physical Replicate in imagery all the Imagine shooting while holding the
physical sensations experienced gun and wearing your shooting gear.
during the actual performance.

Environmental Imagine the environment where Standing in front to the target,

actual performance will take imagine the shot prior to execute.
place. Use photos, videos, and audios if
you are out of the range.

Task Imagine performing with the Mimic the precise elements of the
same thoughts, feelings, and shooting skills to improve.
actions present during physical
execution.

Timing Imagine performing with same Imagine a series of shots performed

speed and pace of the actual task at constant optimal speed (i.e.,
(i.e., synchronise the mental task within shot consistency) and pace
with the physical task). (i.e., between shot consistency).

Learning Change the content of imagery Update your imagery on shooting to

over time based on the reflect the specific techniques you
improvement of skills that occur are working on. Focus on the more
during the learning process. refined elements of the technique as
you become more proficient.

Emotion Imagine and relive the same Include all emotions associated with
emotions associated with the your optimal shooting performance,
physical execution of the task. including bodily reactions such as
muscular tension and heart rate.

Perspective Preferably use an internal visual Imagine shooting a series from an

perspective, although either an internal perspective. If you want to
internal or external point of view correct errors or refine performance,
can be functional to your goals you may use an external perspective
and preferences. to imagine directing your visual
attention to the technical aspects.

PERFORMANCE ROUTINES

Indications from the PETTLEP model can be incorporated into performance routines.

A performance routine is a well-planned course of relevant thoughts and actions that enable

an athlete to focus and perform better, almost automatically. The primary goal of a

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performance routine is to help the athlete achieve an optimal internal state in order to express

maximum potential. To meet this goal, a routine can include a series of techniques designed

to self-regulate the level of activation (arousal), thoughts, and attentional focus. A routine can

act as a protective frame against the adverse effects of pressure, because performers can keep

their attention on what they control. Experienced athletes who regularly perform closed motor

skills, also referred to as self-paced skills, use performance routines consistently.

As discussed in Chapter 1, self-paced skills are those skills that take place in relatively

stable and predictable settings, where sufficient time is available before execution. Examples

are free throws in basketball, golf strokes, tennis or volleyball serves, penalty kicks in soccer

or rugby, springboard or platform diving, track and field events, as well as shooting sports.

Pre-shooting routines are frequently observed among elite level shooters.

The use of preparatory routines relevant to the task allows athletes to: (1) establish the

action plan before performing; (2) focus attention, stay focused, and overcome external

distractions (e.g., noise generated by the audience) and negative internal thoughts (e.g., “I am

going to miss this shot”); and (3) feel in control of their performance.

It is important to recognise the difference between routines and superstitious

behaviours or rituals. For example, an athlete may wish to wear the same socks worn during a

previous victory or have the same meal before each competition. These behaviours may seem

routines, but they are most likely superstitions. Routines are not compulsive and have nothing

to do with luck. They are useful, flexible, effective, and aimed at improving focus and

performance. The athlete controls them. In contrast, superstitious behaviours have little to do

with focus and a lot to do with luck. They are compulsive, rigid, and ineffective, and the

athlete does not control them. A routine can become compulsive when the athlete believes

that a certain behaviour must be executed in a very specific and rigid way in order to perform

well. The focus, then, is on superstitious behaviour, which completely distracts from

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performance. Athletes must be aware of the difference between routines and superstitions, and

therefore focus on controllable and effective behaviours.

THE FIVE-STEP STRATEGY

The five-step strategy was developed by Singer (1988, 2000) as a systematic and

flexible routine to be used before, during, and after performance of self-paced skills. The five-

step strategy has proven to be particularly useful in the learning process, as well as in

facilitating skilled performance in numerous laboratory and field studies.

The strategy contains five sub-strategies:

1) Readying―Establishing an optimal physical and mental set. This implies reaching an

optimal bodily and mental condition in terms of confidence, expectations, attitudes, and

emotions. Self-talk and arousal regulation techniques can be applied (arousal regulation is

discussed in the next Chapter). The performer may attempt to repeat what previously led

to excellent performance.

2) Imaging―Mentally picturing a perfect technique, how it should be done, and a successful

outcome. The indications deriving from the PETTLEP model are particularly useful for

the development of vivid and effective images.

3) Focusing―Concentrating attention intensely on a relevant cue related to performance.

This point is elaborated below in the “Identifying the core components of the action”

section.

4) Executing―Performing with a quiet mind, with a ‘just do it’ mindset. The performer

must avoid thinking about the act itself or the possible outcome.

5) Evaluating―Reviewing the execution quality and the outcome. If time permits, also

evaluating the implementation of the previous four phases of the routine to adapt the next

execution and/or the strategy when necessary.

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 The strategy can be used to facilitate learning of motor skills, as well as to maintain

good performance under pressure. Novice shooters can apply the five-step strategy in practice

sessions before, during, and after a single shot or a series to improve their technical learning.

More advanced shooters can refine the five-step strategy during training and then apply the

routine in competition.

Wilson and Richards (2011) suggested a slight modification of the strategy to make it

more adaptable to pressure situations that expert performers encounter in competition (see

Figure 3.2). The main goals are to:

1) prepare for an optimal performance state. This includes both readying and imaging

steps;

2) perform in an instinctive-like manner. This encompasses both focusing and

executing to create the a ‘quiet mind’ associated with unconscious performance;

3) review and evaluate performance to obtain feedback for subsequent attempts. It is

important to emphasize that the performer must refocus rather than dwell on the

possible mistakes made.

