1

st
The 21 Century Process Engineer

BY

A. Kayode Coker

Process Engineer: 1. He/she uses the principles of heat and material

balances, hydraulics, vapor-liquid equilibrium, and chemistry to solve

plant operating problems and optimize operating variables. 2. A

Process Engineer is a professional who designs, implements, optimizes,

and maintains industrial processes across various sectors, including

manufacturing, pharmaceuticals, energy, chemicals, and food

processing. They ensure that processes run efficiently, cost-effectively,

 2

and safely, while meeting regulatory standards and achieving desired

production outcomes.

Key Functions of a Process Engineer

1. Process Design and Optimization: Develop and refine processes to

enhance efficiency, productivity, and sustainability. Select the best

technologies and methods for specific industrial applications.

2. Heat and Mass Balance Calculations: Perform energy and material

balance analyses to ensure efficient utilization of resources.

Optimize the transfer of heat, mass, and fluids within the system.

3. Process Simulation:Use software tools like Aspen HYSYS, UniSim

Design, ProMax, gPROMS, MATLAB, or ChemCAD to simulate plant

operations.

Model different scenarios to predict system behavior under varying

conditions.

4. Scale-up and Pilot Plant Studies: Translate laboratory-scale

processes into large-scale industrial applications. Conduct pilot tests

to validate processes before full-scale implementation.

 3

5. Environmental and Regulatory Compliance: Ensure that processes

adhere to environmental standards and regulations. Minimize waste

and emissions through sustainable process design.

6. Startup and Commissioning: Supervise and coordinate the startup of

new plants or upgraded systems. Ensure equipment and processes

function as designed during commissioning.

7. Data Analysis and Troubleshooting: Analyze process data to identify

and resolve inefficiencies or malfunctions. Develop strategies to

address production challenges effectively.

8. Cost Estimation and Feasibility Studies: Evaluate the economic

viability of proposed projects or modifications. Perform cost-benefit

analyses to support decision-making.

9. Energy Management: Identify opportunities to reduce energy

consumption and improve energy efficiency. Implement energy-saving

measures in process systems.

10. Research and Development (R&D): Collaborate on innovative

technologies and new process designs. Explore alternative raw

materials, energy sources, or production methods.

 4

Process engineering is dynamic and often intersects with disciplines

like mechanical, chemical, and environmental engineering.

Other Key Functions of a Process Engineer

1. Process Design and Development

 Analyzing Requirements: Understanding project needs, product

specifications, and operational objectives.

 Designing Processes: Developing blueprints and flow diagrams

for production processes.

 Simulation and Modeling: Using software tools to simulate and

optimize processes before implementation.

2. Process Optimization

 Efficiency Improvements: Identifying bottlenecks and

inefficiencies in existing systems.

 Cost Reduction: Implementing measures to reduce material

waste, energy consumption, and labor costs.

 Performance Enhancement: Improving production rates and

ensuring product quality consistency.

 5

3. Equipment Selection and Maintenance

 Selecting Machinery: Recommending and specifying equipment

that fits process requirements.

 Monitoring Equipment: Ensuring machinery operates optimally

through routine checks and diagnostics.

 Maintenance Planning: Establishing schedules to prevent

unplanned downtimes.

4. Safety and Compliance

 Risk Assessment: Evaluating processes for safety hazards and

potential environmental impacts.

 Regulatory Compliance: Ensuring adherence to industry

standards and legal requirements (e.g., OSHA, EPA, FDA).

 Implementing Safety Protocols: Establishing safety measures and

training teams to handle emergencies.

5. Collaboration and Communication

 Interdepartmental Coordination: Working closely with

production teams, quality assurance, R&D, and management.

 6

 Vendor Interaction: Liaising with suppliers for equipment, raw

materials, and other inputs.

 Training and Guidance: Educating operators and staff on new

processes and technologies.

6. Continuous Improvement

 Data Analysis: Collecting and analyzing process data to identify

improvement opportunities.

 Problem-Solving: Troubleshooting issues and implementing

corrective actions.

 Innovation: Introducing new technologies or methodologies to

maintain competitiveness.

7. Environmental Stewardship

 Sustainable Practices: Designing processes that minimize waste

and energy usage.

 Waste Management: Implementing systems to handle by-

products and emissions responsibly.

 Eco-Friendly Solutions: Incorporating renewable resources and

green technologies.
 7

Tools and Techniques Used

 Software: MATLAB, Aspen Plus, AutoCAD, and SolidWorks for

modeling and simulations.

 Lean Six Sigma: For process optimization and defect reduction.

 Process Control Systems: SCADA, DCS, and PLC systems for

monitoring and automation.

Industries Employing Process Engineers

 Oil & Gas

 Pharmaceuticals

 Food & Beverage

 Chemical Manufacturing

 Energy Production

 Electronics and Semiconductor Manufacturing

Why Process Engineers are Crucial

Process Engineers are vital for ensuring industrial systems meet

production goals while maintaining high standards of safety, quality,

 8

and efficiency. They drive innovation and sustainability, which are

critical for businesses looking to stay competitive and environmentally

responsible. Process engineers must maintain constant communication

with various disciplines and ensure that they acquire the relevant

information on time. This information and data are essential for these

disciplines to make progress on the project and to develop their

design deliverables. Figure shows the interaction between a process

engineer and the various disciplines in the successful execution of a

design project. Table shows the primary responsibilities of a process

engineering in all phases of the project. Figure 69 shows the

interactions involving a process engineer with other engineering

disciplines, and Table 1 shows the pertinent responsibilities of a

process engineer in all phases of a project.

Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID) and Process Data Sheets

Process engineers play a crucial role in utilizing Piping and

Instrumentation Diagrams (P&IDs), engineering diagrams, and process

datasheets. The following are specific functions where these tools are

indispensable:
 9

Design and Layout: P&IDs help process engineers design and layout

process systems by visualizing the flow paths, control loops, and

interconnections of various components.

Component Specification:

Engineers use P&IDs and datasheets to specify pumps, valves,

instruments, pipelines, and control systems, ensuring the selection of

appropriate components for efficiency and safety.

Control System Development: P&IDs form the foundation for

designing process automation strategies, instrumentation loops, and

control logic for plant operations.

Safety and Risk Assessment: P&IDs are essential for conducting safety

reviews like HAZOP (Hazard and Operability Study) and SIL (Safety

Integrity Level) assessments to identify potential hazards and ensure

system reliability.

Installation and Construction: During the construction phase, P&IDs

serve as blueprints for assembling piping and equipment, ensuring

compliance with design specifications.

 10

Operational Analysis: Engineers use P&IDs to analyze operational

efficiency, troubleshoot issues, and optimize processes by

understanding equipment interconnections and flow

Maintenance and Modifications: P&IDs and datasheets are valuable

references for maintenance activities and system modifications, aiding

in identifying equipment and planning changes without compromising

safety.

Training and Communication: These diagrams are used to train

operators and engineers, ensuring effective communication across

disciplines and a clear understanding of system functionality.

Figure 1 shows the interactions between a process engineer and other

disciplines. Figures 2a – e show typical P & IDs, isometric drawings and

engineering diagrams where a process engineer is engaged with other

disciplines.
 11

Document issue
Schedule meetings
through document
through project admin.
Project progress to control
project manager
and project controls
P & IDs to everyone on Instrument datasheets to
the project control system engineers

Piping tie-ins required by Line list data to piping

piping design engineers

Electrical area Process Equipment datasheets to

classification to electrical Engineer mechanical engineers
engineering

Licensor
Review of engineering
documents from everyone

Project progress to project Input to cost estimate

manager and project
controls
Custom

Figure 1. Interaction of a process engineer with other engineering

disciplines.
 12

Table 1. Primary responsibilities of a process engineer in all phases of

the project.

Phase Primary responsibilities of a process engineer

1 Develop feasibility report and perform studies
2 Identify major pieces of equipment and develop a
block flow diagram
3 Prepare equipment datasheets and develop P & IDs
4 Vendor data review, safety valve development, issued
for construction (IFC) P & IDs, and prepare instrument
datasheets.
5 Review questions from construction and provide
support as needed
6 Commissioning support to plant and prepare operator
training procedures.

Front End Engineering Design (FEED): Front-End Engineering Design (FEED)

is a critical phase in project development, particularly in industries like oil and gas,

petrochemicals, and power generation. It involves detailed planning and design

activities conducted after the initial feasibility study and before the detailed

engineering phase. The primary objective of FEED is to define the project's

technical requirements, scope, and cost estimates, thereby minimizing risks and

ensuring a clear roadmap for the subsequent stages.

 13

Key Components of FEED

Project Scope Definition: Clearly outlining the project's objectives, deliverables,

and boundaries.

Technical Specifications: Developing detailed specifications for equipment,

materials, and processes.

Cost Estimation: Providing accurate cost projections to inform budgeting and

financial planning.

Risk Assessment: Identifying potential risks and developing mitigation

strategies.

Preliminary Design: Creating initial designs, including process flow diagrams

(PFDs) and piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs).

By thoroughly addressing these elements, FEED ensures that the project is well-

prepared for the detailed design and execution phases, leading to more efficient

and cost-effective project delivery.

For a more in-depth understanding of FEED, you might find the following video

helpful:
14
15
 16

Process Flow Diagrams (PFDs) and Piping & Instrumentation Diagrams

(P&IDs): FEED involves the creation of process flow diagrams (PFDs) and piping

and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs) that illustrate the flow of materials and the

interconnection of equipment within the facility (Figures 2a and b).

Figure 2a. A typical process flow diagram (PFD) of distillation, debutanizer and mild vacuum

columns from Hydrocracking unit.

 17

Figure 2b. A typical process flow diagram (PFD) of distillation, debutanizer and mild

vacuum columns from Hydrocracking unit.

In a petroleum and petrochemical plant, these diagrams will outline key processes such as

separation, cracking, polymerization, and separation, showing how raw materials (like

naphtha or natural gas) are converted into valuable petrochemical products (like ethylene or

propylene).
 18

Table 2. Troubleshooting Centrifugal Pump checklist.

 19

Table 2. Troubleshooting Centrifugal Pumps checklist (Contd).

 20

Figure 2a. Piping and instrumentation diagram for ammonia plant CO2

removal
 21

Figure 2b. Piping and instrumentation diagram. Ammonia synthesis

and refrigeration unit.

 22

Figure 2c. Piping details isometric diagram.

 23

PN 90o
0o

84
48
EL 0
180o I 80
270o V-D L6
80 PE 84
11 14 BO 59
EL 26 0 EL 0
BO 985 4 92 90
PE 4 L5
PE PI-

900
EL L5 BO 0
BO 2 88 90
0 0 (PIA 2 A
PE 4 50 )
L2
00 PI-
0 15
70 (2/5
0 (PIE )
)

52

2300
30
BO EL
P E 584
L5
00

900
3100
70 45
0 30
PO
INT

990
“a ”
0 -B 1-N
70 0 33
EL -10
15 LA
5 45 00 00 6" -
0 20
4
700 84
50 0
1000 ) EL

900
(2/8 00
3 15 L5
95 PI- PE
V-DI 7 BO
L4

452
FE (¾
)
UN 14
PI- 20
17
EL 0
82
2 50 16 0
2950

0 0
80

00
71
4788

P-1
4
(PIE (¼)
)
R.P
. B P-3
6
-50 0(
1-E 14 (PIF 1/3)
1238

70 C )
EL 60 A
BO 6
62 00
PE 0
L5 45 40

750
00 50 00
53
70
21 30
10
00
18
12 I-N 8
"X 7-B -042
8" 4" 03 O-I
M
X 3 4 -10 0-L
(B.F 4" E 1-LV 43 LA SF1 I-N 9
.) RE 503 EL 0 3"- O. N 8-B -042
25 WG 03 -IM
L4 ED -10 0-LO
PE SE LA SF1
2"- G NO.
BO W
ED 4B
SE
-E -51
1

50
6" 0
X4

3134
"E
(B.F RE

3904
.) 6 0
10 L7
00
N FE 50
0
1041

327
30
5

770
45 00
356

0 4
EL
1916

36
8
EL
31 11 1 20
513

20 2 0
11
2 60
0 TI
30 573
5 4 00
PO 36 T-B1
6" INT 7
D- 45 X4 “a ”
02 0 "R
ET 96
7
EL
5 84
22
86 D-
02

Figure 2d. Isometric drawing for liquid ammonia line (4LA-10033-B1-N)

 24

74 81
5832 BAFFLE FOR 64 NOZZLE

4548 1281 15
‘A’ 74
17
TUBE SIZE: 25.4 O.D. X 2.11 THK. X 4000 L. 250 81
2 : 1 ELLIP. 19
REQ’D NO. 179 U PITCH 32
BAFFLE CUTTING 19
21 X 167 = 3507 379
(SEG. 41% AREA H-CUT) NAME PLATE 19

BAFFLE CUTTING 21
23
179 TUBES 23

670
23

50.8
800 I.D.
#22 #21 #20 #3 #2 #1

3 MIN
M IN. 7. . 7.1

670

750
LAMIFLEX LONGITUDINAL BAFFLE

570
. .

12
BL
2-EARTH LUGS
2 : 1 ELLIP. (N.L. 1300)
SEE ‘MD-3A’ 250
330 800 I.D.
590 EARTH LUG EARTH LUG
2000 (BOLT TO BOLT) 650
(SLIDING SIDE) (FIXED SIDE)
64 91
64 91 2 x 2 - M24 TYPE “V”
SLIDING SIDE FIXED SIDE FOUNDATION BOLTS

TUBE ARRANGEMENT
VIEW “A”
EAST - SIDE ELEVATION
130.8

GENERAL NOTES:
191.8 191.8

7. PASS PARTITION SHALL BE DESIGNED WITH DIFFERENTIAL

PRESSURE OF 0.4 KG/CM2.

