LAYERS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
ANAPHY LEC
1. Epimiysium
MUSCLES Is the outer layer, encircling the entire muscle
Consists of dense irregular connective tissue
FUNCTIONS OF MUSCULAR TISSUE
2. Perimysium
1. Producing body movement also a layer of dense irregular connective tissu,
2. Stabilizing body position but it surrounds the groups of 10 to 100 more
3. Storing and moving substances within the body muscle fibers, seperating them into bundles
4. Generating heat called fascicles.
3. Endomysium
PROPERTIES OF MUSCULAR TISSUE Penetrates the interior of each fascicle and
seperates individual muscle fibers from one
1. Electrical Excitability another
ability to respond to certain stimuli by producing Mostly reticular fibers
electrical signals called action potentials
TENDON
2. Contractility Attaches a muscle to the periosteum of a bone
ability of muscular tissue to contract forcefully
when stimulated by an action potential APONEUROSIS
Connective tissue elements extend as a broad, flat
3. Extensibility sheet
ability of muscular tissue to stretch, within
limits, without being damaged
MISCROSCOPIC ANATOMY
4. Elasticity
the ability of muscular tissue to return to its
original length and shape after contraction or
extension
CONNECTIVE TISSUE COMPONENTS
Fascia
dense sheet or broad band of irregular connective
tissue that lines the body wall and limbs and supports
and surrounds muscles and other organs of the body
SARCOLEMMA
Plasma membrane of a muscle cell
TRANSVERSE TUBULE
Tiny invaginations of the sarcolemma
Tunnel in from the surface toward the center of each
muscle fiber
SARCOPLASM
Within the sarcolemma
The cytoplasm of a muscle fiber
Includes a substantial amount of glycogen used for
ATP synthesis
Contains a red-colored protein called myoglobin that
binds oxygen molecules that diffuse into muscle fibers
from intersitial fluid
MYOFIBRIL
Contractile organelles of skeletal muscle
SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Fluid-filled system of membranous sacs that encircles
each myofibril
Dilated ends sacs of the sarcoplasmic reticulum called
terminal cisterns butt against the T tubule from both
sides
A transverse tubule and the two terminal cisterns on
either side of it form a triad
MYOFILAMENT
Smaller protein structure within myofibrils
THIN FILAMENT Actin
Composed of the protein actin
THICK FILAMENT MYOSIN
Composed of the protein myosin Main component of thick filaments
Functions as a motor protein
Myosin tail
SACROMERE Points toward the M line in the center of the
sarcomere
Basic functional units of a myofibirl Myosin Head
Narrow, plate-shaped regions of dense protein mate Two projections of each myosin molecule (golf
called Z discs seperate one sacromere from the next club heads)
A sacromere extends from one Z discs to the next Z
discs
ACTIN
Main component of thin filaments
Individual actin molecules join to form an actin
filament that is twisted into a helix
A BAND On each actin molecule is a myosin-binding site,
Darker middle part of the sarcomere where a myosin head can attach
Extends the entire lenght of the thick filaments Smaller amounts of two regulatory proteins -
Toward each end of the A band is a zone of overlap, tropomyosin and troponin are also part of the thin
where the thick and thin filaments lie side by side filament
A narrow H zone in the center of each A band consists
thick but not thin filaments
M-LINE
Supporting proteins that hold the thicj filaments
together at the center of the H zone
2. Regulatory Protein
Help switch the contraction process on and off
Tropomyosin
Troponin
3. Structural Protein
Keep the thick and thin filaments in the proper
alignment, give the myofibril elasticity and
extensibility
Titin
A-actinin
Myomesin
I BAND Nebulin
a lighter, less dense area that contains the rest of the Dystrophin
thin filaments but no thick filaments
Z disc passes through the center of each I band
MUSCLE PROTEINS
1. Contractile Protein
Generate force during contraction
Myosin
CONTRACTION AND RELAXATION OF SKELETAL 2. Attachment of myosin to actin
The energized myosin head attaches to the myosin-
MUSCLE FIBERS binding site on actin
When a myosin head attaches to actin during the
The Sliding Filament Mechanism
contraction cycle, the myosin head is referred to as a
Muscle contraction occurs because myosin
cross-bridge
heads attach to and “walk” along the thin
Although a single myosin molecule has a double head,
filaments at both ends of a sarcomere,
only one head binds to actin at a time
progressively pulling the thin filaments toward
the M line
3. Power Stroke
the myosin head pivots, changing its position from a
As the thin filaments slide inward, the I band
90° angle to a 45° angle
and H zone narrow and eventually disappear
As the myosin head changes to its new position, it
altogether when the muscle is maximally
pulls the thin filament past the thick filament toward
contracted
the center of the sarcomere, generating tension
(force) in the process - POWER STROKE
Since the thin filaments on each side of the
Once the power stroke occurs, ADP is released from
sarcomere are attached to Z discs, when the thin
the myosin head.