Performance routines must be applied systematically to achieve consistent

performance. However, it is the mental state before and during performance that should be

consistent, not the behaviours linked to the routine. Behaviours and associated mental activity

should be used flexibly depending on the individual’s mental state and possible differences

from an optimal performance condition. Therefore, performers should develop a reliable and

flexible routine that can be effectively adapted to the current situation.

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 Prepare

1. Readying
Perform

2. Imaging 3. Focusing on 4. Executing

core components with a quiet mind
of action

Review

5. Evaluating

Figure 3.2. The Singer’s (2002) five-step strategy adapted by Wilson and Richards (2011) and
further modified to include the core components of the action in the third step (i.e., focusing
attention).

IDENTIFYING THE CORE COMPONENTS OF THE ACTION

Directing attention to a few “core” components of the action allows the athlete to

execute a movement pattern within a functional range of variability, and therefore to perform

more consistently, in particular under competitive pressure. Core action components are

conceived as fundamental movements or action-related behaviours not always executed in a

fully automated mode. Examples in the shooting disciplines are “positioning”, “grip”,

“aiming”, “timing”, and “rhythm”. These core components can exhibit higher variability and

accuracy fluctuations compared to automated technical elements, which are typically executed

without conscious attention. Therefore, they should not be confused with those technical

fundamentals that are usually largely automated. Core action components are encoded and

stored in long-term memory and determine the effectiveness of movement patterns. Their

67
mental representations are idiosyncratic, and therefore differ widely among athletes. Attention

to core components tends to improve movement mastery and self-confidence in practice and

competition.

Action core components are a central notion in the so-called multi-action plan (MAP)

model (Bortoli, Bertollo, Hanin, & Robazza, 2012; Robazza, Bertollo, Filho, Hanin, &

Bortoli, 2016). According to the MAP model tenets, performance levels (optimal and

suboptimal) are classified based on action monitoring/control levels (see Figure 3.3).

Optimal performance
Type 2 Monitoring Supervision Type 1
Effective control Automated execution
Effective focus Efficient & effective focus
High energy Optimal energy
Perf self-reg
monitoring/ monitoring/
High Low
Perf self-reg

control control
Over control Low control
Focus disruption Lack of focus
Type 3 Energy misuse Low energy
Type 4
Suboptimal performance
Figure 3.3. The interaction between performance and action monitoring/control levels
according to the multi-action plan (MAP) model (perf self-reg = performance self-regulation).

This interaction between performance and monitoring/control levels gives rise to four

performance states:

1) Type 1, optimal-automated performance state (i.e., action “supervision”), in

which high performance is achieved with a low focus of attention aimed at

“supervising” the correct flow of movement;

2) Type 2, optimal-controlled performance (i.e., action “monitoring”), in which high

performance is achieved through attention focused on the core component(s) of the

action to prevent step-by-step control of the movement and ensure that the action

is properly executed;

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 3) Type 3, non-optimal-controlled performance (i.e., “over control” of action) with

excessive attention to action control;

4) Type 4, non-optimal-automated performance (“low control” of action), with

unfocused attention.

In Type 1 state (“supervision”), high-level performance is associated with low action

monitoring/control. This is an ideal state where performance appears to be autonomous,

effortless, smooth, consistent, and effective. The performer feels in complete control,

confident, and energetic. However, this ideal state is rarely reached, and when experienced it

can quickly vanish. Type 2 state (“monitoring”) is experienced more frequently, especially

under competitive pressure, and is characterized by an intense focus of attention directed

voluntarily towards a limited number of action components. To achieve or regain a Type 2

state, attention should be directed to the core action components, so as to prevent excessive

reinvestment or distraction of attention from task-relevant cues and also facilitate the

transition to a more autonomous execution.

Types 3 and 4 states arise under stress or because of unpredictable difficulties that

cause task disruption or disengagement. In Type 3 state, the performer’s attempts to cope with

situational demands or to recover from poor performance lead to distraction from task related

cues, an excessive reinvestment of attention to the execution of automated skills, loss of

energy, and worsened movement fluidity and automaticity. Finally, in Type 4 state performers

show reduced commitment, little energy to achieve the goal, and unfocused attention. For

example, an overconfident athlete may overestimate the current situation by anticipating

victory before the competition ends, and therefore may mobilise less energy or resources than

those necessary to perform well. Another athlete may feel relieved from competition pressure

after making a mistake perceived as irreparable, and thus may decrease effort or disengage

from the activity.

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 Athletes can self-regulate their performance states by focusing attention on the core

components of the action. In this way they can maintain or regain optimal performance. A

four-step procedure is proposed to help shooters identify the main components of the action to

be used in training and competition.

In the first step the shooter is asked to describe in detail the usual optimal movement

sequence (i.e., the chain of actions) of a single shot from start to follow-through. Among the

sequence leading to optimal performance, a pistol shooter may report directing attention to

body balance and alignment, handgrip, breathing, arm rising, gun and sight alignment, trigger

pull, and follow-through. The sequence of movements is very individual and therefore can

differ widely from one performer to another.