8. LONGITUDINAL BAFFLE SHALL BE DESIGNED WITH DIFFERENTIAL

130.8

PRESSURE OF 0.5 KG/CM2.

9. SW.W/ INNER RING

WOOP : 304 S.S.

ODD NO. EVEN NO. FILLER : COMPRESSED ASBESTOS

INNER RING : CARBON STEEL

DETAIL OF BAFFLE PLATES
10. NLO EL 4.4M ABOVE PORT OF JUBAIL DATUM.

Figure 2e. Equipment drawing for refrigeration compressor 2nd stage

Intercooler A-EA711

Process Flow Diagram (PFD): A Process Flow Diagram (PFD) is a

simplified graphical representation of a chemical, industrial, or

manufacturing process. It is used to illustrate the flow of materials and

energy through different equipment and unit operations in a process.

PFDs provide an overview of the process, showing how the input

materials are transformed into final products.

 25

Key Features of a PFD

Major Equipment: A PFD displays the key equipment used in the

process, such as reactors, distillation columns, pumps, heat

exchangers, and compressors. These are typically represented by

simple symbols.

Flow Paths: The arrows in a PFD indicate the flow of materials (fluids,

gases, or solids) between equipment. The direction of the arrows

shows the movement of materials from one unit to another.

Operating Conditions: Important operating parameters, such as

temperature, pressure, and flow rate, are often included near the

relevant equipment or streams to give context to the process

conditions.

Material Balance: A PFD helps to represent the material balance of the

process, showing the amount of raw materials entering the process,

the intermediate streams, and the final products.

Simplified Design: Unlike a Piping and Instrumentation Diagram

(P&ID), a PFD does not include details of piping, control systems, or

instrumentation. It focuses more on the general process rather than

the specifics of how equipment is connected or controlled.

 26

Applications of a PFD

Conceptual Design: PFDs are used during the early stages of process

design to provide an overview of the process and its major

components.

Communication Tool: PFDs are used by engineers, project managers,

and stakeholders to communicate the basic structure and flow of a

process. They serve as a foundation for more detailed engineering

work.

Process Optimization: PFDs are valuable in evaluating how changes in

one part of the process affect other parts, helping to identify areas for

process optimization or energy savings.

Example

In a refinery, a PFD for a distillation unit would show:

 Feedstock entering the distillation column

 Heating taking place in a furnace

 Vapor and liquid products being separated in the column

 27

 Final products, such as gasoline and diesel, flowing out of the

column to storage tanks.

A schematic representation of a process or part of a process that

converts raw materials to products through the various unit operations

(Figures 3a-g). It typically uses a symbolic representation for the major

items of equipment such as storage vessels, reactors, separators,

process piping to and from the equipment, as well as by-pass and

recirculation lines, and the principal flow routes. Key temperatures and

pressures corresponding to normal operation are included, as well as

equipment ratings, minimum and maximum operational values.

Material flows and compositions are included. It may also include

important aspects of control and pumping, as well as any interaction

with other process equipment or flows. The design duties or sizes of all

the major equipment are also featured, which can collectively provide

a comprehensive representation of the process. PFDs generally do not

include the following:

 Pipe classes or piping line numbers

 Process control instrumentation (sensors and final elements).

 Minor bypass lines

 28

 Isolation and shutoff valves.

 Maintenance vents and drains

 Relief and safety valves

 Flanges.

A Process Flow Diagram (PFD) is an essential tool in process and

chemical engineering, providing a high-level view of the process. It

shows how raw materials are processed through different unit

operations to produce final products, helping engineers and

stakeholders understand the process and its key components.

The video links to process flow diagram are:

https://youtu.be/zNa2XxYXUdM

https://youtu.be/4IWoSPd6Xfk
 29

Figure 3a. Process flow diagram of fractionation of products from the

hydrocracking unit
 30

Figure 3b. Process flow diagram of fractionation of products from the

hydrocracking unit
 31

Figure 3c. Process flow diagram of fractionation of products from the

hydrocracking unit
 32

Figure 3d. Process flow diagram of fractionation of products from the

hydrocracking unit with operating conditions.

 33

Figure 3e. Process flow diagram of aqueous corrosion in C-3101 OVHD

 34

Corrosion and fouling in U-3100

1. High temperature S – corrosion of CS > 260oC, in the

“bottoms circuits” of the fractionation columns C-
3101/3103.
2. Aqueous corrosion by the presence of sour water with salts
in the OVHD of the fractionation columns C-
3101/3103/3104
3. In the mild vacuum column C-3103 ingress of air (oxygen)
and seawater will enhance the aqueous corrosion in the
OVHD’s.
Figure 3f. Process flow diagram of aqueous corrosion in C-3101 OVHD
 35

E-1 C-2
Distillation tower Product Condenser
2' - 4" dia x 38' - 0" and separator
1'-6" dia x 10'-0"
Fatty acid (FA) vapor 410 oF
Saturation steam
280 MW
100 psig 5 mm. Hg.
950 Ib of F.A vapor/hr. Cooling water
12 lb/hr. abs
12 Ib. of steam/hr. 280,000 But/hr.
14, 275 But/hr
28 gpm

170oF

180oF
4.5 mm Hg
abs.
150oF To vacuum equipment
12 lb of water vapor/hr
Trace of noncondensables
9 Cooling 13,075 Btu/hr.
8 water
7 Feed
0.75 Sp.Gr
6
5
4
Fatty acid 380oF
280 M.W 3 F.A. distillate
1,7170 lb of vapor/hr. 2 0.85 Sp. Gr.
58 lb. of liquid/hr. 950 lb/hr.
1 0.14 gpm.
C-1 Reflux
Reboiler 527 oF (not required 22,600 Btu/hr
for design
feed)
301,400 180 oF
Btu/hr

Product pump
F.A. Liquid J-4
0.75 Sp. Gr. 2.25 gpm.
1,768 lb/hr. 16 mm. Hg
Crude fatty acid feed abs. F.A. pitch
0.85 Sp. Gr.
0.71 Sp. Gr.
1,000 lb/hr.
50 lb/hr.
141 gal/hr
0.14 gpm.
zero But/hr 475 oF 22,600 Btu/hr

180 oF 475 oF
475 oF
Charge pump
J-1 Bottoms pump
2.35 gpm. J-3

Figure 3g. Heat and material balance established material and thermal

requirements.

Process Instrumentation Diagram: A Process and Instrumentation

Diagram (P&ID) is a detailed graphical representation of a process

system, illustrating the interconnection of process equipment, piping,

instrumentation, and control devices. It serves as an essential blueprint

for engineers, operators, and maintenance teams to understand the

design, function, and operational dynamics of a plant or process

 36

system (See Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID) and Process

Engineer) (Figures 72a and b).

Here’s a breakdown of the key components typically included in a

P&ID:

Process Equipment: This includes all the major equipment involved in

the process such as pumps, compressors, heat exchangers, reactors,

separators, storage tanks, and columns. Each piece of equipment is

represented by standardized symbols.

Piping: The diagram shows the flow paths between equipment,

represented by lines. The size, type, and material of the piping may

also be indicated.

Valves: Various types of valves (e.g., control valves, check valves,

isolation valves) are depicted, each represented by specific symbols.

These control the flow of fluids within the system.

Instrumentation: This includes sensors, transmitters, and controllers

that monitor and control the process. Instrumentation symbols, usually

standardized by organizations like ISA (International Society of

 37

Automation), are used to represent devices like pressure sensors,

temperature transmitters, flow meters, and level indicators.

Control Systems: These symbols represent the control devices and the

way they communicate with the process. They might include control

loops, safety interlocks, and other automated systems.

Flow Indicators: Arrows and lines are used to indicate the direction of

flow, which is essential for understanding the sequence of operations.

Tags and Labels: Each equipment, instrument, and valve is labeled with

a unique tag number for easy identification. These tag numbers often

correspond to specific details in the equipment documentation.

Utilities: P&IDs may also show utilities, such as air, water, steam, and

electricity, that support the operation of the process.

Safety Features: Safety devices like relief valves, emergency shutdown

systems (ESD), pressure safety valves (PSVs), and fire and gas detection

systems are depicted to ensure safe operation.

P&IDs are used across various stages of a project, from design and

installation to operation and maintenance. They are critical for

 38

commissioning and troubleshooting, ensuring all components are

operating correctly, and helping engineers evaluate system

performance and safety measures.

Videos links to Process Instrumentation Diagrams:

https://youtu.be/hHKB773qDno

https://youtu.be/muT1JrOh8c8
 39

225 M14"-Is(PH*2)
PI
273

TI
PI
301.33
10" 224

224A30"-Is

ME-200
Precondenser 227A-3"-Is
16
15
239A-3/4"-Is 14 239A-1½"-Is
25 ¼"
LG LG
TI
203 203

7"
13 14" 301.34
TI
202 225A-6"-III

237A-6"-Is
12
20" 11
216CA-1½"-Is

PR LG LC
201 204 204
14"
7"

25 ¼"
10
218CA-8"-IV
TI
301.35
212CA-3"-VI
9
212CA-3"-VI
8

7
PdI
201 CA A

216CA-1½"-Is 251A-¾"
6 F.O.
LG LC
205 205 14" To Torque Tube
25 ¼" 211CA-6"-VI

5 TI
(PH # 2) 301-36
208CA-30"-VI FI
¾" P.T. 203
30" TIV LC
V-201 8 205V
FI
203E
1"

1½ "
212CA-2"
FI FI 4
206E 206 3
2 216CA-1½"-Is 3/4 "
3/4" P.T. 1 Det
A
206M-4"-I 203CA-4"-Is 3" See
257N-2"-II
50#Stm. M CA 3"
(PH#2)
CA N

LI
9"

Det
See 209
A LI
206 UA
18" 201.3
H

TI LA
301.37 205S
CA A
209V-¾"

206C-4"VI LC UA
11'-0"

(PH#2)
208CA-8"VI (7/16"WALL)

206
C CA

201.10
L
(PH#2)
(PH#2)
(PH#2)

DATUM
209V-¾"
250A-1½"F.O.
Fuel Gas Purge
214CA-8"VI
214CA-8"VI
228CA-8"VI

¾"
(PH#2)
209V-1"

Vent

Figure 4. Mechanical detail flow diagram.[3]

 40

ATM

¾" 4" -300#RF

6SL-I28-324-A1S
P = 0.5KG/CM2
(V)
DETAILS AND GENERAL NOTES EQUIPMENT
(D+)
PY ZLL EXCHANGERS TOWERS DRUMS PUMPS FILTERS
B216 B209
- FOR SYMBOLS AND STANDARDS SEE I-2010C I-2006E I-2010G I-2011J I-2006L-A/B
P & I 00-AS-0020-01 I-2011C I-2012J-A/B
PV
B216 SPLIT RANGE I-2013J-A/B
150#RF/150#RF 4" I
0.6 KG/CM2
324 P CLOSE DRAIN (P & I -10-AS-0030-06)
ATM PY FROM J-3004F (CLOSE) (OPEN) CD
I-2006E 323 B216 P&I I3-AS-0020-01
FD

¾“
6SL-I28-323-A1S (P)
STEAM RECOVERY 4" 4" TO DRAIN COLLECTING PIT
2CL-I28-332-A1S (H) W I-2006F (UREA AREA)
TOWER LW
3K4 1-½” -300#RF
3:5 P = 3KG/CM2
6CL-I28-301-A1S (H)
PSV
CL LV - ALL ATM DISCHARGES AT SAFE LOCATION.
B232 B220
A
3WP-I28-302-A1K
3WP-I28-333-A1S (V) 2" FC 2"
WP

1-1/2CN-I28-310-A3K (P)
326 ¾"

8CN-I28-340-A3K (P)
PRC
325 B216

1CN-I28-425-A3K (P)
3SL-I28-321-A1S (P) PAH 1-½"
1-½ SL-I28-315-A1S (H) 3/4WI-ID2-326-A6S (V)
7 SL 333 302 ID-AS-00-3002
3CN-I28-321-A1S (P)
A15 A1K
3/4"

3/4"
¾" (NOTED 8)

3" -150#RF
7
BY PIPE
PI
0 24"
B216

1" -150#RF 2" -150#RF

W
NOTES:

1700 MM.
I
1. BY PUMP MFR SUPPLY.
P
LG LG LG LAH 2. DELETED.
1-½" -150#RF LIC PIC
B214 B214 B214
1 ½" -300#RF A A A
B220 B218
P = 23.7KG/CM2 LAL 3. LOCATED NEAR PUMP I-2011J.

