INTRODUCTION

Cultural Theory and Popular Culture is a 2009 text by John Storey that provides an overview
of cultural theory and an exploration of popular culture. The book also surveys why the study
of popular culture is essential today. The essay under discussion “What is Popular Culture
“constitutes the first chapter of the book.
Before delving into specific definitions and analyses, it is important to recognize the
complexity of the concept of popular culture. The term is difficult to pin down because it is
always defined in contrast to other categories such as folk culture, mass culture, high culture,
dominant culture, or working-class culture. These oppositions shape the meanings and
connotations of popular culture. Studying popular culture, therefore, requires grappling with
its ambiguous and relational nature. The theoretical framework and analysis one adopts are
heavily influenced by how popular culture is defined. Ultimately, the book suggests that
popular culture is an empty conceptual category—a flexible term that can take on various,
often conflicting, meanings depending on the context in which it is used.
CULTURE
To understand popular culture, we first need to understand what culture means. Raymond
Williams (1983) calls it one of the most complex words in English and gives three broad
definitions.
The first defines culture as the development of human intellect, spirit, and art—such as the
work of great thinkers, poets, and artists. This idea is often linked to high culture and is
rarely used when discussing popular culture.
The second sees culture as a way of life shared by a group or society, including everyday
practices like festivals, holidays, sports, and literacy. In the context of popular culture, this
refers to lived experiences like seaside holidays, Christmas, or youth subcultures.
The third defines culture as artistic and intellectual activities that produce meaning—like
literature, music, or art. In popular culture, this includes things like soap operas, pop music,
and comics, often called cultural texts.
Popular culture typically draws on the second and third meanings, focusing on both daily life
and meaning-making through media. Williams’s definitions offer a helpful framework for
understanding popular culture in both practice and expression.
IDEOLOGY
Before defining popular culture, it is important to understand the concept of ideology, a key
term in cultural studies. Scholars like Graeme Turner and James Carey emphasize its central
role, with some even describing cultural studies as essentially studies of ideology. Like
culture, ideology has multiple meanings and is often used interchangeably with culture,
especially popular culture, which highlights its importance.
There are five main definitions of ideology relevant to popular culture:
 1. Ideology as a System of Ideas:
Ideology can refer to a structured set of ideas shared by a specific group, such as a
political party or profession. For example, the Labour Party’s ideology includes its
political and economic beliefs.
2. Ideology as Distortion or Concealment:
Ideology can also mean the way dominant powers present a false view of reality,
serving their interests while hiding oppression. This concept is rooted in Marxism,
which argues that cultural texts reflect and support the power structures created by a
society’s economic base. The dominant class may not see itself as oppressive, and the
oppressed may not recognize their own subjugation. Ideology thus maintains class
inequalities and can also apply to other forms of power, such as patriarchy and racism.
3. Ideological Forms in Texts:
All cultural texts (films, songs, TV shows, novels) present a particular worldview and
thus take part in social conflict. As Bertolt Brecht noted, art always has consequences
and influences how people see the world. Stuart Hall sees popular culture as a space
where meanings are fought over—a “politics of signification”—shaping collective
understanding.
4. Ideology as Connotation (Barthes):
Roland Barthes described ideology (or “myth”) as operating through hidden meanings
or connotations. For instance, political messages may use imagery or language to
promote certain values as “natural.” An example is a political ad portraying socialism
as imprisonment, suggesting that conservatism equals freedom. Ideology here works
by making cultural ideas seem universal and unquestionable, often portraying
dominant identities (white, male, middle-class, heterosexual) as the norm.
5. Ideology as Material Practice (Althusser):
Louis Althusser argued that ideology exists not just in ideas but in everyday actions
and rituals. Practices like celebrating Christmas or going on holiday can seem
harmless but help reinforce the social order by offering temporary relief, only to return
people to their roles in a system of inequality. In this view, ideology helps maintain the
conditions needed for capitalism to survive.
In conclusion, culture and ideology largely overlap in meaning, but ideology adds a critical,
political dimension. Studying popular culture through the lens of ideology reveals that it is
not just about leisure and entertainment—it involves power, meaning, and control.
POPULAR CULTURE
Popular culture is a complex and debated concept, shaped by varying theoretical, historical,
and political contexts. The term popular itself can mean something widely liked, deliberately
mass-appealing, of lower quality, or authentically created by ordinary people. Thus, defining
popular culture requires engaging with this ambiguity. The following six definitions are
foundational to its study:
1. Popular Culture as Widely Favoured Culture
This definition sees popular culture as what is liked by the majority, based on measurable
popularity—book sales, chart rankings, or TV ratings. While appealing for its clarity, it is
limited because it blurs with high culture (e.g., Shakespeare or opera) when such works gain
mass appeal. It also struggles with setting thresholds for what counts as "popular."
Key idea: Popularity is important, but quantity alone doesn’t determine cultural value.
2. Popular Culture as Inferior Culture
Here, popular culture is defined in contrast to high culture—the elite, complex, and
intellectually valued works of art, literature, or music. It is seen as “leftover” or of lesser
aesthetic worth. This definition reinforces class distinctions. As Pierre Bourdieu argues, taste
often serves to mark social difference, legitimating the preferences of the elite.
However, cultural boundaries are not fixed: Shakespeare and Dickens, now high culture
icons, were once popular artists. Such examples show that definitions of cultural value can
shift over time.
Key idea: Cultural value is socially constructed, and definitions of “inferior” or “elite” are
historically unstable.
3. Popular Culture as Mass Culture
This perspective sees popular culture as mass-produced, standardized, and commercially
driven—offering passive entertainment to a mass audience. Critics argue it lacks originality
and reflects manipulation by corporate or ideological forces. However, high product failure
rates in the entertainment industry suggest audiences are not always passive.