In the second step, the shooter is asked to select those elements (i.e., the core

components) of the chain of actions considered fundamental for optimal performance and, at

the same time, not always executed in a fully automated mode. The specific question is:

Imagine yourself performing in a mentally or physically challenging condition or

nonoptimal state—for example, when you are under distress or fatigue or after a
mistake or a poor execution. What are the actions or behaviours that you consider
fundamental to reach or maintain good performance and that you need to control
intentionally to execute in a consistent and accurate manner?

It should be explained to the shooter that the main components refer to some (two or

three) fundamental actions or shooting elements which tend to be unstable, and therefore

unreliable if not controlled, especially in difficult situations.

In the third step, the expected functional effects on shooting performance derived

from the attention directed to the core components must be verified during training.

In the final step, the core components should be checked in competition. The whole

procedure should be repeated when the identified components are or become completely

automatized and therefore do not need to be voluntarily controlled. In this case, new core

components of the action should be identified.

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SUMMARY

Mental practice, or motor imagery, is the most widely used psychological skills

training technique for athletes. It has been used effectively for many purposes. Beneficial

effects include increased self-confidence, motivation, attention, performance, learning, as well

as reduction in competitive anxiety and debilitative emotional states.

It is therefore important to examine the 4 Ws of imagery applied in sport. The where

and when regard the situation in which imagery is used, the why refers to motivational or

cognitive/behavioural purposes, and the what refers to the nature and content of the images. It

is also important to examine how imagery works. Different theoretical views have been

proposed to explain imagery effectiveness in sport, including psychoneuromuscular theory,

symbolic learning theory, bioinformational theory, triple code model, and psychological

perspective.

To be effective, images must be vivid and controllable. These characteristics are

included in the PETTLEP model. The acronym PETTLEP represents the seven elements of

the model: Physical, Environment, Task, Timing, Learning, Emotion, and Perspective. These

aspects should be considered when implementing imagery programmes.

The PETTLEP model indications can be incorporated into the five-step strategy, a

performance routine specifically designed to improve the learning and performance of self-

paced skills, with a focus on preparation, performance, and review. The strategy contains five

sub-strategies: (1) Readying, (2) Imaging, (3) Focusing, (4) Executing, and (5) Evaluating. In

the third step (i.e., focusing), attention should be directed to the core components of the action

identified and tested in training and then in competition. The strategy can be slightly modified

to be properly adapted to competitive situations. Mental practice and performance routines

need to be strictly individualized to meet the athletes’ characteristics and needs. They must be

practiced during training before being used in competition. Like technical skills, mental skills

71
and routines require extensive practice to be acquired, developed, and then applied under

pressure.

Suggested Readings

Bassham, L. (2011). With winning in mind (3rd ed.). Mental Management Systems.

Bortoli, L., Bertollo, M., Hanin, Y., & Robazza, C. (2012). Striving for excellence: A multi-

action plan intervention model for shooters. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 13,

693-701.

Cox, R. H. (2012). Sport psychology: Concepts and applications (7th ed.). New York, NY:

McGraw-Hill.

Holmes, P. S., & Collins, D. J. (2001). The PETTLEP approach to motor imagery: A

functional equivalence model for sport psychologists. Journal of Applied Sport

Psychology, 13, 60-83.

Holmes, P., & Calmels, C. (2008). A neuroscientific review of imagery and observation use in

sport. Journal of Motor Behavior, 40, 433-445.

Robazza, C., Bertollo, M., Filho, E., Hanin, Y., & Bortoli, L. (2016). Perceived control and

hedonic tone dynamics during performance in elite shooters. Research Quarterly for

Exercise and Sport, 87, 284-294.

Ruiz, M. C., Bortoli, L., & Robazza, C. (2021). The Multi-States (MuSt) theory for emotion-

and action-regulation in sports. In M. Ruiz & C. Robazza (Eds.). Feelings in sport:

Theory, research, and practical implications for performance and well-being (pp. 3-

17). New York, NY: Routledge.

Singer, R. N. (1988). Strategies and metastrategies in learning and performing self-paced

athletic skills. The Sport Psychologist, 2, 49-68.

Singer, R. N. (2000). Performance and human factors: Considerations about cognition and

attention for self-paced and externally-paced events. Ergonomics, 43, 1661-1680.

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Singer, R. N. (2002). Preperformance state, routines, and automaticity: What does it take to

realize expertise in self-paced events? Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 24,

359-375.

Toth, A. J., McNeill, E., Hayes, K., Moran, A. P., & Campbell, M. (2020). Does mental

practice still enhance performance? A 24 year follow-up and meta-analytic replication

and extension. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 48, 101672.

Vealey, R. S. (2015). Understanding and using imagery in sport. In J. M. Williams & V.

Krane (Eds.), Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance (7th

ed., pp. 240-273). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield.

Wakefield, C., & Smith, D. (2012). Perfecting practice: Applying the PETTLEP model of

motor imagery. Journal of Sport Psychology in Action, 3, 1-11.

Wakefield, C., Smith, D., Moran, A. P., & Holmes, P. (2013). Functional equivalence or

behavioural matching? A critical reflection on 15 years of research using the

PETTLEP model of motor imagery. International Review of Sport and Exercise

Psychology, 6, 105-121.

Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2019). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology (7th ed.).

Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Chapter 14.

Wilson, M. R., & Richards, H. (2011). Putting it together: Skills for pressure performance. In

D. Collins, A. Button, & H. Richards (Eds.), Performance psychology: A

practitioner’s guide (pp. 337-360). Edinburgh, UK: Churchill Livingstone Elsevier.