ABOVE GROUND
EL.=1800 MM.
1-½F2 PSV HW 4. AUTOMATIC OUT FLOW VALVES TO
1½“ 12.0 B233
GUARANTEE THE MINIMUM FLOW
TY 1½" -300#RF 6CN-I28-339-A3K (P)
3" CD RATE TO THE PUMPS.
2" B254
I
P = 17KG/CM2 PIC
P TI RED. TRIM 1" B218
321 A1S B253 PV 5. POSITIONER WITH REVERSE ACTION.
TY TIC PG

4HW-I28-317-B1A (H)
B218

8CN-I28-332-A3K (P)

8CN-I28-332-A3K (P)
320 B1A

1 ½"
B254 B254 B245
F.O. 6. DELETED.
¾" 2" W
FC
2" 2" 7. PROVIDE ¾" PIPE FOR DRAIN
LW
TO “W” SEWER FOR LEVEL INSTRUMENTS.
3/4WC-I28-328-A6S (V) ¾"
6CN-I28-303-A6S (V)

3"
8. OPERABLE AT GROUND LEVEL.
1WC-I28-329-A6S (V)

1 ½" 3LW -I28-306-A1S (P)

WC PG
304 306 I-2011C
9. 1" NPT GATE VALVE SUPPLIED
B1A A1S

332 A3K
318 B1A
H.P. CARBONATE
2CN-I28-322-A1S (P)

7 WITH CONDUCTIVITY ANALYZER.

PSL PAL PREHEATER
B219 B219

PSE 2"
4HW -I28-304-A1S (H) 2"
B202 33.8
HW 33.8 WC

CSD

CSD
PSE
B201
CR CAH CT
3" 1-1/2" -1500 RTJ 2” 2”

6WC-I28-331-A6S (V)
B201 B201
(NOTE 9) P = 26.5KG/CM2

1-1/2CN-I28-310-A3K (P)
2KW-I28-426-F4K (P) NPT-M/NPT-F
3/4CN-I28-327-A1S (V) 3/4X1
w PG B:D
WC PIC 3/4" .
B217 (NOTE 3) PSY
B240
PV KW
B217 7 1"

4CB-I21-012-F4K (TS)

4CB-I28-001-F4K (TS)
SL-I21-012/9-ST1

SL-I28-001/9-ST1
3/4"

F4K
TG PG
A3K

B206 ¾" B245

F3T
7
F3T

1/2"
¾"

2HW-I28-307-B1A (P) I-2010C

HW
TAH FLUSHING CONDENSATE

2"
2"
TI
COOLER
B261
3/4"

2”

6WC-I28-330-A6S (V)
7

(NOTE 5) 3/4”

2FW-I28-305-B1A (V)
2”
2"

2HW-I28-311-B3K (P)

FC
318 B1A
2KW-I28-308-F3T (P)

CARBONATE SOLUTION

CARBONATE SOLUTION
311 B3K
307 B1A

319 A1S
2”
304 B1A 316 A1S

304 B1A 316 A1S

P&I 12-AS-0020-03

P&I 12-AS-0020-02
4"

4"

LY

FROM I-2003J-A/B
6"
6"

B220
1500#RTJ/300#RF 1500#RTJ/300#RF 1500#RTJ/300#RF B

1½ ”

1½ ”
MFV-2001A MFV-2001B
2" -300#RF

TO 2001L
3/4" -I28-304

3/4" -I28-304

1½ D2 PSV 1½ D2 PSV 1½ D2 PSV

3"

3"

2"

2" 2" 206.0 B236 219.0 B237 219.0 B237

P = 17KG/CM2 FW FW
(NOTE 4) (NOTE 4)

1/2KW-I28-312-F4K (P)
(NOTE 1) TI
½" (NOTE 1) (NOTE 1) (NOTE 1) B255
4”
½" 7
6CL-I23-327-A1S (H)

4CL-I23-338-A1S (H)

4CL-I24-328-A1S (H)

(NOTE 1)
¾" ¾" A1S 336 A1S 337 FD A1S 338 FD
PG 300#RF PG F3T 308 FE
300#RF F3T 312 B226 F3T 312 B226
B222
B238 B239 PC
1½”

2”

B244
PG PG PG
4" -300#RF 4" -300#RF B240 B241 B242 FT FR
6" -300#RF 6" -300#RF B222 B222
PG
2KW-I28-337-A1S (P)

2KW-I28-338-A1S (P)

2" -2500#RTJ 3/4" -2500#RTJ 3/4" -2500#RTJ B243

3" -600#RF
2KW-I28-336-A1S (P)

M M M PSV 3K4
B239 7.5
3/4HW-I28-304-B1A (H)

3/4HW-I28-304-B1A (H) RL RL
3/4" -300#RF

B223
3/4" -300#RF

B224 1" -2500#RTJ 1" -2500#RTJ

PSL

3CL-I28-319-A1S (H)
B220
L.P. CONDENSATE

L.P. CONDENSATE

L.P. CONDENSATE

RL RL RL
P&I I2-AS-0020-02

P&I I2-AS-0020-02

P&I I2-AS-0020-02
FROM I-2005C-B

FROM I-2005C-B

FROM I-2005C-B

B225 B225 B225

PAL FD

4”
B220 B227
3”
I-2013J-B
I-2011J I-2012J-A/B
I-2013J-A W W
STRIPPER DP CELL W
H.P. FLUSHING DRUM
FLUSHING PUMPS STEAM CONDENSATE
FG I28-319 W
. 51505
3/4FW-I28-342-A1S (V)

P&I I2-AS-0020-02
FG
.
I-2006L-A/B
½” -600#RF
3/4" -150#RF DP CELL FLUSHING PUMPS
TO I-2001C

SUCTION FILTERS

P&I 00-AS-0030-51
3/4" -150#RF

TO INTERCONN
CONDENSATE
¾" ¾" ¾" ¾"
3/4WC-I28-334-A6S (V)
WC 3/4FW-I28-341-B1A (V)

3/4WC-I28-335-A6S (V)
WC
FW
W
7
7

Figure 4b. P&I Diagram: Unit I-Sect. 2000 (Urea) Condensate recovery

system [3].

Process Integration: 1. A holistic approach used in process design that

considers the process with the interactions between unit operations in

comparison with the optimization of unit operations separately and

independently. It is known as process synthesis (Figure 5). 2. Process

Integration is an integrated approach to improving the efficiency and

 41

sustainability of industrial processes by optimizing the use of energy,

water, and other resources. It involves analyzing and designing the

interconnections and interactions between different process units to

minimize waste, reduce energy consumption, and maximize resource

utilization. The primary goal is to achieve better overall performance

by integrating various subsystems rather than optimizing them

individually (See Energy Management).

Key Aspects of Process Integration

Energy Integration: Focuses on reducing energy consumption through

methods like heat integration (also called pinch analysis), where heat

generated by one process stream is used to heat another, reducing the

need for external heating and cooling. The objective is to minimize

utility usage, such as steam, fuel, or electricity, by matching heat

sources (hot streams) with heat sinks (cold streams) within a process.

Water Integration: Involves reusing and recycling water within a

process to minimize fresh water intake and wastewater generation.

Techniques like water pinch analysis help identify opportunities for

 42

water reuse, regeneration, or recycling across various units in the

plant.

Mass Integration: This focuses on optimizing material flows,

particularly where valuable resources (such as chemicals, raw materials,

or by-products) can be recovered, recycled, or reused. Mass

integration helps in reducing raw material consumption, minimizing

waste, and improving overall process yield.

Utility Integration: Deals with optimizing the consumption of utilities

like electricity, air, and fuel by coordinating their use across different

processes or plants.

This could involve sharing utility resources between different systems

or using cogeneration (combined heat and power) to generate both

electricity and useful heat.

Methods and Tools in Process Integration

Pinch Analysis: A widely used method in energy integration, pinch

analysis identifies the most efficient way to match hot and cold

streams to minimize the need for external heating and cooling. The

"pinch point" is the point in the system where the temperature

 43

difference between streams is minimal and serves as a guide for

optimizing energy flows

Heat Exchanger Networks (HENs): A key design tool in process

integration, HENs are networks of heat exchangers that are designed

to transfer heat between process streams as efficiently as possible.

Mathematical Optimization: Process integration often uses

mathematical models and optimization techniques to evaluate and

redesign process systems for maximum efficiency and resource

conservation.

Life Cycle Analysis (LCA): Process integration also considers the

environmental impact of process changes, aiming to reduce

greenhouse gas emissions, water usage, and waste generation while

maintaining or improving production efficiency.

Benefits of Process Integration

Energy Savings: By integrating heat and power more effectively,

companies can significantly reduce their energy consumption and

operating costs.
 44

Resource Efficiency: Optimizing material and energy flows results in

more efficient use of raw materials and utilities.

Environmental Impact: Reduced energy and water use leads to lower

emissions, less waste, and a smaller environmental footprint.

Cost Reduction: Savings in energy, water, and material use translate to

lower operational costs and improved profitability.

Improved Sustainability: Process integration helps industries align with

sustainability goals by optimizing resource use and reducing their

impact on the environment.

Process integration is widely applied in industries such as chemical

engineering, petroleum refining, food processing, and power

generation, where efficiency gains can lead to substantial economic

and environmental benefits.

 45

Process ?

Feed Streams
Product Streams

Figure 5. Process integration starts with the synthesis of a process to

convert raw materials into desired products.

 46

Document issue
Schedule meetings
through document
through project admin.
Project progress to control
project manager
and project controls
P & IDs to everyone on Instrument datasheets to
the project control system engineers

Piping tie-ins required by Line list data to piping

piping design engineers

Electrical area Process Equipment datasheets to

classification to electrical Engineer mechanical engineers
engineering

Licensor
Review of engineering
documents from everyone

Project progress to project Input to cost estimate

manager and project
controls
Custom

Figure 7a. Interaction of a process engineer with other engineering

disciplines.
 47

Process: 1. A chemical process is a sequence of steps or operations

used to transform raw materials or chemicals into desired products
through physical, chemical, or biological changes. These processes
typically involve a combination of unit operations (e.g., mixing,
heating, cooling, or separating) and chemical reactions, guided by
principles of chemistry, physics, and engineering. They are integral to
industries such as petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, food production,
and materials manufacturing. 2. A chemical process refers to a
structured sequence of physical, chemical, or biological operations
designed to convert raw materials, intermediates, or feedstocks into
valuable products, typically with defined specifications (Figure 8a).
These processes often occur in industrial or laboratory settings and
involve several key components, including:

 Unit Operations: These are physical transformations like mixing,

separation, heat exchange, or pressure adjustment. For instance,

distillation is a unit operation used to separate components

based on differences in boiling points.

 Chemical Reactions: These are transformations at the molecular

level, where reactants are converted into products through

breaking and forming chemical bonds. Reaction conditions, such

as temperature, pressure, and catalyst presence, are carefully

controlled to optimize yield and minimize waste.

 48

 Energy and Mass Transfer: Chemical processes depend on

efficient energy and mass transfer, ensuring heat and materials

are appropriately distributed throughout the system. This

involves principles like thermodynamics and fluid dynamics.

 Control Systems: Automated and manual controls monitor and

adjust the process variables (e.g., temperature, flow rates,

pressure) to maintain stability, safety, and efficiency.

 Safety and Environmental Considerations: Chemical processes

must be designed to prevent accidents, minimize hazardous

emissions, and comply with environmental regulations.

The basic principles for the operation of the units of a chemical

process are focused on achieving the following objectives:

 Operate processing units safely. This denotes that no unit should

be operated close to the conditions considered dangerous both

for the health of the operators and for the useful life of the

equipment. Operating conditions that may violate environmental

regulations should be avoided.

 49

 Maintain constant production flows. The amount of final product

required from a plant at any time is usually determined by

market requirements so that production flows should be

maintained as much as possible in the profitable specifications.

 Maintain the quality of the product within specifications.

Products that do not meet the required quality specifications

should be discarded as waste or reprocessed when possible.

Satisfying the needs of customers represents a great motivation

to achieve the specifications of product quality.

The goal of a chemical process is to deliver cost-effective, sustainable,

and scalable production of products ranging from fuels and chemicals
to pharmaceuticals and food ingredients. Each process is carefully
designed and optimized to ensure product quality, operational
efficiency, and minimal environmental impact.

This detailed understanding is crucial for engineers and professionals

in industries such as oil and gas, petrochemicals, fertilizers, polymers,
and specialty chemicals. Figure 8b shows the flow diagram of
ammonia production.
 50

Figure 8a. A generalize flow diagram of a chemical process.

Figure 8b. Production of Ammonia (Source: www.wikipedia.org)

 51

ATM

¾" 4" -300#RF

6SL-I28-324-A1S
P = 0.5KG/CM2
(V)
DETAILS AND GENERAL NOTES EQUIPMENT
(D+)
PY ZLL EXCHANGERS TOWERS DRUMS PUMPS FILTERS
B216 B209
- FOR SYMBOLS AND STANDARDS SEE I-2010C I-2006E I-2010G I-2011J I-2006L-A/B
P & I 00-AS-0020-01 I-2011C I-2012J-A/B
PV
B216 SPLIT RANGE I-2013J-A/B
150#RF/150#RF 4" I
0.6 KG/CM2
324 P CLOSE DRAIN (P & I -10-AS-0030-06)
ATM PY FROM J-3004F (CLOSE) (OPEN) CD
I-2006E 323 B216 P&I I3-AS-0020-01
FD

¾“
6SL-I28-323-A1S (P)

STEAM RECOVERY 4" 4" TO DRAIN COLLECTING PIT

2CL-I28-332-A1S (H) W I-2006F (UREA AREA)
TOWER LW
3K4 1-½” -300#RF
3:5 P = 3KG/CM2
6CL-I28-301-A1S (H)
PSV
CL LV - ALL ATM DISCHARGES AT SAFE LOCATION.
B232 B220
A
3WP-I28-302-A1K
3WP-I28-333-A1S (V) 2" FC 2"
WP
1-1/2CN-I28-310-A3K (P)

326 ¾"

8CN-I28-340-A3K (P)
PRC
325 B216

1CN-I28-425-A3K (P)
3SL-I28-321-A1S (P) PAH 1-½"
1-½ SL-I28-315-A1S (H) 3/4WI-ID2-326-A6S (V)
7 SL 333 302 ID-AS-00-3002
3CN-I28-321-A1S (P)
A15 A1K
3/4"

3/4"
¾" (NOTED 8)
3" -150#RF

7
BY PIPE
PI
0 24"
B216

1" -150#RF 2" -150#RF

W
NOTES:

1700 MM.
I
1. BY PUMP MFR SUPPLY.
P
LG LG LG LAH 2. DELETED.
1-½" -150#RF LIC PIC
B214 B214 B214
1 ½" -300#RF A A A
B220 B218
P = 23.7KG/CM2 LAL 3. LOCATED NEAR PUMP I-2011J.