A more sympathetic view sees mass culture as a site for collective fantasies or dreams—
allowing people to momentarily escape daily routines.
Key idea: Mass culture is often criticized as manipulative, but it can also be a source of
shared pleasure or meaning.
4. Popular Culture as Folk or Authentic People’s Culture
This definition sees popular culture as arising from the people themselves—spontaneous,
expressive, and rooted in working-class traditions. It is often romanticized as authentic
resistance to elite control. However, it overlooks the reality that most cultural materials come
from commercial sources, not organic creation.
For example, even oppositional subcultures (like punk or certain bands) are often eventually
commodified, challenging the idea of a pure, untainted folk culture.
Key idea: While culture can emerge from below, it often intersects with commercial and
dominant influences.
5. Popular Culture as a Site of Hegemony (Gramsci's Perspective)
Antonio Gramsci’s concept of hegemony redefines popular culture as a battleground where
dominant and subordinate forces constantly negotiate meaning. It’s neither entirely imposed
nor entirely oppositional. Rather, it’s a space of resistance and incorporation, where
dominant ideas are challenged and sometimes reshaped.
This view acknowledges that culture can express both ruling-class ideology and popular
resistance. Concepts like reading positions (dominant, negotiated, oppositional) help explain
how audiences engage with texts differently.
Key idea: Popular culture is a dynamic space of ideological struggle between power and
resistance.
6. Popular Culture and Postmodernism
Postmodernism blurs the line between high and popular culture. Commercial and artistic
realms overlap—songs become ads, and ads become art. Critics worry this dilutes cultural
depth, while others celebrate the collapse of elitist boundaries.
For example, a pop song used in a commercial may gain fame, be sold again as a hit, and
become culturally significant in a loop of meaning and consumption.
Key idea: In postmodernism, boundaries dissolve, and culture becomes a fusion of
entertainment, art, and commerce.
Historical Context: The Birth of Popular Culture
Popular culture, as defined in modern theory, is closely tied to industrialization and
urbanization. Before the Industrial Revolution, Britain had a more unified culture shared by
all classes, alongside elite traditions. But three major changes redefined the cultural map:
1. Shift in Work Relations: From mutual obligation to wage-based labour (the "cash
nexus").
2. Urban Class Segregation: Cities became divided by class, isolating working-class
communities.
3. Political Suppression: Fear of revolution led to repression, pushing working-class
politics and culture underground.
These shifts created a cultural space outside elite control, giving rise to a distinct and
autonomous popular culture—although this independence has always been contested.
Conclusion
Popular culture is not a fixed or singular entity. It is a shifting, negotiated, and often
politicized field where meanings are constantly debated. Whether seen as commercial
entertainment, grassroots expression, or ideological terrain, it remains a central site for
understanding society, power, identity, and culture itself.
Popular Culture as 'Other'
The concept of popular culture is complex and not easily defined. This complexity stems
largely from its relationship to what it is not — its "other." Popular culture is always defined
in contrast to something else: mass culture, high culture, working-class culture, or folk
culture. Each of these oppositional terms brings its own theoretical and political
implications, shaping how popular culture is understood.
As Bennett notes, there is no single or correct way to define popular culture—only different
interpretations with varying effects. This book aims to explore those differing perspectives
and the theoretical debates that have shaped our understanding of popular culture.
Thinkers like Matthew Arnold saw popular culture as chaotic and inferior (“anarchy”),
while others like Dick Hebdige and Geoffrey Nowell-Smith argue that popular culture has
now moved to the center of cultural life in the West, blurring distinctions with high culture.
Importantly, popular culture is not a fixed set of texts or practices. It is historically variable
and partly constructed by the very act of theorizing it. Different theoretical frameworks often
emphasize different aspects—some focus on texts (fiction, music, TV), while others study
practices (holidays, subcultures, rituals).
Purpose of the Book
The central aim is to:
• Trace the evolving definitions of popular culture.
• Examine how theoretical approaches have shaped what we recognize as popular
culture.
• Equip readers to conduct their own critical explorations of popular culture’s texts,
practices, and political significance.
The Contextuality of Meaning
Popular culture is not fixed in meaning—it is context-dependent. The central idea here is that
meaning is not intrinsic to a text; rather, it is shaped by the context in which the text is
interpreted. The word context itself comes from Latin roots meaning "to weave together,"
which suggests that meaning arises from how texts are interrelated with other texts and
situations.
There are two primary types of context:
• Co-texts: Other texts that clarify or complete the meaning of a given text (e.g., “it”
only makes sense if we know it refers to Marx’s Capital).
• Inter-texts: Frameworks or theories (like feminism or psychoanalysis) that shape how
we interpret a text (e.g., reading Dracula through a feminist lens changes its meaning).
This means that texts are always read in relation to other texts or social/historical
assumptions. For example, the Union Jack flag can symbolize imperialism, patriotism,
rebellion, or fashion depending on the context in which it appears.
Furthermore, contexts themselves are not fixed. They can change and be reshaped by the
texts they include. For instance, feminism’s interpretation of Dracula not only alters our view
of the novel, but also impacts what feminism itself is taken to mean.
Everyday activities also illustrate contextuality. Watching television, for example, typically
occurs amid eating, chatting, or multitasking. This changes how we understand both TV
watching and those accompanying actions.
Conclusion
Meaning is always produced within context, and contexts are interactive and ever-changing.
Understanding a text requires recognizing its relational, not isolated, nature. The following
chapters in the book will expand on these ideas through contextual analysis of various
cultural texts.