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Self-Evaluating Questions

• How can motor imagery be defined?

• Describe how imagery can be used for different purposes.

• Explain the application of imagery to help athletes achieve their goals.

• Describe the 4 Ws (i.e., where, when, why, and what) of motor imagery.

• What are the main theoretical perspectives to explain imagery effectiveness?

• What are the key aspects of effective motor imagery?

• What is the difference between external and internal imagery and how can athletes use

each perspective?

• Describe the seven elements of the PETTLEP model.

• Explain why a performance routine can help the athlete perform well.

• What are the core components of the action?

• How can the core components of the action be identified?

• Why should the core components of the action be included in a performance routine?

Practical Activities in the Field to Apply Mental Practice and Self-regulation

• Use the key recommendations for implementing the PETTLEP model to help your

novice shooter learn a technical skill.

• Identify a basic technique in your shooting discipline and assist your shooter to form a

multisensorial mental representation using an internal perspective.

• Use imagery from an external perspective to help your shooter correct technical errors

or refine shooting performance.

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 • Use the key recommendations for implementing the PETTLEP model to help your

expert shooter improve a technical skill:

PETTLEP ACTIVITIES IN THE FIELD

COMPONENT
Physical

Environmental

Task

Timing

Learning

Emotion

Perspective

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 • Identify the core components of the action of your shooter and examine their

effectiveness during training.

• Use the five-step strategy routine to help your shooter improve a technical skill.

Incorporate the core components of the action in the five-step strategy:

STEP ACTIVITIES IN THE FIELD

Readying

Imaging

Focusing

Executing

Evaluating

Power Point Presentation

Slides 44 to 71.

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 CHAPTER 4 – BREATHING AND MUSCLE

TENSION/RELAXATION FOR AROUSAL SELF-REGULATION

OVERVIEW

Arousal is defined as a combination of physiological and psychological activation of

the organism, which varies on a continuum from deep sleep to intense excitement. Too high

or too low levels of arousal are associated with poor performance, whereas best performance

is obtained in an optimal state of psychophysical activation. Debilitative anxiety, feelings of

nervousness, worry, and apprehension, and other dysfunctional emotional states are often

accompanied by increased activation. Performing well in fine motor skills like shooting

requires relatively low levels of arousal. However, when the level is too low, the performer

may feel lethargic, debilitated, and unmotivated. Thus, athletes need to regulate themselves to

reach an optimal level of activation. The main self-regulation techniques to increase arousal

(psyching up) or decrease arousal (psyching down) include breathing and muscle

tension/relaxation. These can be taught to athletes to help them achieve the best conditions to

perform in training and competition.

INTRODUCTION

Arousal involves activation of the reticular activating system in the brainstem, the

autonomic nervous system, and the endocrine system. Activation leads to increased heart rate,

respiration rate, blood pressure, muscle tension, and other autonomic nervous system

reactions. This is a condition of sensory alertness, mobility, and readiness to respond that

athletes experience through bodily signals, such as pounding heart, sweaty palms, tight

muscles, or laboured breathing.

A well-known proposition on how arousal influences performance is the Yerkes-

Dodson law, which predicts an inverted U-shaped relationship between arousal and

performance. As shown in Figure 4.1, performance tends to increase as arousal increases from

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a low level (such as feeling drowsy or sluggish) to a moderate level, but only to a certain

extent. As arousal continues to increase from feeling alert to being very excited or agitated,

performance decreases again.

The optimal level of arousal depends largely on the person and the task performed.

Some people perform better with low arousal, especially very anxious ones, some with a

medium amount, and others with a higher level of arousal. The nature of the task also

influences the optimal arousal level. High levels of excitement usually facilitate performance

in power, strength, speed, and endurance tasks, such as sprinting and weightlifting, while a

low level of excitement is not conducive to optimal performance in these tasks. For fine motor

skills, such as shooting and archery, high arousal is usually detrimental to performance while

relatively low arousal level is facilitating. The optimal arousal for sports like tennis,

gymnastics, and volleyball falls somewhere between these extremes.

High
Performance

Optimal range

Low
Low Moderate High
Arousal
Figure 4.1. The inverted-U relationship between arousal and performance.

The effects of arousal on performance can be explained using the so-called cue-

utilization hypothesis. In any performance context there are many relevant and irrelevant

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stimuli in the environment that can attract attention. Under optimal arousal conditions, a

person can selectively attend to relevant stimuli while blocking or ignoring irrelevant ones.

However, in conditions of low arousal the field of attention broadens and thus include both

relevant and irrelevant stimuli. For example, a shooter in a low arousal situation while

competing against a lower skilled opponent could start paying attention to irrelevant stimuli in

the environment (e.g., friends in the stands or other shooters). As a result, attention may not

be directed to all the relevant cues for shooting. On the contrary, in high arousal conditions,

the attention in narrowed excessively thus causing the exclusion of some relevant stimuli. For

example, a highly aroused rifle shooter may miss important information from wind flags that

warn of changes in wind direction. Furthermore, the increase in heart rate and muscle tension

associated with high arousal tends to compromise the control and accuracy of fine

movements.