ABOVE GROUND
EL.=1800 MM.
1-½F2 PSV HW 4. AUTOMATIC OUT FLOW VALVES TO
1½“ 12.0 B233
GUARANTEE THE MINIMUM FLOW
TY 1½" -300#RF 6CN-I28-339-A3K (P)
3" CD RATE TO THE PUMPS.
2" B254
I
P = 17KG/CM2 PIC
P TI RED. TRIM 1" B218
321 A1S B253 PV 5. POSITIONER WITH REVERSE ACTION.
TY TIC PG

4HW-I28-317-B1A (H)
B218

8CN-I28-332-A3K (P)

8CN-I28-332-A3K (P)
320 B1A

1 ½"
B254 B254 B245
F.O. 6. DELETED.
¾" 2" W
FC
2" 2" 7. PROVIDE ¾" PIPE FOR DRAIN
LW
TO “W” SEWER FOR LEVEL INSTRUMENTS.
3/4WC-I28-328-A6S (V) ¾"
6CN-I28-303-A6S (V)

3"

8. OPERABLE AT GROUND LEVEL.

1WC-I28-329-A6S (V)

1 ½" 3LW -I28-306-A1S (P)

WC PG
304 306 I-2011C
9. 1" NPT GATE VALVE SUPPLIED
B1A A1S

332 A3K
318 B1A
H.P. CARBONATE
2CN-I28-322-A1S (P)

7 WITH CONDUCTIVITY ANALYZER.

PSL PAL PREHEATER
B219 B219

PSE 2"
4HW -I28-304-A1S (H) 2"
B202 33.8
HW 33.8 WC

CSD

CSD
PSE
B201
CR CAH CT
3" 1-1/2" -1500 RTJ 2” 2”

6WC-I28-331-A6S (V)
B201 B201
(NOTE 9) P = 26.5KG/CM2
1-1/2CN-I28-310-A3K (P)

2KW-I28-426-F4K (P) NPT-M/NPT-F

3/4CN-I28-327-A1S (V) 3/4X1
w PG B:D
WC PIC 3/4" .
B217 (NOTE 3) PSY
B240
PV KW
B217 7 1"

4CB-I21-012-F4K (TS)

4CB-I28-001-F4K (TS)
SL-I21-012/9-ST1

SL-I28-001/9-ST1
3/4"
F4K

TG PG
A3K

B206 ¾" B245

F3T

7
F3T

1/2"
¾"

2HW-I28-307-B1A (P) I-2010C

HW
TAH FLUSHING CONDENSATE
2"
2"

TI
COOLER
B261
3/4"

2”

6WC-I28-330-A6S (V)
7

(NOTE 5) 3/4”

2FW-I28-305-B1A (V)
2”
2"

2HW-I28-311-B3K (P)

FC
318 B1A
2KW-I28-308-F3T (P)

CARBONATE SOLUTION

CARBONATE SOLUTION
311 B3K
307 B1A

319 A1S
2”
304 B1A 316 A1S

304 B1A 316 A1S

P&I 12-AS-0020-03

P&I 12-AS-0020-02
4"

4"

LY

FROM I-2003J-A/B
6"
6"

B220
1500#RTJ/300#RF 1500#RTJ/300#RF 1500#RTJ/300#RF B
1½ ”

1½ ”

MFV-2001A MFV-2001B
2" -300#RF

TO 2001L
3/4" -I28-304

3/4" -I28-304

1½ D2 PSV 1½ D2 PSV 1½ D2 PSV

3"

3"

2"

2" 2" 206.0 B236 219.0 B237 219.0 B237

P = 17KG/CM2 FW FW
(NOTE 4) (NOTE 4)
1/2KW-I28-312-F4K (P)

(NOTE 1) TI
½" (NOTE 1) (NOTE 1) (NOTE 1) B255
4”
½" 7
6CL-I23-327-A1S (H)

4CL-I23-338-A1S (H)

4CL-I24-328-A1S (H)

(NOTE 1)
¾" ¾" A1S 336 A1S 337 FD A1S 338 FD
PG 300#RF PG F3T 308 FE
300#RF F3T 312 B226 F3T 312 B226
B222
B238 B239 PC
1½”

2”

B244
PG PG PG
4" -300#RF 4" -300#RF B240 B241 B242 FT FR
6" -300#RF 6" -300#RF B222 B222
PG
2KW-I28-337-A1S (P)

2KW-I28-338-A1S (P)

2" -2500#RTJ 3/4" -2500#RTJ 3/4" -2500#RTJ B243

3" -600#RF
2KW-I28-336-A1S (P)

M M M PSV 3K4
B239 7.5
3/4HW-I28-304-B1A (H)

3/4HW-I28-304-B1A (H) RL RL
3/4" -300#RF

B223
3/4" -300#RF

B224 1" -2500#RTJ 1" -2500#RTJ

PSL
3CL-I28-319-A1S (H)

B220
L.P. CONDENSATE

L.P. CONDENSATE

L.P. CONDENSATE

RL RL RL
P&I I2-AS-0020-02

P&I I2-AS-0020-02

P&I I2-AS-0020-02
FROM I-2005C-B

FROM I-2005C-B

FROM I-2005C-B

B225 B225 B225

PAL FD
4”

B220 B227
3”
I-2013J-B
I-2011J I-2012J-A/B
I-2013J-A W W
STRIPPER DP CELL W
H.P. FLUSHING DRUM
FLUSHING PUMPS
STEAM CONDENSATE

FG I28-319 W
. 51505
3/4FW-I28-342-A1S (V)

P&I I2-AS-0020-02

FG
.
I-2006L-A/B
½” -600#RF
3/4" -150#RF DP CELL FLUSHING PUMPS
TO I-2001C

SUCTION FILTERS
P&I 00-AS-0030-51

3/4" -150#RF
TO INTERCONN
CONDENSATE

¾" ¾" ¾" ¾"

3/4WC-I28-334-A6S (V)
WC 3/4FW-I28-341-B1A (V)

3/4WC-I28-335-A6S (V)
WC
FW
W
7
7

Figure 9a. P&I Diagram: Unit I-Sect. 2000 (Urea) Condensate recovery

system [3].
 52

225 M14"-Is(PH*2)
PI
273

TI
PI
301.33
10" 224

224A30"-Is

ME-200
Precondenser 227A-3"-Is
16
15
239A-3/4"-Is 14 239A-1½"-Is
25 ¼"
LG LG
TI
203 203

7"
13 14" 301.34
TI
202 225A-6"-III

237A-6"-Is
12
20" 11
216CA-1½"-Is

PR LG LC
201 204 204
14"
7"

25 ¼"
10
218CA-8"-IV
TI
301.35
212CA-3"-VI
9
212CA-3"-VI
8

7
PdI
201 CA A

216CA-1½"-Is 251A-¾"
6 F.O.
LG LC
205 205 14" To Torque Tube
25 ¼" 211CA-6"-VI

5 TI
(PH # 2) 301-36
208CA-30"-VI FI
¾" P.T. 203
30" TIV LC
V-201 8 205V
FI
203E
1"

1½ "
212CA-2"
FI FI 4
206E 206 3
2 216CA-1½"-Is 3/4 "
3/4" P.T. 1 Det
A
206M-4"-I 203CA-4"-Is 3" See
257N-2"-II
50#Stm. M CA 3"
(PH#2)
CA N

LI
9"

Det
See 209
A LI
206 UA
18" 201.3
H

TI LA
301.37 205S
CA A
209V-¾"

206C-4"VI LC UA
11'-0"

(PH#2)
208CA-8"VI (7/16"WALL)

206
C CA

201.10
L
(PH#2)
(PH#2)
(PH#2)

DATUM
209V-¾"
250A-1½"F.O.
Fuel Gas Purge
214CA-8"VI
214CA-8"VI
228CA-8"VI

¾"
(PH#2)
209V-1"

Vent

Figure 9b. Mechanical detail flow diagram.[3]

 53

Figure 9c. A block diagram for calculating ΔP for a given flow

rate/velocity and a photo of a piping segment with welded fittings.

 54

Figure 10a. A Centrifugal pump

Figure 10b. A centrifugal pump showing the parts.

 55

Figure 10c. A centrifugal pump for the atmospheric distillation unit (From Petroleum Refining
Design & Applications Handbook).

Process datasheets are essential documents in process design that define the

technical requirements, operating conditions, and performance specifications of

equipment used in petroleum and petrochemical facilities. They ensure proper

communication, standardization, and accuracy throughout the design,

manufacturing, and operation phases, leading to safer, more efficient, and reliable

processes. These datasheets are crucial for optimizing the design and operation of

industrial plants.
 56

Figure 64. Process datasheet of a pump calculation sheet.

 57

Process design: Process design is a critical engineering discipline

focused on developing and optimizing processes used in chemical,

refining, and petrochemical operations. It involves designing the

equipment, systems, and workflows needed to convert raw materials

into desired products efficiently, safely, and cost-effectively. Process

design is the foundation of industrial operations, determining how

materials are handled, transformed, and managed through each stage

of production.

The design of an industrial process that uses physical, chemical, or

biochemical transformations to produce useful products. It is used for

the design of new processes, plant modifications, and revamps (Figure

11). It starts with conceptual and feasibility studies and includes

detailed material and energy balances, the production of block flow

diagrams (BFDs), process flow diagrams (PFDs), engineering line

diagrams (ELDs), and piping, and instrumentation diagrams (P & IDs).

It also includes the production of reports and document for plant

construction, commissioning, start-up, operation, and shut-down. The

 58

reports and documents are used by vendors, regulatory bodies,

operators, and other engineering disciplines.

Preliminary scoping activities Detailed analysis

Conceptual phase Process design phase Detailed engineering phase

 Network designs
 Utility loads and levels

Update and finalize Pinch specialist review

Interact with client Pinch analysis interaction
 Preliminary targets
Input  Unit interactions
 Conceptual utility systems

Conceptual Pinch
Clarify client Finalize process flow Process design Detailed engineering
Start studies to set design Stop
requirements alignment activities activities
basis

 Turndown  P & ID development

 Flow diagrams  Utility flow diagrams
 Flexibility
 Material balances  Plot plan development
 Site
 Finalize heat balances  Hazard reviews
 Other Interact with client and Interact with project  Equipment loads  Control system design
project team team  Control strategy  Operating philosophy
 Utility balances
Basic inputs

 Technical proposal*
  Process
Proposal guarantees  Process
  Systems
Project design data  Systems
  Analytical
Third-party proposals  Plant layout
  Control systems
Project execution  Operations
 Plant layout
strategy  Cost services
 Operations

* Includes base heat and

material balance

Figure 11. This new process design work process implements process integration effectively.

Key Elements of Process Design

Material and Energy Balances: Process design starts with calculating

the material inputs, outputs, and energy requirements for each unit

operation. Material balances ensure that all input materials are

 59

accounted for, while energy balances track the energy required or

generated in the process.

Process Flow Diagrams (PFDs): PFDs represent the process in graphical

form, showing the major equipment, piping, and flow of materials.

These diagrams provide a visual summary of how raw materials are

converted into final products and help identify key processing steps.

Equipment Design and Selection: Process design includes specifying

the type and size of equipment, such as reactors, heat exchangers,

distillation columns, and pumps, based on process conditions (e.g.,

temperature, pressure, and flow rate). Correct equipment design

ensures efficient and safe operation.

Thermodynamics and Kinetics: Process design involves analyzing the

thermodynamic and kinetic behavior of chemical reactions,

separations, and phase changes to optimize conditions such as

temperature, pressure, and reaction time.

Safety and Environmental Considerations: Process safety is a key

aspect of design, ensuring that the process operates within safe limits

to prevent accidents, explosions, or toxic releases. Environmental

 60

regulations also guide the design to minimize waste, emissions, and

energy consumption.

Optimization: Process design aims to maximize yield, efficiency, and

profitability while minimizing costs and environmental impact.

Optimization techniques help improve process performance and

reduce operating expenses.

Importance of Process Design in Chemical, Refining, and

Petrochemical Operations

Efficiency and Cost-Effectiveness: Process design determines how

efficiently raw materials are converted into products. A well-designed

process reduces waste, minimizes energy use, and optimizes

production, lowering operational costs and increasing profitability.

Safety: Process design ensures that equipment and systems operate

safely under normal and abnormal conditions. Design considerations

such as pressure relief systems, safety instrumentation, and

containment help prevent accidents and protect workers, equipment,

and the environment.

 61

Compliance with Regulations: In industries like refining and

petrochemicals, processes must comply with strict safety,

environmental, and operational regulations. Process design

incorporates these requirements to ensure compliance with standards

such as those set by OSHA, EPA, and API.

Product Quality: The process design affects the quality of the final

products. Ensuring precise control of reaction conditions, separation

processes, and material handling is essential for meeting customer and

industry specifications, such as the production of high-quality fuels,

chemicals, and polymers.

Scalability: Process design is vital for scaling operations from

laboratory (R&D) to pilot plants, and finally, to full-scale production.

The scalability of a process ensures it remains economically viable as

production volumes increase.

Sustainability: With increasing focus on sustainability and reducing

environmental impacts, process design plays a crucial role in

developing green processes, minimizing carbon footprints, and

ensuring the efficient use of resources. Designs that reduce energy

 62

consumption, emissions, and waste are becoming more important in

the chemical, refining, and petrochemical industries.