filaments slide inward, the Z discs come closer
together, and the sarcomere shortens
4. Detachment of myosin from actin
At the end of the power stroke, the cross- bridge
remains firmly attached to actin until it binds another
molecule of ATP.
As ATP binds to the ATP binding site on the myosin
head, the myosin head detaches from actin
CONTRACTION CYCLE
At the onset of contraction, the sarcoplasmic
reticulum releases calcium ions (Ca2+) into the
sarcoplasm
There, they bind to troponin
Troponin then moves tropomyosin away from the
myosin-binding sites on actin
Once the binding sites are “free”, the contraction
cycle begins
1. ATP hyrolysis
myosin head includes an ATP-binding site that
functions as an ATPase- an enzyme that hydrolyzes
ATP into ADP and a phosphate group
The myosin head is said to be energized when it
contains stored energy
The energized myosin head assumes a “cocked”
position, like a stretched spring
ANAPHY LEC
NERVOUS SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. Sensory Function
2. Integrative Function
3. Motor Function
ORGANIZATION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
CELL BODY
“soma” or “perikaryon”
contains a nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm that
includes typical cellular organelles
contain free ribosomes and prominent clusters of
rough endoplasmic reticulum, termed Nissl bodies
CYTOSKELETON
includes both neurofibrils , composed of bundles of
intermediate filaments that provide the cell shape
and support, and microtubules ,which assist in
moving materials between the cell body and axon.
DENDRITES
The recieving or input portions of a neuron
Usually are short, tapering, and highly branched
AXON
propagates nerve impulses toward another neuron, a
muscle fiber, or a gland cell
axon hillock - a long, thin, cylindrical projection that
often joins to the cell body at a cone-shaped elevation
initial segment - the part of the axon closest to the
axon hillock is the
trigger zone - nerve impulses arise at the junction of
the axon hillock and the initial segment, an area
Axoplasm - the cytoplasm of an axon, is surrounded
by a plasma membrane known as the axolemma
axon collaterals - Along the length of an axon, side
branches. it may branch off
axon terminals or axon telodendria - the axon and
its collaterals end by dividing into many fine
processes
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF NEURON
PARTS OF NEURON
MULTIPOLAR NEURON
usually have several dendrites and one axon
Most neurons in the brain and spinal cord are of this
type, as well as all motor neurons
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF NEURON
BIPOLAR NEURON
have one main dendrite and one axon
They are found in the retina of the eye, the inner ear,
and the olfactory area of the brain
NEUROGLIA OF THE CNS
UNIPOLAR NEURON
have dendrites and one axon that are fused together
to form a continuous process that emerges from the
cell body
These neurons are more appropriately called
pseudounipolar neurons because they begin in the
embryo as bipolar neurons
most unipolar neurons function as sensory receptors
that detect a sensory stimulus such as touch,
ASTROCYTE
pressure, pain, or thermal stimuli
star-shaped cells have many processes and are the
largest and most numerous of the neuroglia
Protoplasmic
have many short branching processes and are
found in gray matter
Fibrous
have many long unbranched processes and are
located mainly in white matter
Function:
contain microfilaments that give them considerable
strength, which enables them to support neurons
wrapped around blood capillaries isolate neurons of
the CNS from various potentially harmful substances
in blood
In the embryo, astrocytes secrete chemicals that
appear to regulate the growth, migration, and
interconnection among neurons in the brain
help to maintain the appropriate chemical
environment for the generation of nerve impulses
play a role in learning and memory by influencing the
formation of neural synapses
OLIGODENDROCYTE
resemble astrocytes but are smaller and contain
fewer processes
responsible for forming and maintaining the myelin
sheath around CNS axons
Myelin sheath
is a multilayered lipid and protein covering
around some axons that insulates them and
increases the speed of nerve impulse conduction
SATELLITE CELL
surround the cell bodies of neurons of PNS ganglia
regulate the exchanges of materials between
neuronal cell bodies and interstitial fluid
MICROGLIA
“Microglial cell”
small cells with slender processes that give off
numerous spinelike projections
function as phagocytes