Given that athletes need to attain an optimal arousal level to perform at their best,

several self-regulation techniques have been identified to psych up (increase arousal) or psych

down (decrease arousal). The most popular techniques involve breathing and muscle

tension/relaxation. Frequent and shallow thoracic breathing, associated with muscle tension

and/or rapid movements such as warm-up exercises and hops, increases heart rate and arousal

level. On the other hand, deep and slow diaphragmatic breathing, combined with muscle

relaxation and/or slow movements, reduces heart rate and arousal. However, being able to

quickly and effectively regulate the own arousal level requires learning and systematic

application of breathing and muscle tension/relaxation techniques during training and

competition.

BREATHING

Breathing is essential to survival. Breathing is necessary for energy production, which

takes place in the cells of body, and also for modulating abdominal pressure, which is

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important for movement and stability of the body. People take about 20,000 breaths a day.

Therefore, improving breathing brings noticeable benefits to every aspect of daily life. It

makes life more comfortable, people more alert and energetic, and improves exercise and

sport performance.

There are basically two ways of breathing. One way is to breathe using the chest

muscles, the other way is to breathe using the diaphragm, the thin muscle that separates the

lungs from the abdominal cavity. With thoracic breathing, the chest and ribs expand with each

inhalation, while the abdomen remains relatively still. With diaphragmatic breathing, the

stomach expands as the diaphragm moves downward to allow air to fill the lungs. People

routinely use a combination of thoracic and diaphragmatic breathing. Rapid, shallow, and

thoracic breathing stimulates the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system. It is

this system that is activated when a person becomes anxious. Its activation produces many of

the unpleasant bodily sensations experienced during anxiety. Slow, deep, diaphragmatic

breathing, on the other hand, stimulates the parasympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous

system. It is this system that is activated when a person relaxes. Its activation produces the

comfortable bodily sensations experienced during states of deep relaxation.

Rapid and shallow breathing is associated with high arousal. Therefore, one way to

increase the arousal level is to intentionally take short, frequent breaths. This type of

breathing should not be prolonged because this could lead to too high arousal.

Hyperventilation can also lead to hypocapnia, a reduced concentration of carbon dioxide

dissolved in the blood (respiratory alkalosis) and related symptoms of dizziness. On the other

hand, slow and deep breathing reduces the level of arousal and facilitates relaxation.

Breathing properly is relaxing and facilitates performance by increasing the amount of oxygen

in the blood and bringing more energy to the muscles. Learning to take a deep, slow, and

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complete breath starting from the belly and involving the whole rib cage tends to trigger a

relaxation response.

There are many breathing techniques adapted to western culture that originate from

oriental meditation practices. For example, yoga breathing (Pranayama) basically consists of

deliberate and conscious control of the breathing process in four distinct phases:

1) continuous and uniform inhalation through the nostrils expanding the rib cage and

belly by lowering the diaphragm;

2) a pause in breathing by holding air in the lungs;

3) regular and continuous exhalation letting air flow from the lungs through the

mouth by contracting the rib cage and abdominal muscles;

4) a breathing pause with empty lungs. In this last phase there is an effortless

suspension of breathing, at the end of which the cycle begins again through a slow

and regular flow of air through the nostrils.

Proper breathing comes from the diaphragm. With a full breath, the diaphragm lowers

causing the belly to expand and determining a vacuum in the lungs. This results in an airflow

that fills the lungs from below. To enhance awareness of diaphragmatic breathing, the

individual can place one hand on the abdomen and the other on the upper chest. When taking

a deep and complete breath starting from the diaphragm, the hand on the abdomen will move

out with the inhalation and in with the exhalation, while the hand on the chest will remains

relatively still. The time ratio between inhalation and exhalation usually suggested is 1 to 2 (1:

2). Athletes can be asked to take a deep and complete breath by counting of 4 during

inhalation and 8 during exhalation. If athletes run out of breath before reaching 8, they can be

advised to take a deeper breath and exhale more slowly. With practice and deep relaxation,

the athlete may need to change the count to 5:10 or 6:12. This exercise creates a very

powerful relaxation response when done correctly.

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 To develop awareness of the dynamics of exhalation, athletes can be asked to

forcefully empty all the air from their lungs and note what happens on the next inhalation.

When taking a full breath, athletes can imagine that their lungs are divided into three levels

and that inhalation occurs in three stages:

1) air fills the lower part of the lungs as the diaphragm lowers and gently inflates the

belly that remains relaxed;

2) air fills the central part of the lungs as the thoracic cavity expands and lifts the rib

cage;

3) the air reaches the top of the lungs by raising the collarbones and widening the

shoulder blades.

All three stages of inhalation proceed continuously and regularly. When athletes feel

comfortable with this sequential breathing they should focus on a long, slow, and deep

inhalation through the nose, inhaling as much air as possible. During exhalation, the emphasis

is on feeling that the lungs gradually and completely empty. The upper part of the lungs is

emptied first, then the middle area of the rib cage, and finally the lower part of the lungs. The

exhalation should be long, slow, and complete and result in total relaxation when the air is

exhaled completely. It is important that athletes focus on the feelings of calmness, relaxation,

and well-being immediately after exhaling completely. Whenever athletes feel excessively

tense or agitated, they should try to recreate this moment of calm by practicing this exercise.

Another relaxing technique that can be used before or during training and competition

is the “5-to-1 count”. The athlete is asked to mentally repeat and visualize the number 5 while

taking a deep and slow breath and then exhaling completely using the diaphragm. The

numbers 4 to 1 are then visualized and mentally repeated each within the breathing cycle,

feeling that relaxation deepens with each number. Whenever athletes notice tension or anxiety

or early cues associated with uncomfortable feelings, they should shift to slow, deep,

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diaphragmatic breathing and pay attention to the feelings in the abdomen as it expands and

falls.