Example Applications

Chemical Industry: In the chemical industry, process design is used to develop

processes for synthesizing chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and polymers. This includes

designing reactors for chemical reactions and separators for purifying products.

Refining: In refineries, process design is essential for units such as distillation

columns, cracking units, and hydrotreaters. It ensures that crude oil is efficiently

separated into valuable products such as gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel.

Petrochemical Industry: Process design is used to convert feedstocks (such as

naphtha or natural gas) into valuable chemicals like ethylene, propylene, and other

building blocks for plastics, rubbers, and other materials.

Process design is a vital discipline in chemical, refining, and petrochemical

operations. It ensures that industrial processes are safe, efficient, cost-effective,

and environmentally compliant. Through effective design, companies can optimize

their production processes, meet regulatory requirements, and produce high-

quality products while maintaining sustainability and safety.

 63

Importance of Process Design in Machine Learning (ML) and Artificial

Intelligence (AI)

Process design plays an important role in Machine Learning (ML) and Artificial

Intelligence (AI), especially in industrial applications, where optimizing operations,

increasing efficiency, and improving decision-making are key goals. Integrating

ML and AI into the design of chemical, refining, and petrochemical processes can

enhance performance, predictive capabilities, and automation.

Optimization of Operations: ML and AI can optimize various parameters in

process design to enhance efficiency, reduce costs, and maximize yields. For

example, AI models can be trained on historical data to suggest optimal operating

conditions for reactors, distillation columns, or heat exchangers that result in the

best product quality or lowest energy consumption.

Predictive Maintenance: AI-driven predictive maintenance models can monitor

equipment performance and predict failures before they occur. This allows

engineers to incorporate preventive measures directly into the process design,

reducing unplanned downtime and ensuring continuous operations in refineries

and chemical plants.

Advanced Process Control: Machine learning can enable real-time process

control by predicting and adjusting critical parameters during operations. In

process design, incorporating AI-powered control systems allows operators to

 64

manage complex systems automatically, minimizing deviations and keeping the

process within optimal parameters.

Design Automation: AI can automate many aspects of process design, such as

equipment sizing, flow diagram generation, and energy balance calculations. By

using ML algorithms, engineers can quickly generate designs for new or modified

processes based on existing data, shortening design time and improving accuracy.

Process Simulation and Modeling: ML models can be integrated with process

simulators to create more accurate models of chemical processes. These

simulations, enhanced by AI, can predict outcomes under different operating

conditions, helping to optimize process design before construction or

implementation. This is useful for improving yield, energy efficiency, and safety in

the process design phase.

Data-Driven Design Decisions: AI can analyze large volumes of process data to

uncover trends and insights that are not easily identifiable through traditional

methods. These insights can be used to inform process design decisions, such as

the selection of raw materials, reaction conditions, or configurations of unit

operations, leading to more efficient designs.

Sustainability and Energy Efficiency: In chemical, refining, and petrochemical

industries, energy efficiency is a major design consideration. AI and ML can

analyze energy usage data and optimize processes to minimize energy

 65

consumption. For example, pinch analysis for heat integration can be enhanced

using ML models to identify optimal heat exchanger configurations, maximizing

energy recovery.

Process Safety Management: In the context of process safety, AI can predict

potential hazardous scenarios or process deviations and alert operators or adjust

the process automatically. Incorporating such AI-driven systems into process

design can significantly improve safety by preventing accidents such as equipment

failures, leaks, or explosions.

Process Simulation and Digital Twins: AI is used to create digital twins, which

are virtual models of physical processes. These digital twins can simulate the

performance of the process under various conditions, allowing process design

engineers to predict outcomes, optimize performance, and make data-driven

decisions.

Applications of Machine Learning and AI in Process Design

Heat Integration Optimization: AI can automate and refine heat integration

(e.g., using pinch analysis) to optimize energy recovery configurations. ML

algorithms can learn from historical data to predict the best configuration of heat

exchangers and other equipment, reducing energy costs and improving overall

process efficiency.
 66

Catalyst Optimization: AI models can predict the performance of different

catalysts under various reaction conditions, helping to select the optimal catalyst

for a process. This reduces trial-and-error experimentation and accelerates the

development of more efficient and sustainable chemical processes.

Distillation Column Design: ML models can predict optimal configurations for

distillation columns by analyzing data on feed composition, temperature, and

pressure. This allows for more efficient separation processes, reducing energy

consumption and improving product purity.

Predictive Analytics in Reaction Engineering: AI can be applied to reaction

kinetics to predict how changes in temperature, pressure, and feed composition

will affect reaction rates and yields. This enables process engineers to design

reactors that operate under the best conditions for maximizing product yield and

minimizing waste.

Example:

Using AI in Process Design for Energy Optimization: Consider a

petrochemical facility that uses a distillation column to separate hydrocarbons.

The process design can be optimized using ML by:

 67

Design Codes (design standards): Published standards required for equipment

and working practices within the chemical and process industries that represent

good practice and define the level of standard of design. Developed and evolved

over many years and based on tried and tested practices. There are national

standards organizations and institutions that provide published standards for

design, materials, fabrication, testing of processes and equipment. These include

the American Petroleum Institute (API), the American National Standards Institute

(ANSI), the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), the American

Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), the American Iron and Steel Institute

(AISI), and the British Standards Institute (BSI).

RAGAGEP (pronounced as "rag-gap"): 1. Stands for Recognized and

Generally Accepted Good Engineering Practices. This term is widely

used in industrial sectors, particularly in process safety management

(PSM), to define industry standards, codes, guidelines, and best

practices that are effective in ensuring safety, reliability, and

compliance in engineering processes. 2. RAGAGEP (Recognized and

Generally Accepted Good Engineering Practices) refers to industry-

established standards, codes, guidelines, and best practices that

 68

ensure safe, reliable, and compliant engineering design, operation, and

maintenance. It represents the collective knowledge and consensus of

the engineering community to mitigate risks and promote safety in

industrial processes.
 69

Figure 13a. A Plate heat exchanger

Figure 13b. Shell and tube exchangers in series (From Petroleum Refining Design &
Applications Handbook Volume 4)
 70

Figure 13c. Crude distillation column and mild vacuum column with associated piping and
centrifugal pumps.
 71

Figure 14. An overview of a petroleum refinery plant.

 72

Process Safety

Process Safety Management (PSM): 1. Comprehensive set of plans,

policies, procedures, practices, administrative, engineering and

operating controls designed to ensure that barriers to major incidents

are in place, in use, and are effective. 2. Process Safety Management

(PSM) is a regulatory framework and systematic approach to

managing the hazards associated with handling and processing highly

hazardous chemicals in petroleum and petrochemical facilities. Its goal

is to prevent accidents that could result in catastrophic releases of

toxic, flammable, or reactive substances, protecting workers, the

environment, and infrastructure (Figure 81a).

Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion (BLEVE): 1. The nearly

instantaneous vaporization and corresponding release of energy of a liquid upon

its sudden release from a containment under pressure than atmospheric pressure

and at a temperature above its atmospheric boiling point. 2. A type of rapid phase

transition in which a liquid contained above its atmospheric boiling point is rapidly

depressurized, causing a nearly instantaneous transition from liquid to vapor with

a corresponding energy release. 3. Is the violent rupture of a pressure vessel

 73

containing saturated liquid/vapor at a temperature well above its atmospheric

boiling point. The sudden decrease in pressure results in explosive vaporization of

a fraction of the liquid and a cloud of vapor and mist, with accompanying blast

effects. The resulting flash vaporization of a large fraction of the liquid produces a

large cloud. If the vapor is flammable and if an ignition source is present at the

time of vessel rupture, the vapor cloud burns in the form of a large rising fireball.

A BLEVE is often accompanied by a large fireball if a flammable liquid is involved,

since an external fire impinging on the vapor space of a pressure vessel is a

common BLEVE scenario. However, it is not necessary for the liquid to be

flammable to have a BLEVE to occur.

Real-Life Example

The 1984 San Juanico Disaster in Mexico involved a series of LPG BLEVE events.

Explosions and fireballs from ruptured storage tanks killed 600 hundreds and

injured 7000 thousand, highlighting the devastating potential of BLEVEs (Figure

14). Understanding BLEVE and its prevention is crucial for industries that store or

handle pressurized liquids to ensure safety and mitigate risks.

The San Juanico disaster serves as a powerful reminder of the need for

comprehensive safety and risk management practices in industries handling

flammable materials. Key lessons include the importance of safe facility siting,
 74

stringent safety standards, effective emergency preparedness, regulatory

enforcement, and community awareness. By applying these learnings, industries

can minimize risks to workers, neighboring communities, and the environment,

helping to prevent such tragedies in the future

Figure 14. Boiling Liquid Expanding vapor explosion at San Juanico in Mexico
 75

Figure 15a. OSHA Process Safety Management Elements (Source:

www.osha.gov)

Process Safety Management Systems (PSMS)

Process Safety Management Systems (PSMS) are frameworks designed

to prevent hazardous incidents in industries that handle dangerous

substances, such as chemicals, petroleum, and gases. These systems

focus on managing the risks associated with processes involving

 76

hazardous materials to ensure safety for workers, communities, and

the environment (Figure 81b).

Key Elements in PSMS

The Key elements in applying PSMS include:

1. Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment: The foundation of PSMS

is recognizing potential hazards in processes involving hazardous

substances. Tools like HAZOP (Hazard and Operability Studies), FMEA

(Failure Modes and Effects Analysis), and What-If Analysis are

commonly used. By assessing the likelihood and severity of risks,

industries can prioritize safety measures and allocate resources

effectively. For example, understanding how a chemical reaction could

go out of control helps in designing systems to prevent or mitigate

such scenarios.

2. Safety Procedures and Maintenance: Detailed operating procedures

are developed to guide workers on safe practices for handling

equipment and materials. Regular and preventive maintenance

ensures equipment operates as intended, reducing the risk of leaks,

 77

explosions, or breakdowns. Example: In a chemical plant, pressure

relief valves are inspected frequently to prevent over-pressurization.

3. Employee Training and Competency: Employees are trained to

understand the hazards associated with their work and follow proper

safety protocols. Refresher training sessions ensure that skills and

awareness are kept up to date. For instance, workers handling

flammable materials are trained in proper storage and emergency

response. Competency evaluations help confirm that personnel can

perform tasks safely and effectively.

4. Incident Investigation: Every incident or near-miss is an opportunity

to learn. Investigations delve into the root causes rather than just

symptoms. Tools like Root Cause Analysis (RCA) and the “Five Whys”

technique are employed to uncover underlying issues. Outcomes

might include procedural changes, equipment upgrades, or additional

training. For example, if a spill occurs due to a valve failure, the

investigation might recommend replacing similar valves across the

facility.

5. Management of Change (MOC): Changes in processes, equipment,

or personnel can introduce new risks. MOC protocols ensure such

 78

changes are reviewed and approved before implementation. This

might involve assessing how modifying a reaction temperature

impacts the stability of the process. Documentation and

communication of changes ensure everyone involved is aware of

potential risks and new procedures.

6. Emergency Preparedness: Comprehensive emergency response

plans are developed for worst-case scenarios, such as chemical spills,

fires, or explosions. These plans include evacuation procedures,

firefighting strategies, and spill containment measures. Regular drills

are conducted to ensure everyone knows their role. For instance, in a

refinery, fire response teams practice handling large-scale fires.

PSM is often guided by regulations like OSHA's PSM Standard in the

U.S. or other region-specific guidelines. It emphasizes proactive

measures to avoid catastrophic failures.

 79

Figure 15b. Schematic of Risk Based Process Safety Management

(Source: CCPS – The Business Case for Process Safety, 4th ed.)

Process Safety: 1. A discipline that focuses on the prevention of fires,

explosions and accidental chemical releases at chemical process

facilities. Excludes classic worker health and safety issues involving

working surfaces, ladders, protective equipment, etc. 2. Process Safety

refers to a disciplined framework for managing the integrity of

operating systems and processes that handle hazardous substances. It

focuses on preventing catastrophic incidents such as chemical releases,

 80

explosions, and fires, which can have severe consequences for people,

the environment, and the facility's infrastructure (Figures 16 and 17).

Key Elements of Process Safety

1. Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment

 Engineers assess the potential risks associated with processes

and materials, such as toxic chemical releases or equipment

failures.

2. Process Hazard Analysis (PHA)

 This involves systematic evaluation methods like HAZOP or

Fault Tree Analysis to identify vulnerabilities and implement

safeguards.

3. Engineering and Design Controls

 Ensuring that systems, equipment, and facilities are designed

to operate safely under expected conditions and mitigate risks

during abnormal operations.

4. Safety Management Systems

 81

 Robust procedures, training, and maintenance programs

ensure ongoing compliance with safety standards and enhance

operational reliability.

5. Incident Investigation and Emergency Response

 Mechanisms are in place to analyze incidents, learn from them,

and prepare for emergencies to minimize impacts.

 82

Figure 16. Process Safety Life Cycle and Risk Assessment

 83

Figure 17b. Associated Hazards and Typical Accidental Events.

 84

Figure 17c. Example interaction matrix for identifying process hazards

(Source: DOE Handbook – Chemical Process Hazards Analysis, DOE-
HDBK-1100-96, February 1996)
 85

Figure 17d. Anatomy of an Accident (Source: DOE Handbook –

Chemical Process Hazards Analysis, DOE-HDBK-1100-96, February

1996)
 86

HAZID: 1. HAZard Identification/HAZard and Operability analysis

systematic design review methods to identify and address hazards to

ensure that the necessary safety measures to eliminate or mitigate

hazards are incorporated in the design and operation of the unit.2. A

qualitative process risk analysis tool used to identify hazards and

evaluate if suitable protective arrangements are in place. If the process

were not to perform as intended and unexpected consequences were

to result (See Process Hazard Analysis).