they remove cellular debris formed during normal
development of the nervous system and phagocytize
microbes and damaged nervous tissue
SIGNAL TRANSMISSION
EPENDYMAL CELL
cuboidal to columnar cells arranged in a single layer
that possess microvilli and cilia
These cells line the ventricles of the brain and central SYNAPSE
canal of the spinal cord a region where communication occurs between two
produce, possibly monitor, and assist in the neurons or between a neuron and an effector cell
circulation of cerebrospinal fluid Presynaptic neuron
refers to a nerve cell that carries a nerve impulse
toward a synapse
cell that send a signal
Postsynaptic neuron
cell that receives a signal
it may be a postsynaptic neuron or an effector
cell
NEUROGLIA OF THE PNS
SCHWANN CELL
These cells encircle PNS axons. Primary Sturctures:
Like oligodendrocytes, they form the myelin sheath ◦ Axodendritic
around axons. A single oligodendrocyte myelinates ◦ Axosomatic
several axons, but each Schwann cell myelinates a ◦ Axoaxonic
single axon Primary Types:
participate in axon regeneration ◦ Electrical
◦ Chemical
I. ELECTRICAL SYNAPSE
action potentials (impulses) conduct directly between 7. When a depolarizing postsynaptic potential reaches
the plasma membranes of adjacent neurons through threshold, it triggers an action potential in the axon of
structures called gap junctions the postsynaptic neuron
Each gap junction contains a hundred or so tubular
connexons, which act like tunnels to connect the
cytosol of the two cells directly
As ions flow from one cell to the next through the
connexons, the action potential spreads from cell to
cell
Multiple Sclerosis
an autoimmune disease that causes a progressive
destruction of myelin sheaths surrounding neurons in
the CNS
In multiple regions the myelin sheaths deteriorate to
scleroses, which are hardened scars or plaques. MRI
studies reveal numerous plaques in the white matter
of the brain and spinal cord
II. CHEMICAL SYNAPSE
The destruction of myelin sheaths slows and then
a presynaptic neuron converts an electrical signal
short-circuits propagation of nerve impulses.
(nerve impulse) into a chemical signal
(neurotransmitter release)
Through exocytosis of synaptic vesicles, a presynaptic
neuron releases neurotransmitter molecules.
After diffusing across the synaptic cleft, the
neurotransmitter binds to receptors in the plasma
membrane of the postsynaptic neuron and produces
a postsynaptic potential
Through exocytosis of synaptic vesicles, a presynaptic
neuron releases neurotransmitter molecules. After
diffusing across the synaptic cleft, the
neurotransmitter binds to receptors in the plasma
membrane of the postsynaptic neuron and produces
Guillian Barre Syndrome
a postsynaptic potential
An acute demyelinating disorder in which
macrophages strip myelin from axons in the PNS
may result from the immune system’s response to a
bacterial infection
1. A nerve impulse arrives at a synaptic end bulb of a
presynaptic axon
2. Opening of voltage-gated Ca2+ channels
3. An increase in the concentration of Ca2+ inside the
presynaptic neuron serves as a signal that triggers
exocytosis of the synaptic vesicles.neurotransmitter
molecules within the vesicles are released into the
synaptic cleft
4. The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across the
synaptic cleft and bind to neurotransmitter receptors
in the postsynaptic neuron’s plasma membrane
5. Binding of neurotransmitter molecules to their
receptors on ligand-gated channels opens the
channels and allows particular ions to flow across the
membrane
6. As ions flow through the opened channels, the
voltage across the membrane changes. This change in
membrane voltage is a postsynaptic potential
Cerebrospinal Fluid
clear, colorless liquid composed primarily of water
that protects the brain and spinal cord from chemical
and physical injuries
also carries small amounts of oxygen, glucose, and
other needed chemicals from the blood to neurons
Hydrocephalus
and neuroglia.
Abnormalities in the brain—tumors, inflammation, or
CSF continuously circulates through cavities in the
developmental malformations— can interfere with
brain and spinal cord and around the brain and spinal
the circulation of CSF from the ventricles into the
cord in the subarachnoid space
subarachnoid space
The abnormal accumulation of CSF may be due to an
obstruction to CSF flow or an abnormal rate of CSF
production and/or reabsorption.
Circulation of CSF
The majority of CSF production is from the choroid
plexuses networks of blood capillaries in the walls of
the ventricles