Focusing and re-focusing attention on the breathing rhythm and diaphragm is also

useful when the athlete is not concentrated, or attention fluctuates due to distracting stimuli or

intrusive thoughts. This can be accomplished through “centering”. The athlete slowly inhales

through the nose, fills the stomach (not the chest) with air and, while doing this, thinks of a

point behind the navel and says “centre”. The athlete then slowly exhales through the mouth,

consciously relaxes the muscles and, while exhaling, says “relax” and lets the body do just

that.

MUSCLE TENSION/RELAXATION

Most of the tension/relaxation techniques derive from the well-known Jacobson’s

progressive relaxation. Jacobson’s procedure requires people to lie on their back in a reclining

chair, on a mat on the floor, or on the bed, in a quiet room, without interruptions, with arms

and legs not crossed to avoid unnecessary stimulation. Progressive muscular relaxation

consists of a series of exercises that include:

1) systematic tension of specific muscle groups in a predetermined order;

2) maintaining contraction for 5-7 seconds;

3) relaxation.

Tension/relaxation often starts from the head and moves down through the body to the

feet or vice versa. The contraction phase develops awareness on the sensations associated

with muscle tension, while the relaxation phase develops awareness on the related sensations

and how muscle relaxation can be induced voluntarily by releasing tension. Therefore,

initially the athlete simply identifies a localized state of tension, relaxes it, and compares the

sensations of tension with the relaxation that derives from the elimination of tension. As

practice progresses, relaxation of a muscle group triggers relaxation of the next muscle group

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in the sequence. Through practice, the athlete can gain experience in recognizing unwanted

feelings of tension wherever they occur and can therefore easily release tension quickly in any

stressful situation.

The initial practice takes 25-30 minutes and should be done daily. The coach or sport

psychologist should guide the athletes during the initial sessions, then provide them with

guidelines or an audio track containing instructions for the tension/relaxation sequence of the

muscle groups (see Appendix A for a progressive muscular relaxation script and instructions

for using it). A well-developed relaxation training programme requires a lot of practice in the

beginning, but afterwards complete relaxation can be achieved in a few minutes. Once able to

consistently achieve a desirable state of relaxation, athletes can use a shorter procedure to

achieve deep muscle relaxation by combining some of the muscle groups: hands, biceps, and

forearms; face and neck; shoulders, abdominals, and buttocks; legs and feet.

After learning how to actively relax the muscles, the athlete can switch to passive

relaxation without first tensing the muscles. Many people find this passive form of relaxation

more effective and pleasant than the active form. Through passive relaxation, the athlete

simply directs attention to the muscles, gradually relaxes every part of the body deeper and

deeper, and releases tension. The same complete or abbreviated sequence of body parts

considered in active progressive relaxation can be used for passive progressive relaxation (see

Appendix 2).

The momentary muscle relaxation exercises, lasting a few seconds, are also useful

before or during performance, such as just before shooting or between shots. Through a rapid

scan of the body from head to toes (or from feet to head), attention can be focused only on

muscle groups where the level of tension is too high. After releasing the tension, the scan

continues to other parts of the body. Scanning the neck and shoulders is also important

because it is very common to have excessive tension in these areas when worried or anxious.

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Therefore, periodic scanning of these muscles allows to release tension through active or

passive relaxation. Releasing excessive tension in these two areas tends to spread relaxation to

the rest of the body and can have a calming effect. Finally, scanning the specific muscles

involved in sport performance is also important to prepare the musculature for skill execution.

THE RELAXATION RESPONSE

The relaxation response is a technique developed by Herbert Benson inspired by

oriental transcendental meditation, but without reference to mysticism and unusual postures.

It is an effective way to relax away from competition and can be transferred to pre-

competition contexts once learned. This technique combines breathing and muscle relaxation.

The relaxation response requires two essential components: a mental device and a passive

attitude. For a mental device, athletes can use a word like calm, relax, smooth, easy, float, or a

word/sound of their choice. Benson proposed the following instructions for inducing the

relaxation response:

1) Pick a focus word, sound, or phrase, that has significant meaning for you and that

you associate with relaxation.

2) Sit in a comfortable position in a quiet place.

3) Close your eyes.

4) Deeply relax your muscles, progressing from your feet to your calves, thighs,

abdomen, shoulders, neck, and head (or head to feet if preferred) and keep them

relaxed.

5) Concentrate on breathing easily and naturally through the nose. With each breath

out, say the focus word, sound, or phrase silently to yourself as you exhale.

6) Assume a passive attitude. When other thoughts come to mind, simply return to

your word/sound repetition.

7) Continue for 10 to 20 minutes.

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 8) Do not stand immediately. Continue sitting quietly for a minute or so, allowing

other thoughts to return. Then open your eyes and sit for another minute before

rising.

9) Practice the technique once or twice daily. Good times to do so are before

breakfast and before dinner.

Being able to relax through the relaxation response technique and all the other

methods described above is useful not only for performance in precision sports, but also to

deal with the physical symptoms of stress, accelerate post-performance recovery, facilitate

sleep, and improve health and wellbeing.