The HAZID study serves as a critical risk assessment method that

identifies all Major Accident Hazards (MAH) associated with oil and

gas, petroleum and petrochemical facilities. The aim of this study is to

pinpoint suitable risk control measures for people, the environment,

and assets based on the process and layout. The study offers valuable

insights in assessing and addressing HSE hazards in these industries.

 87

Hazard and Operability (HAZOP): 1. A systematic qualitative technique

to identify process hazards and potential operating problems using a

series of guide words to study process deviations. A HAZOP is used to

question every part of the process to discover what deviations from

the start of the design can occur and what their causes and

consequences may be. This is done systematically by applying suitable

guide words. This is a systematic detailed review technique for both

batch and continuous plants, which can be applied to new or existing

processes to identify hazards. 2. The HAZOP study (HAZOP review) is a

systematic and structured approach to assessing the design intent and

potential hazards in various industries. By identifying potential

malfunctions and evaluating their impacts on personnel, environment,

assets, and operations, organizations can enhance safety, protect the

environment, and optimize operational efficiency. Ultimately, the

HAZOP review ensures that systems are operating within their design

intent, minimizing the risk of accidents and promoting overall

effectiveness. 3. HAZOP is a formal, qualitative, systematic and

 88

rigorous examination of a plant, process or operation, to identify

credible deviations from the design intent in the context of the

complete system, which can contribute to the realization of hazards or

operability problems, by applying the experience, judgement and

imagination, stimulated by key words, of a team.

(See Process Hazard Analysis).

Inherently Safer: 1. A chemical process is inherently safer if it reduces

or eliminates the hazards associated with materials and operations

used in the process, and this reduction or elimination is permanent

and inseparable. 2. An essential character of a process, system, or

equipment that makes it without or very low in hazard or risk. Inherent

safety is a way of looking at processes to achieve this. There are four

main keywords:

Minimize (Intensification): Reduce stocks of hazardous chemicals.

Substitute: Replace hazardous chemicals with less hazardous ones.

 89

Moderate (Attenuation): Reduce the energy of the system–lower

pressures and temperatures or add stabilizing additives generally

make for lower hazards.

Simplify: Make the plant and process simpler to design, build and

operate, hence less prone to equipment control and human failings.

Example: The Flixborough disaster in 1974 with the loss of 28 lives and

89 injuries. There

were many lessons to be learned from this explosion, but one of the

most important was missed by the official inquiry and by most

commentators: The leak was big (about 50 tons) and the explosion

devastating because there was so much flammable material in the

plant (about 400 tons). If the inventory could be reduced, the plant

would be safer: What you don’t have, can’t leak. The inventory was so

large because the conversion was low, about 6% per pass, and so most

of the raw material, cyclohexane, had to be recovered and recycled;

94% of it got a ‘free ride’ through the plant—in fact many ‘free rides’.

If the conversion could be increased, the inventory would be lower.

 90

Figure 17a. the Flixborough plant before the explosion – Official Report, TS 84/37/1 (Source:

The National Archives)

 91

Figure 1l7b . The Flixborough Plant after the explosion – Official Report, TS 84/37/1. (Source:
The National Archives)
 92

Figure 17c. Reactors 4 and 6 soon after the explosion – Official Report, TS 84/37/1 (Source:
The National Archives)
 93

Figure 18a. Piper Alpha, North Sea – Gas Release and Explosion –July 6, 1988, 167 fatalities

Figure 18b. Deepwater Horizon oil spill, April 20, 2010, 11 fatalities, 17 injured.
 94

The Bhopal Disaster: The World’s

Deadliest Industrial Accident & A Stark

Reminder of Process Safety Failures

On the night of December 2–3, 1984, the world witnessed one of the most

catastrophic industrial disasters in history—the Bhopal Gas Tragedy. This tragic

event was a result of poor safety culture, cost-cutting measures, and inadequate

hazard awareness, leading to the release of approximately 40 tons of methyl

isocyanate (MIC) from the Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL) pesticide plant in

Bhopal, India.

The consequences were devastating:

🔴 Over 20,000 deaths (official and unofficial estimates) due to immediate and

long-term exposure

🔴 More than 500,000 people exposed to the lethal gas, many suffering permanent

health effects, including blindness, respiratory diseases, cancer, and birth defects

in subsequent generations
 95

🔴 Environmental contamination that persists to this day, affecting soil and

groundwater around the plant

🔥 How Did This Disaster Unfold?

1 The Plant and Its Operations

Union Carbide Corporation (UCC), a US-based multinational, set up the Bhopal

plant in 1969 to produce pesticides, primarily Sevin (carbaryl). MIC was a key

intermediate in its production. The Bhopal facility was one of the few in the world

that stored MIC in large pressurized tanks instead of producing it on demand, a

decision that significantly increased risk.

2 A Series of Failures Leading to Disaster

🔹 Water Contamination into MIC Storage Tank

On the night of December 2, 1984, around 11:00 PM, water entered a 42-ton MIC

storage tank due to a combination of equipment malfunctions, human error, and

poor maintenance. The presence of water triggered a violent exothermic reaction,

leading to a rapid buildup of heat and pressure inside the tank.

🔹 Critical Safety Systems Were Disabled or Non-Functional

Several key safety mechanisms that could have mitigated the accident were either
 96

turned off, non-operational, or bypassed due to cost-cutting:

✅ The refrigeration system, designed to keep MIC at a low temperature, had been

shut down to save costs.

✅ The vent gas scrubber, which could neutralize toxic gas releases, was offline for

maintenance.

✅ The flare tower, meant to burn off excess gas, was out of service due to a

missing connecting pipe.

🔹 Uncontrolled Release of Toxic MIC Gas

By 12:30 AM (December 3, 1984), the pressure inside the MIC tank had exceeded

design limits, causing the tank’s safety valve to burst open. A deadly cloud of MIC

vapor spread rapidly over Bhopal, an area densely populated with workers, their

families, and residents unaware of the impending catastrophe.

97
98
99
 100

3 The Aftermath: Unimaginable Human & Environmental Toll

Within hours, thousands of people suffocated as the heavy, toxic cloud settled

over sleeping communities. Victims experienced severe eye and throat

irritation, breathlessness, vomiting, and convulsions. Many died in their

sleep, while others ran blindly in panic, only to collapse in the streets.

🔴 Immediate Death Toll: Over 3,000 people died within the first few hours.

🔴 Within a few days: An estimated 10,000 more perished due to exposure.

🔴 Long-term impacts: Over 20,000 fatalities have been attributed to the disaster,

along with chronic health issues among survivors, including respiratory diseases,

neurological disorders, and birth defects in later generations.

Even after 40 years, the toxic contamination of soil and groundwater in the

surrounding areas continues to affect the health of thousands of residents.

Process Safety Failures and Lessons Learned

The Bhopal disaster remains a tragic case study in process safety negligence and

highlights the consequences of inadequate risk management in industrial

operations.
 101

Key Lessons for Industry & Process Safety Professionals

✅ Hazard Identification & Risk Assessment:

 Large-scale storage of hazardous chemicals requires stringent process

hazard analysis (PHA).

 MIC should have been produced on-demand rather than stored in bulk.

✅ Proper Maintenance & Operational Safety:

 Safety-critical equipment (such as refrigeration and vent gas scrubbers)

should never be disabled for cost-saving.

 Regular equipment inspections and maintenance are vital to prevent

failures.

✅ Emergency Preparedness & Response:

 No proper emergency evacuation plan was in place. Many residents didn’t

know how to protect themselves.

 Workers were not adequately trained to handle MIC leaks or shutdown

procedures.

✅ Corporate & Ethical Responsibility:

 Cost-cutting at the expense of safety led to disaster.

 102

 Companies handling hazardous materials must prioritize process safety

culture over short-term profits.

Figure 18a. Map of the Union Carbide plant in Bhopal, India. (Source:
 103

Figure 18b. Union Carbide Plant, Bhopal, India

Employees

discovered a leak around 11:30 p.m. on December 2, 1984. But a supervisor scoffed

at their concerns, dismissing the leaking liquid as just water and saying he’d deal

with it after the next tea break. By that time, however, gas had built up, and a
 104

spare overflow tank, where employees should have directed the excess, was not as

empty as protocol demanded.

Sirens began to blare. But these alarms—signaling an imminent and profoundly

dangerous gas leak—sounded the same as the ones used about 20 times a week

for practice drills in the facility. Understandably, employees of the factory didn’t

immediately react.

Pressure in the tank continued to build until its safety valve broke. Methyl

isocyanate and other chemicals shot into the air, carried by a brisk wind over an

area of 15 square miles.

The leak originated from Storage Tank E610, which contained Methyl Isocyanate

(MIC). The uncontrolled chemical reaction inside Tank E610 led to a massive

pressure buildup, ultimately forcing the release of toxic MIC gas into the

atmosphere. This because the emergency relief valve of tank E610 had blown

allowing the pressurized contents in the tank into the venting system, where MIC

had undergone a rapid exothermic chemical reaction (i.e. a runaway chemical

reaction where the contents in the tank had heated rapidly as the tank had

become dangerously over pressurized). This reaction was caused by contaminants

entering the tank (i.e. water with flakes of rust) (See Figure 18c.)

However, this should have been impossible, since the tank should be only half-full

and then pressurized within a gas to prevent anything of substance in the tank,
 105

but the personnel were unable to keep pressure in the tank, as they were unable

to ascertain the source of leakage. Furthermore, the tank was filled well above its

intended capacity; it was ¾ full instead of ½ full as mandated. The tank

temperature sensor to warn of any temperature rise had been disconnected, the

refrigeration unit to keep the chemical at constant 6oC had been removed. Even

with the poisonous gas venting through the emergency valve, further

contingencies were in place to neutralize the escape of the gas. These were:

1. The gas would be channeled through a large tank of caustic soda (gas scrubber)

to neutralize the toxins, however, the scrubber had been taken offline and thus

was inoperative.

2. The flare tower would enable the gas to ignite and thus be burned off thereby

removing the toxins. However, the flare tower was also inoperative; it was shut

down two months earlier to replace a small section of a pipe.

3. The fire hoses: The water spray could have neutralized the gas. But this was

ineffective as the low pressure water was unable to spray high enough to reach

the vent. Figure 154g shows stages where contingencies should have been applied

to mitigate/neutralize the gas from escaping into the atmosphere.

 106

Figure 18c. Photo of plume of gas escaping from Bhopal plant (Source: Video from Bhopal
Disaster- World Deadliest Industrial Accident)
 107

Figure 18d. Tank E610 containing MIC (Source: (Source: Video from Bhopal Disaster- World
Deadliest Industrial Accident)
 108

Figure 18e. All Contingencies to neutralize the gas from escaping from the plant failed to
operate.
 109

Figure 18f: Remnants of the Union Carbide Plant showing the vent flare stack to burn off the
gas from escaping to the atmosphere was inoperative on the day of the incident, now
defunct, in Bhopal, India—site of the 1984 industrial disaster. (Source: Video from Bhopal
Disaster- World Deadliest Industrial Accident).
 110

Figure 18g: Remnants of the Union Carbide Plant showing the gas scrubber and accessories,
now defunct, in Bhopal, India—site of the 1984 industrial disaster."

The following are the key points resulting in the deaths of several thousands of people.

Key Points About the Leak

Location of the Leak: The MIC vapors escaped from a safety relief valve

connected to Tank E610. This valve was part of the vent header system,

which was supposed to route gases to a scrubber system for

neutralization. However, the scrubber and flare tower were either non-

operational or bypassed, allowing the gas to discharge directly into

the atmosphere.
 111

Why Did Tank E610 Leak?

Water Contamination (likely from a washing operation or a faulty

valve) caused an exothermic reaction inside E610. This reaction raised

the temperature and pressure beyond safe limits, resulting in MIC

vaporization. The safety valve lifted due to excess pressure, releasing

the gas into the vent header.

Failure of Safety Systems: The Vent Gas Scrubber, which should have

neutralized MIC with sodium hydroxide (NaOH), was turned off. The

Flare Tower, meant to burn off toxic gases, was out of service. As a

result, there was no barrier to prevent the direct release of MIC gas

into the air.

Conclusion:

The direct source of the leak was Tank E610, with MIC escaping

through a relief valve and the vent header, ultimately dispersing over

Bhopal due to wind conditions.

 112

Figure 18h. Pressure at the time of the accident was over 55 psia. (Source: Video from
Bhopal Disaster- World Deadliest Industrial Accident)

The Bhopal Gas Tragedy serves as a stark reminder of the catastrophic

consequences of inadequate safety measures and poor disaster preparedness. The

following are the key safety lessons learned from this tragedy:

1. Importance of Process Safety Management

Lesson: Robust safety management systems are essential to prevent hazardous

incidents.
 113

Action: Implement frameworks like OSHA's Process Safety Management (PSM) or

COMAH regulations to ensure systematic hazard identification, risk assessment,

and mitigation.

2. Maintenance of Safety Systems

Lesson: Safety equipment must be functional and regularly maintained.

Action: Ensure critical systems like refrigeration units, vent gas scrubbers, and flare

towers are operational and inspected periodically.

3. Risk Assessment and Hazard Analysis

Lesson: Comprehensive risk assessments must be conducted to

identify potential hazards.

Action: Use tools like HAZOP (Hazard and Operability Studies) to

evaluate risks and design safeguards for worst-case scenarios.

4. Training and Competency

Lesson: Workers must be adequately trained to handle hazardous

materials and respond to emergencies.

Action: Conduct regular training sessions and drills to ensure

employees are aware of safety protocols and emergency procedures.