SUMMARY

As a mixture of physiological and psychological activation, arousal varies along a

continuum from deep sleep to intense excitement. An optimal range of arousal level is

associated with good performance. The optimal arousal level for performing precision motor

skills such as shooting is relatively low. Debilitative anxiety and other emotional states tend

to increase activation. Therefore, shooters must learn to self-regulate. The main self-

regulation techniques include breathing and muscle tension/relaxation. These techniques can

be taught to athletes to help them self-regulate quickly and effectively and achieve their best

performance conditions in training and competition.

Athletes must first become aware of how different types of breathing—thoracic or

diaphragmatic, rapid or slow, shallow or deep—influence their activation and performance.

Different techniques can be used to this purpose, such as:

1) paying attention to the breathing modality (thoracic and diaphragmatic) and

rhythm;

2) changing breathing modality and rhythm;

3) controlling the four phases of the breathing process (i.e., inhalation, pause with full

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 lungs, exhalation, pause with empty lungs);

4) changing the time ratio between inhalation and exhalation, using sequential

breathing (i.e., air filling the lower, central, and upper parts of the lungs);

5) using the 5-to-1 count;

6) shifting to slow, deep, diaphragmatic breathing while under stress;

7) focusing on the breathing rhythm and diaphragm (“centering”).

Breathing can be combined with muscle/tension relaxation techniques. These include:

1) active progressive relaxation (i.e., systematic tension and relaxation of muscle

groups);

2) passive progressive relaxation;

3) momentary muscle relaxation (body scan);

4) neck and shoulder scan;

5) specific muscle scan;

6) relaxation response.

Similarly to teaching motor skills, self-regulation techniques should be individualized

to meet the specific needs of the athlete. Once learned and applied in training, these

techniques can be easily, quickly, and effectively applied in competition.

Suggested Readings

Acharya, J., & Morris, T. (2014). Psyching up and psyching down. In A. G. Papaioannou &

D. Hackfort (Eds.). Routledge companion to sport and exercise psychology: Global

perspectives and fundamental concepts (pp. 386-401). New York, NY: Routledge.

Franklin, E. (2019). Breathing for peak performance: Functional exercises for dance, yoga,

and Pilates. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

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Hanton, S., Mellalieu, S., & Williams, J. M. (2015). Understanding and managing stress in

sport. In J. M. Williams & V. Krane (Eds.), Applied sport psychology: Personal

growth to peak performance (7th ed., pp. 207-239). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield.

Kabat-Zinn, J. (2013). Full catastrophe living. New York, NY: Bantam Books. (Jon Kabat-

Zinn’s body scan relaxation guide is available on YouTube).

Orlick, T. (2016). In pursuit of excellence (5th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. (Terry

Orlick’s relaxation guide is available on YouTube).

Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2019). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology (7th ed.).

Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Chapters 5 & 13.

Self-Evaluating Questions

• How can arousal be defined?

• What is the difference between “psyching up” and “psyching down” techniques?

• Describe the relationship between arousal and performance.

• Why do too high or too low arousal levels tend to hamper performance?

• Discuss the two basic breathing modalities and their effects on performance.

• How would you use breathing to decrease athletes’ arousal level?

• Describe the main breathing techniques to regulate arousal.

• What are the main muscle tension/relaxation techniques for arousal regulation?

• Describe the relaxation response technique.

Practical Activities in the Field to apply breathing and muscle

tension/relaxation techniques for arousal self-regulation

• Discuss arousal self-regulation procedures with one of your athletes.

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• Using the following list of body parts, write a progressive relaxation script to be

applied with one of your athletes:

BODY AREAS INSTRUCTIONS FOR

MUSCLE RELAXATION AND BREATHING
1. Right hand
and lower arm

2. Right biceps

3. Left hand
and lower arm

4. Left biceps

5. Head

6. Neck and shoulders

7. Abdomen and
buttocks

8. Right thigh

9. Right foot, ankle,

and calf

10. Left thigh

11. Left foot, ankle, and

calf

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 • Based on the above progressive relaxation script, identify a short relaxation procedure

with your athlete, involving no more than three body areas, to be applied immediately

before performance and between shoots:

BODY AREAS “PSYCHING DOWN” INSTRUCTIONS

1.

2.

3.

• Repeat the same procedure this time with the aim of increasing (rather than

decreasing) the level of arousal:

BODY AREAS “PSYCHING UP” INSTRUCTIONS

1.

2.

3.

Power Point Presentation

• Slides 72 to 81.

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APPENDIX 1. PROGRESSIVE MUSCULAR RELAXATION

The following is a progressive muscular relaxation script. You can read the script,
record it, and play it back, or you can familiarize yourself with the instructions and do the
exercises yourself. Initially, you can relax in a quiet place and in a comfortable position.
Afterwards, you can relax in different places, for example on the bus while traveling or while
sitting on a bench before competing. You can relax when you need it, for example the night
before a competition or the morning of an event.
You will be asked to tense different muscle groups for about 5 seconds and then relax
the muscles for 20 seconds. Start tensing when asked to tense. Hold the tension until you are
told to relax. As soon as you hear the word relax, release all tension in that muscle and focus
attention upon the muscle as it relaxes.
Lie down in a comfortable position and close your eyes. You will start by tensing your
leg muscles. Then you will move to the trunk, arms, shoulders, neck and face.