5. Emergency Preparedness
 114

Lesson: Lack of emergency response plans can exacerbate the impact

of disasters.

Action: Develop and communicate detailed emergency response plans,

including evacuation routes and community awareness programs.

6. Design and Material Standards

Lesson: Poor design choices and substandard materials can lead to

equipment failure.

Action: Adhere to engineering standards (e.g., ASME, API) and use

appropriate materials for equipment handling hazardous chemicals.

7. Community Awareness and Communication

Lesson: The local community must be informed about potential risks

and emergency actions.

Action: Establish communication channels to educate nearby residents

about hazards and provide clear instructions during emergencies.

8. Cost-Cutting Risks

Lesson: Cost-cutting measures that compromise safety can have

devastating consequences.
 115

Action: Prioritize safety investments over short-term financial savings

to ensure long-term operational integrity.

9. Regulatory Oversight

Lesson: Weak regulatory frameworks can allow unsafe practices to

persist.

Action: Strengthen government regulations and enforce compliance

through regular audits and inspections.

10. Environmental and Long-Term Impact

Lesson: Industrial disasters can have lasting environmental and health

consequences.

Action: Conduct environmental impact assessments and establish

long-term monitoring programs to address contamination and health

issues.

The Bhopal disaster fundamentally reshaped global industrial safety

practices, leading to stricter regulations like the Control of Major

Accident Hazards (COMAH) in the UK and greater emphasis on process

 116

safety worldwide. It remains a powerful case study in the importance

of proactive safety measures and ethical responsibility in industrial

operations. Figure 155 shows chemical reactivity hazards work sheet.

Figure 18i. Union Carbide plant in Bhopal, India being sprayed with water to quench to
emission of gas to the atmosphere.
 117

Figure 18j: Remnants of the Union Carbide Plant, now defunct, in Bhopal, India—site of the
1984 industrial disaster."
 118

Figure 18k. Remnants of the Union Carbide Plant, now defunct, in Bhopal, India—site of the
1984 industrial disaster."
 119

Figure 18l: Remnants of the Union Carbide Plant showing the scrubber, now defunct, in
Bhopal, India—site of the 1984 industrial disaster.
 120

Figure 18m: Remnants of the Union Carbide Plant, now defunct, in Bhopal, India—site of the
1984 industrial disaster.
 121

Figure 18n: Remnants of the Union Carbide Plant, now defunct, in Bhopal, India—site of the
1984 industrial disaster.
 122

Figure 18o. Tank E610 as design of the Union Carbide plant, Bhopal, India. (Source: IChemE.
Loss Prevention Bulletin 299, October 2024)

Figure 18p. Accidental introduction of water directly to the tank (Source: IChemE. Loss
Prevention Bulletin 299, October 2024)
 123

Figure 18q. A runaway reaction involving tank rupture and release of Methyl Isocyanate,
Bhopal, India, December 2-3, 1984, Fatalities over 2,800 and over 20,000 damage to health
issues (respiratory and eye).

Video links on Bhopal incidents

 124

https://youtu.be/w8avci2Ohac
125
126
127
128
 129

Key Functions of the Process Engineer in the 21st

Century

Machine Learning/Artificial Intelligence

Data Analytics

Carbon Capture Utilization and Storage

Soft Skills Edge:

The Soft Skills Edge: Engineering Your Path to

Professional Success
 130

Figure 19. Overall flow diagram of a refinery

Carbon Capture Utilization and Storage (CCUS): 1. The process of

capturing carbon dioxide from industrial processes, power generation,

certain hydrogen production methods, and greenhouse gas removal

technologies such as bioenergy with carbon capture and storage and

direct air capture. The captured CO2 is then either used, for example in

chemical processes or stored permanently in disused oil and gas fields

 131

or naturally occurring geological storage sites. 2. Carbon Capture

Utilization and Storage (CCUS), also known as Carbon Capture,

Utilization, and Sequestration, is a set of technologies and processes

aimed at capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from industrial

sources, utilizing the captured CO2 for various purposes, and safely

storing it to prevent its release into the atmosphere. CCUS is a key

approach in mitigating greenhouse gas emissions and addressing

climate change. 3. Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is the process of

capturing waste carbon dioxide from industrial facilities or power

plants, transporting it to a storage site, and depositing it where it will

not re-enter the atmosphere. In this process, carbon is removed,

usually as carbon dioxide (CO2), either prior to combustion of the fuel

or after combustion in the exhaust stack. Capture technologies allow

the separation of carbon dioxide from gases produced in industrial

processes and electric generation by one of three methods: pre-

combustion capture, post-combustion capture, and oxyfuel

combustion. Carbon capture and storage (CCS) can also be applied to

biomass combustion resulting in carbon negative generation of

 132

electricity (meaning that net carbon emissions are negative) (Figure

20).

Figure 20. The concept of carbon capture and storage

Pre-Combustion Capture: The technology for pre-combustion is widely

applied in fertilizer, chemical, gaseous fuel (H2, CH4) and power

production. In these cases, the fossil fuel is partially oxidized in a

gasifier. The CO from the resulting syngas (CO and H2) reacts with

added steam (H2O) and is shifted into CO2 and H2. The resulting CO2

can be captured from a relatively pure exhaust stream. The H2 can be

used as fuel; the CO2 is removed before combustion takes place. There
 133

are several advantages and disadvantages when compared to

conventional post combustion CO2 capture.

The CO2 is removed after combustion of fossil fuels, but before the

flue gas is expanded to atmospheric pressure. This scheme is applied

to new fossil fuel burning power plants, or to existing plants where re-

powering is an option. The capture before expansion, i.e. from

pressurized gas is standard in almost all industrial CO2 capture

processes, at the same scale as required for power plants.

Post Combustion Capture: Post-combustion capture refers to the

removal of carbon dioxide (CO2) from a power station flue gas or from

the petroleum refinery process as in the fluidized bed catalytic

cracking (FCC) prior to its compression, transportation and storage in

suitable geological formations, as part of carbon capture and storage.

Several different techniques are applicable, almost all of which are

adaptations of acid gas removal processes used in the chemical and

petrochemical industries. Figure 21 shows the process flow diagram of

post-combustion carbon capture.

 134

Post-combustion capture plant should aim to maximize the capture of

CO2 emissions from combustion plant and delivery it to secure

sequestration in geological strata. Typically, a plant will aim to achieve

a CO2 capture rate of >95%. To meet the required specification, the

following should be monitored:

 CO2 mass balance

 CO2 in fuel combusted

 Total CO2 capture level (as a percentage)

 CO2 released to the environment

 CO2 quality

 CO2 can be transported either as gas phase at about 35 barg or

as dense phase at 100 barg. The CO2 stream should meet or

exceed gas quality standards.

CO2 absorbents include primary amines which require more heat for

regeneration than secondary amines However, secondary amines may

form nitrosamines with Nitrogen oxides NOx in the flue gases. All non-
 135

solvent constituents must be removed from the solvent. Pilot or full-

scale tests using actual flue gases and solvents may be performed.

Figure 21. A schematic process diagram of post combustion of CO2 capture (Source:

www.wikipedia.org).

Oxy-fuel Combustion: The fuel is burned in oxygen instead of air. To

limit the resulting flame temperature to level common during

conventional combustion, cooled flue gas is recirculated and injected

into the combustion chamber. The flue gas consists of mainly carbon

dioxide CO2 and water vapor (H2O), the latter of which is condensed

through cooling. The result is an almost pure CO2 stream that can be

transported to the sequestration site and stored. Power plant

 136

processes based on oxyfuel combustion are sometimes referred to as

“zero emission” cycles, because the CO2 stored is not a fraction

removed from the flue gas stream (as in the case of pre- and post-

combustion capture) but the flue gas stream itself. A certain fraction of

the CO2 generated during combustion will inevitably end up in the

condensed water, which would have to be treated or disposed of

appropriately

Absorption, or carbon scrubbing with amines is the dominant capture

technology. Other technologies proposed for carbon capture are

membrane gas separation, chemical looping combustion, calcium

looping, and use of metal-organic frameworks and other solid

sorbents

Production of Blue Hydrogen

The process involves two key steps:

Steam Methane Reforming (SMR): Natural gas (primarily methane, CH₄) reacts

with steam (H₂O) at high temperatures (700–1000°C) in the presence of a catalyst.

 137

This process produces hydrogen (H₂) and carbon monoxide (CO).

CH 4  H 2 O  CO  3H 2

Water-Gas Shift Reaction: The carbon monoxide (CO) from the SMR process

reacts with steam in a secondary reaction called the water-gas shift reaction,

producing more hydrogen and carbon dioxide (CO₂).

CO  H 2O  CO 2  H 2

Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): The CO₂ generated during the SMR and

water-gas shift reactions is captured and either stored underground in geological

formations (like depleted oil and gas fields) or used in other industrial

applications.

The captured CO₂ is prevented from entering the atmosphere, which significantly

reduces the carbon footprint of hydrogen production.

But with an additional step for capturing and storing the carbon dioxide

CO 2  H 2 O  H 2CO3

H 2CO3  CO 2  H 2O
 138

The carbon dioxide is then transported and stored in geological formations, such

as depleted oil and gas reservoirs, deep saline formations, or unmineable coal

seams.

Why is it called Blue Hydrogen?

The term "blue" refers to the fact that CO₂ emissions from the hydrogen

production process are captured and stored, making it cleaner than traditional

"grey hydrogen" production (which does not include carbon capture). It is often

seen as a transitional solution towards cleaner hydrogen production methods,

such as green hydrogen (which is produced using renewable energy sources like

wind or solar to power electrolysis of water).

Advantages of Blue Hydrogen

Lower Carbon Emissions: By capturing and storing the CO₂, blue hydrogen

significantly reduces greenhouse gas emissions compared to grey hydrogen.

Established Technology: SMR is a mature, widely used technology, and CCS

technology is also developing rapidly, making blue hydrogen production relatively

feasible using existing infrastructure.

 139

Figure 22. Blue and Green hydrogen production (Source: Samy Yousef, Hydrogen as a clean

and sustainable energy for green future, June 2021, Sustainable Technologies for Green

Economy www. Researchgate.net)

Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS): is the process of

extracting bioenergy from biomass and capturing and storing the carbon dioxide

(CO2) that is produced.

Greenhouse gas emissions from bioenergy can be low because when vegetation is

harvested for bioenergy, new vegetation can grow that will absorb CO2 from the

air through photosynthesis. After the biomass is harvested, energy ("bioenergy") is

extracted in useful forms (electricity, heat, biofuels, and so on) as the biomass is

utilized through combustion, fermentation, pyrolysis or other conversion methods.

Using bioenergy releases CO2. In BECCS, some of the CO2 is captured before it

enters the atmosphere, and stored underground using carbon capture and storage
 140

technology. Under some conditions, BECCS can remove carbon dioxide from the

atmosphere.

The potential range of negative emissions from BECCS was estimated to be zero to

22 gigatonnes per year. As of 2019, five facilities around the world were actively

using BECCS technologies and were capturing approximately 1.5 million tonnes

per year of CO2. Wide deployment of BECCS is constrained by cost and availability

of biomass. Since biomass production is land-intensive, deployment of BECCS can

pose major risks to food production, human rights, and biodiversity.

Bioenergy is derived from biomass which is a renewable energy source and serves

as a carbon sink during its growth. During industrial processes, the biomass

combusted or processed re-releases the CO2 into the atmosphere. Carbon capture

and storage (CCS) technology serves to intercept the release of CO2 into the

atmosphere and redirect it into geological storage locations, or concrete. The

process thus results in a net zero emission of CO2, though this may be positively or

negatively altered depending on the carbon emissions associated with biomass

growth, transport and processing, see below under environmental considerations.

CO2 with a biomass origin is not only released from biomass fueled power plants,

but also during the production of pulp used to make paper and in the production

of biofuels such as biogas and bioethanol. The BECCS technology can also be

employed on industrial processes such as these and making cement.

 141

BECCS technologies trap carbon dioxide in geologic formations in a semi-

permanent way, whereas a tree stores its carbon only during its lifetime. In 2005 it

was estimated that more than 99% of carbon dioxide stored through geologic

sequestration is likely to stay in place for more than 1000 years. In 2005, the IPCC

estimated that BECCS technology would provide a "better permanence" by storing

CO2 in geological formations underground, relative to other types of carbon sinks.

Carbon sinks such as the ocean, trees, and soil involve a risk of adverse climate

change feedback at increased temperatures. Figure 64 shows a diagram of BECCS

with carbon capture and storage.

Figure 23. A scheme diagram of bioenergy power plant with carbon capture and storage

(Source: www.wikipedia.org).
 142

Carbon Footprint: 1. While carbon footprints are usually reported in tons of

emissions (CO2-equivalent) per year, ecological footprints are usually reported in

comparison to what the planet can renew. This assesses the number of "earths"

that would be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same

level as the person calculating their ecological footprint. The carbon footprint is

one part of the ecological footprint. Carbon footprints are more focused than

ecological footprints since they measure merely the emissions of gases that cause

climate change into the atmosphere. 2. A carbon footprint quantifies the total

greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions—primarily carbon dioxide (CO₂)—directly and

indirectly produced by an individual, organization, event, or product. These

emissions result from activities such as energy consumption, transportation, waste

generation, and the production and use of goods and services.

Key Components of a Carbon Footprint

Direct Emissions: Emissions from sources owned or controlled by the individual

or organization, such as fuel combustion in vehicles or heating systems.

Indirect Emissions: Emissions from the production of purchased goods and

services, electricity consumption, waste disposal, and employee travel.

Carbon Footprint in the Petroleum and Petrochemical Industries

 143

The petroleum and petrochemical sectors are significant contributors to global

GHG emissions. In 2018, CO₂ emissions from the chemical sector were 1.5

gigatonnes, accounting for 18% of industrial CO₂ emissions.

Conventional Ammonia Production Process

Air
CO2

High Low CO2

Primary Secondary Ammonia
Feed Desulfulrization Temperature Temperature Removal Methanation
Reformer Reformer Synthesis NH3
Shift Shift

Purge Gas
Separation

Linde Ammonia Concept (LAC) Production Process

Pressure
Feed Primary Isothermal Swing Ammonia
Desulfulrization
Reformer Shift Adsorption Synthesis NH3

Air
Nitrogen
Unit

Figure 24. Block flow diagrams of Ammonia production.

 144

Figure 25. Ammonia production unit


N 2  3H 2 
 2NH3

Figure 26. Ammonia demand by sector in 2021 (Source: BloombergNEF. Notes DAP/MAP

are di-and mono-ammonium phosphate).

 145

Urea Production

Step 1:

Urea, a common fertilizer, is industrially produced by reaction

ammonia (NH3) with carbon dioxide (CO2) under high pressure (140-
175 bar) and temperature (160 – 180oC) to form ammonium carbamate

The reaction is: 2NH3  g   CO2  g  

 NH 4CO2 NH 2  g 



Step 2.: Dehydration to Urea:

Ammonium carbamate is then heated to a higher temperature (160-

180oC) to decompose into urea and water

The reaction is: NH4CO2 NH2  aq  

 CO  NH2   aq   H2O  l 

 2

Overall Reaction:
2NH3  g   CO2  g  
 CO  NH 2

 2  aq   H 2O  l 

The ammonia and carbon dioxide are fed into a reactor at high pressure and
temperature.
 146

The resulting urea solution is then concentrated, evaporated and processed

(prilling and granulated) to produce a solid end product.

A Block Flow Diagram of Urea Production

CO2 (g)
Reactor

CO2 + 2NH3 -> NH2CONH2 + H2O Urea

NH2CONH2 (l)

NH3 (g)

Figure 27. A block flow diagram to produce urea.

Methanol Production (CH3OH)

Methanol a widely used fuel and chemical feedstock, is industrially

produced from syngas ( a mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) and
hydrogen (H2), often with some carbon dioxide (CO2), via a process
involving heterogeneous catalysis, typically using Cu/ZnO – based
catalysts at 250-300oC and 5- 10 MPa

Step 1: Syngas Production:

a. Syngas is a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide

(and sometimes carbon dioxide)

b. It is produced through various processes, including natural

gas reforming, coal gasification and biomass gasification.
 147

c. The H2/CO ratio in syngas from slagging gasifiers typically

ranges from 0.3 to 1.0, requiring extensive water gas shift
to meet the stoichiometric H2/CO ratio of 2 for full
conversion to methanol

Step 2: Methanol Synthesis Reaction:

The primary reaction for methanol synthesis is the hydrogenation of

carbon monoxide: CO  2H 2  CH 3OH , ΔHr = -ve (Exothermic)

The process is exothermic, meaning that it releases heat.

Industrially, methanol synthesis is carried out under relatively high

temperatures and high pressure, so the theoretical conversion rate of
CO is equilibrium limited.

The reaction is catalysed by heterogeneous catalysis, most commonly

CU/ZnO/Al2O3

Process Conditions:

Temperature: 250 – 300oC

Pressure: 5 – 10 MPa (50 – 100 bar)

Catalyst: Cu/ZnO – based catalysts.

Syngas Composition: The ideal H2/CO ratio for methanol synthesis is

2:1
 148

Key Considerations

Equilibrium: The methanol synthesis reaction is equilibrium-limited,

meaning that the conversion of syngas to methanol is not complete.

Catalyst deactivation: Catalyst deactivation can occur due to factors

such as sulfur poisoning and sintering.

Side Reactions: Various side reactions can occur, such as the formation
of water and methane, which can reduce the selectivity to methanol.

Heat Management: The exothermic nature of the reaction requires

efficient heat removal to maintain optimal reaction condition.

Purification: The crude methanol produced in the synthesis reactor is

then purified through distillation to achieve the desired purity.
 149

The primary reaction for methanol synthesis is the hydrogenation of

CO  2H 2  CH 3OH
carbon monoxide: , ΔHr = -ve (Exothermic)
 150

Figure 28. Potential refinery – to – Petrochemical Integration Scenario

 151

🔍 Data Science: The Future of Decision-Making! 🚀

In today’s world, data is the new oil, and Data Science is the engine
that drives insights, innovation, and business success. But what makes
Data Science so powerful? Let’s break it down!

📊 What is Data Science?

It’s the art of extracting meaningful insights from raw data using
statistics, programming, and machine learning.

From predicting customer behavior to optimizing supply chains, data

science is transforming industries worldwide!

🛠✅ Core Components of Data Science

→ Data Collection – Gathering raw data from multiple sources

(databases, APIs, IoT, etc.).
→ Data Cleaning – Removing inconsistencies, missing values, and
outliers for better accuracy.
→ Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA) – Identifying patterns, trends, and
relationships.
→ Machine Learning & AI – Training models to predict outcomes and
automate decision-making.
→ Data Visualization – Communicating insights through charts and
dashboards.
→ Big Data Technologies – Handling vast amounts of structured and
unstructured data.
 152

💡 Why Does Data Science Matter?

→ Better Business Decisions – Companies use data to drive smarter

strategies.
→ AI & Automation – Enhancing efficiency and reducing manual
efforts.
→ High-Paying Careers – Data Science offers one of the most in-
demand skill sets today.
→ Impact Across Industries – From healthcare and finance to e-
commerce and sports!

🚀 Want to Start Your Data Science Journey?

→ Learn Python, SQL, and machine learning basics.

→ Get hands-on with real-world datasets.
→ Work on projects and showcase them on LinkedIn or GitHub.
153
154
 155

Engineering Glossary of Petroleum and Petrochemical Terminology

A. Kayode Coker
156
 157

The Soft Skills Edge: Engineering Your Path

to Professional Success

Table of Contents

Chapter 1. Introduction to Soft Skills in Engineering

Importance of Soft Skills for Engineers

Overview of Essential Soft Skills

Impact on Professional Success

Chapter 2. Communication Mastery for Engineers

Effective Verbal Communication

Written Communication Best Practices

Presenting Technical Information Clearly

Communicating with Non-Technical Stakeholders

Chapter 3. Team Collaboration and Interpersonal Skills

Building and Nurturing Effective Teams

Conflict Resolution Techniques

Cross-functional and Global Team Collaboration

 158

Developing Interpersonal Relationships

Chapter 4. Leadership and Influence in Engineering

Leadership Styles

Motivating Engineering Teams

Effective Delegation and Empowerment

Decision–making Strategies

Chapter 5. Time Management and Prioritization

Managing Workload

Setting and Achieving Deadlines

Prioritization Strategies

Use of Project Management Tools

Chapter 6. Problem Solving and Critical Thinking

Engineering Problem-Solving Process

Creative Thinking Techniques

Collaborative Problem-Solving Approaches

Systematic Problem-Solving Methods

Chapter 7. Emotional Intelligence in Engineering

Understanding Emotional Intelligence

Enhancing Emotional Intelligence Components

 159

Cultivating Empathy

Managing Emotions in High-Pressure Environments

Chapter 8. Cultural Competence in a Globalized Engineering

World

Impact of Globalization on Engineering

Defining Cultural Competence

Effective Communication in Multicultural Teams

Building Inclusive Engineering Environments

Chapter 9. Ethics and Professionalism in Engineering

Defining Ethics in Engineering

Addressing Common Ethical Challenges

Understanding Codes of Ethics

Chapter 10. Networking and Relationship Building

Importance of Professional Networking

Effective Networking Strategies

Utilizing Social Media and Online Platforms

Networking within and Outside the Engineering

Community

Chapter 11. Soft Skills for Innovation

 160

Role of Soft Skills in Innovation

Encouraging a Culture of Creativity

Collaboration as a Catalyst for Innovation

Risk-taking and Learning from Failure

Chapter 12. Continuous Learning and Professional Development

Need for Continuous Learning

Strategies for Lifelong Learning

Adapting to Emerging Technologies

Professional Development Beyond Technical Skills

Chapter 13. The Engineer’s Guide to Success-Integrating Soft

Skills

Reflecting on Personal Growth

Success Stories of Soft Skills in Action

Sustaining a Balanced Career

Continuing the Soft Skills Journey

Chapter 14. Levering Artificial Intelligence for Soft Skills Mastery:

How Soft Skills Can Boost Engineers’ Performance

Enhanced Communication Skills

Problem-solving and Critical Thinking

 161

Time Management and Productivity

Leadership and Team Collaboration

Emotional Intelligence and Empathy

Chapter 15. Conclusion-Mastering the Art of Engineering

Celebrating the Holistic Engineer

Final Thoughts on Soft Skills Mastery

Appendix A Blue-Chip Companies Project to Improve the

Performance of Their Employees

Appendix B: Curriculum vitae of engineers with and without Soft

skills tools.

Ten questions posed to an applicant with and without

Carbon Capture Utilization and Storage and Sustainability and

Corresponding answers

Appendix C: Presentation for Success

Key guidelines for any technical presentation

A typical presentation of an engineer with a view of

selling his products.

Acknowledgments and Resource

 162

Case Studies

The book includes practical exercises and case studies across various

engineering disciplines, such as civil, mechanical, electrical, chemical,

environmental, petroleum and software engineering. These case

studies illustrate the application of soft skills in real engineering

contexts, providing readers with concrete examples of how to

implement the strategies discussed.

www.akctechnology.com

www.amazon.com/author/akayodecoker

www.csb.gov/videos

www.youtube.com/@USCB

www.icheme.org

www.iache.org
 163

Petroleum Refining Processes

164
165
 166

Hints:

1. Summary of the Project

2. Introduction.

a. Types of Crudes received at the refinery facility.

b. Classification: Crude Assays.

c. Objectives of the department.

3. Feeds to the process

4. Process descriptions

5. Products and Treatments.

6. Conclusions

Instructions to Participants

The total mark -

Issue date 12/04/2025
Hand in date: Not Applicable
Submission of the assignment to: Not Applicable
Submission of the assignment after the
deadline shall be marked:
This is an individual assignment and
therefore you are not allowed to work as a
group. If there is evidence of collusion,
then it would be treated as cheating and
the assignment shall be marked
 167

The Dangote Refinery

The Dangote Refinery, located near Lagos, Nigeria, is one of the world's largest

single-train refineries, with a processing capacity of approximately 650,000 barrels

of crude oil per day. This state-of-the-art facility integrates petroleum refining and

petrochemical production, transforming crude oil into a variety of valuable

products, including fuels and petrochemical feedstocks.

Petroleum Refining Processes and Products:

The refinery employs several advanced processes to refine crude oil into various

fractions:

1. Crude Distillation Unit (CDU): The initial step involves heating crude oil to

separate it into different components based on boiling points. Lighter

fractions like naphtha, kerosene, and diesel are extracted at various levels of

the distillation column, while heavier residues are collected at the bottom.

2. Residue Fluid Catalytic Cracking (RFCC): Heavy residual oils from the CDU

undergo catalytic cracking to produce lighter hydrocarbons such as

gasoline, diesel, and olefins like propylene. This process enhances the yield

of valuable lighter products from heavier fractions.

 168

3. Naphtha Hydrotreatment (NHT): Naphtha fractions are treated with

hydrogen to remove impurities like sulfur and nitrogen, producing cleaner

feedstock for further processing.

4. Continuous Catalytic Reforming (CCR): Heavy naphtha is reformed into

high-octane gasoline components and aromatic hydrocarbons such as

benzene, toluene, and xylene (BTX), which are essential for petrochemical

production.

5. Integration with Petrochemical Processes:

The refinery's integration allows for the seamless transfer of intermediate products

from refining to petrochemical units:

 Propylene Production: A by-product of the RFCC process, propylene is a

crucial feedstock for producing polypropylene, a versatile plastic used in

packaging, textiles, and automotive components. The Dangote Refinery's

petrochemical complex includes polymerization units that convert

propylene into polypropylene resin.

 Aromatic Hydrocarbons (BTX): The CCR process yields benzene, toluene,

and xylene, which serve as foundational chemicals for manufacturing

plastics, synthetic fibers, and solvents.

 169

Specific Petrochemical Processes:

1. Polymerization: This process converts olefins like propylene and ethylene

into polymers such as polypropylene and polyethylene. These materials are

fundamental in producing a wide range of plastic products.

2. Isomerization (Penex Process): Light naphtha is isomerized to improve its

octane rating, producing high-quality gasoline components. This process

enhances fuel quality and efficiency.

3. Alkylation: Combines light olefins with isobutane to produce high-octane

components for gasoline blending, improving fuel performance.

The integration of these refining and petrochemical processes enables the

Dangote Refinery to efficiently produce a broad spectrum of products, from fuels

to essential petrochemicals, supporting various industries and reducing Nigeria's

reliance on imported petroleum products.

170
171
172
 173

Atmospheric Crude Distillation Column for separating the crude oil into various

fractions as LPG, Naphtha, Kerosene, Diesel, Light Gas Oil, Heavy Gas Oil, Long

Residue
174
175
 176

The Control Room at the Foreground.

177
 178

Pipelines
 179

Crude Oil Tank of 120,000,000 liters

 180

Residual Fluid Catalytic Cracking unit (FCCU) with the distillation column
181
182
 183

Tank farms for refined products.

 184

Storage Tank for 30,000,000 liters Ethanol (C2H5OH)

This is produced in the Petrochemical facility