• Tense the muscles in your right calf. Feel the tension in your right calf. Keep tension for 5
seconds.
Relax and breathe slowly and deeply. Feel relaxation in your right calf. Relax for 20 seconds.
• Tense the muscles in your right thigh. Keep tension for 5 seconds.
Relax and breathe slowly and deeply. Your right leg is feeling nice and relaxed. Relax for 20
seconds.
• Now move on to your left leg. Tense the muscles in your left calf. Feel the tension in your
left calf. Keep tension for 5 seconds.
Relax and breathe slowly and deeply. Relax for 20 seconds.
• Now tense the muscles in your left thigh. Keep tension for 5 seconds.
• Relax and breathe slowly and deeply. Both of your legs feel nice and relaxed. Relax for 20
seconds.
• You will now start work on your trunk and upper body.
• Now tense your abdominal muscles. Keep tension for 5 seconds.
Relax and breathe slowly and deeply. That feeling of relaxation is spreading up your body.
Relax for 20 seconds.
• Now tense your pectoral muscles. Keep tension for 5 seconds.
Relax and breathe slowly and deeply. Feel the relaxation spread up your body. Relax for 20
seconds.
• Now tense your shoulders by pushing against the surface you are lying on. Keep tension
for 5 seconds.
Relax and breathe slowly and deeply. Your legs and upper body are relaxed. Relax for 20
seconds.
You will now work on relaxing your arms, starting with your right arm.
• Tense the muscles in your right forearms. Feel the tension in your forearm. Keep tension
for 5 seconds.
Relax and breathe slowly and deeply. Relax for 20 seconds.
• Now tense the muscles in your right biceps. Keep tension for 5 seconds.
Relax and breathe slowly and deeply. Your entire right arm is feeling nice and relaxed. Relax
for 20 seconds.
You will now move to your right arm.
• Tense the muscles in your left forearm. Feel the tension in your left forearm. Keep tension
for 5 seconds.
Relax and breathe slowly and deeply. Relax for 20 seconds.

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• Now tense the muscles in your left biceps. Keep tension for 5 seconds.
Relax and breathe slowly and deeply. Notice how both of your arms, along with your legs,
trunk, and shoulders, are feeling nice and relaxed. Relax for 20 seconds.
• Now tense your neck muscles by pushing your head gently against the surface you are
lying on. Keep tension for 5 seconds.
Relax and breathe slowly and deeply. Relax for 20 seconds.
You will now finish by relaxing your facial muscles.
• Tense your jaw muscles by pulling an exaggerated smile. Keep tension for 5 seconds.
Relax and breathe slowly and deeply. Relax for 20 seconds.
• Now tense your cheek muscles by pushing your lips out and squinting your eyes. Keep
tension for 5 seconds.
Relax and breathe slowly and deeply. Relax for 20 seconds.
• Tense your forehead muscles by raising your eyebrows as high as you can. Keep tension
for 5 seconds.
Relax and breathe slowly and deeply. Relax for 20 seconds.
Notice how relaxed your whole body feels. Enjoy this feeling of relaxation.
Scan your body to see if you have any remaining tension.
Start with your left calf, then your left thigh, followed by your right calf and right thigh. If
there is any tension, tense the muscle and then let it relax.
Now scan your abdominals, followed by your chest, then shoulders. Again, if there is any
tension, systematically tense and then relax the muscles.
Now scan your right forearm, right biceps, left forearm, left biceps, neck muscles, jaw
muscles, cheek muscles, and forehead. You can now enjoy this complete state of relaxation.
Relax for 1 minute.
Notice how your muscles and your whole body feel refuelled. Enjoy the feeling of your
muscles being completely relaxed. You may feel a warm sensation throughout your body, or
you may even feel as though you have sunk into the floor or into the chair that you are sitting
on. Alternatively, you may feel very light, almost as though you could float away.
Whatever you are feeling, enjoy being relaxed.
Before opening your eyes, take some deep breaths and allow energy and the feeling of
alertness to flow through your body.
Inhale deeply to the count of four (1 . . . 2 . . . 3 . . . 4). Now exhale to the count of six (1 . . . 2
. . . 3 . . . 4 . . . 5 . . . 6). Inhale deeply to the count of four (1 . . . 2 . . . 3 . . . 4). Now exhale to
the count of six (1 . . . 2 . . . 3 . . . 4 . . . 5 . . . 6). Inhale deeply to the count of four (1 . . . 2 . . .
3 . . . 4). Now exhale to the count of six (1 . . . 2 . . . 3 . . . 4 . . . 5 . . . 6). Inhale deeply to the
count of four (1 . . . 2 . . . 3 . . . 4). Now exhale to the count of six (1 . . . 2 . . . 3 . . . 4 . . . 5 . . .
6).
Stretch your arms and then stretch your legs.
Now open your eyes.

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APPENDIX 2. PASSIVE MUSCULAR RELAXATION

After becoming proficient in active and deep muscle relaxation, you can engage in
passive muscle relaxation. With passive muscle relaxation you do not have to tense your
muscles before relaxing them. You just have to let go of any tension in the muscles. As with
active relaxation, put yourself in a comfortable position, then bring attention to each muscle
group and let the tension flow away. Relax your muscle groups in the following order:

1. Right hand and lower arm

2. Right biceps
3. Left hand and lower arm
4. Left biceps
5. Muscles in face—forehead, eyes, and mouth
6. Neck and shoulders
7. Abdomen and buttocks
8. Right thigh
9. Right foot, ankle, and calf
10. Left thigh
11. Left foot, ankle, and calf

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