GIMB

Module 2

Mathematical
Language & Symbols
Mathematics in the Modern World
01 02
Mathematics as a Sets, Functions, and Binary
Language Operations
The linguistic functions of Basic concepts of
mathematics mathematical language

03 04
Mathematical Logic Practice Exercises

Tools for analysis and

communication in mathematics
03
Mathematical
Logic
Tools for analysis and
communication in
mathematics
“Pure Mathematics is,
in its way, the poetry
of logical ideas”

Albert Einstein
Some Elementary Logic

LOGIC is the study of truth and reasoning.

● We will now shift our focus from expressions

as our object of interest to sentences
instead, particularly, statements.
Some Elementary Logic

● Recall that there are different types of

sentences in English.
● In logic, we will only consider declarative
sentences – those which relay information.
Logic Statements
Logic Statements

A statement is a declarative sentence

that is either true or false, but cannot be both
at the same time.
Logic Statements

Let us try this…

Determine whether the given sentence is a statement. If
it is, state whether it is true or false.
1. Where do you live?
2. 21 + 10 = 45
3. The City of Manila is the capital of the Philippines.
4. 𝑥≥0
Logic Statements

Let us try this…

Determine whether the given sentence is a statement. If
it is, state whether it is true or false.
1. Where do you live? An interrogative sentence, not
declarative. Hence, not a statement.
Logic Statements

Let us try this…

Determine whether the given sentence is a statement. If
it is, state whether it is true or false.
1. Where do you live? An interrogative sentence, not
declarative. Hence, not a statement.
2. 21 + 10 = 45 A statement which is false.
Logic Statements

Let us try this…

Determine whether the given sentence is a statement. If
it is, state whether it is true or false.
1. Where do you live? An interrogative sentence, not
declarative. Hence, not a statement.
2. 21 + 10 = 45 A statement which is false.
3. The City of Manila is the capital of the Philippines. A
statement which is true.
Logic Statements

Let us try this…

Determine whether the given sentence is a statement. If
it is, state whether it is true or false.
4. 𝑥 ≥ 0 Not a statement. This is an OPEN statement, it
is neither true or false since it contains a variable x
which does not have an assigned value. An open
statement becomes either true or false, and thus a
statement when we replace x with a specific
number.
Skills Check
On Logical Statements
Logic Statements

Skills Check
Determine whether the given sentence is a statement. If
it is, state whether it is true or false.
1. 𝑥 +6 = 5
2. Study your MMW notes.
3. 6>0
4. Wow! Math is amazing!
5. The heart has four chambers: two atria and two
ventricles.
Logic Statements

Skills Check
Determine whether the given sentence is a statement. If
it is, state whether it is true or false.
1. 𝑥 + 6 = 5 Not a statement. (An open statement)
2. Study your MMW notes. Not a statement. (An
imperative sentence)
3. 6 > 0 STATEMENT which is true.
Logic Statements

Skills Check
Determine whether the given sentence is a statement. If
it is, state whether it is true or false.
4. Wow! Math is amazing! Not a statement. (An
exclamatory sentence)
5. The heart has four chambers: two atria and two
ventricles. STATEMENT which is true.
Symbolic Logic
Brief History

● Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) tried to

advance the study of logic from a merely
philosophical subject to a formal
mathematical subject.
● Augustus De Morgan (1806-1871) and George
Boole (1815-1864) contributed to the
advancement of symbolic logic as a
mathematical discipline.
 • Boole published The Mathematical
Analysis of Logic in 1848.
• In 1854 he published the more
extensive work, An Investigation of
the Laws of Thought.
• Concerning this document, the
mathematician Bertrand Russell
stated, “Pure mathematics was
discovered by Boole in a work which
is called The Laws of Thought.”

Source: Mathematical Excursions 3rd edition, Richard N. Aufmann

Symbolic Logic

SYMBOLIC LOGIC is a powerful tool for

analysis and communication in mathematics.
It represents the natural language and
mathematical language with symbols and
variables.
*The symbolic logic that Boole was instrumental in creating applies only to
sentences that are statements as defined in the succeeding slides.
Symbolic Logic

A simple statement is a statement that

expresses a single idea.
A compound statement is a statement
that conveys two or more ideas.
A logical connective combines simple
statements into compound statements.
Symbolic Logic

Examples of Simple Statements:

○ I will stay at home.

○ I will go to the park.

○ I will read a book.

○ I will buy that bracelet.

Symbolic Logic

Examples of Compound Statements:

● expresses two or more ideas; simple statements are connected by words
and phrases such as “and”, “or”, “if. . . then”, and “if and only if”

○ I will stay at home or I will go to the park.

○ I will go to the park and I will read a book.

Symbolic Logic

● George Boole introduced the use of letters

such as 𝒑, 𝒒, 𝒓, and 𝒔 to represent simple
statements.
● Note that it is necessary to use lower case
letters.
● The truth value of a simple statement is
based on whether it is true or false.
Symbolic Logic

● The main parts of symbolic logic are

statements and connectives.
● The next slide shows the table with some
basic propositional logic with their symbols.
 Symbolic Logic
PROPOSITIONAL
STATEMENT CONNECTIVE SYMBOLIC FORM
LOGIC

𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝 𝑛𝑜𝑡 ~𝑝 Negation

𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝∧𝑞 Conjunction

𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑞 𝑜𝑟 𝑝∨𝑞 Disjunction

𝐼𝑓 𝑝, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑞 𝐼𝑓 … 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑝→𝑞 Conditional

𝑝 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑞 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑝↔𝑞 Biconditional

GIMB
Symbolic Logic

Truth Values and Truth Tables

● The truth value of a simple statement is

either True (T) or False (F).

● The truth value of a compound statement

depends on the truth values of its simple

statements and its connectives.
Symbolic Logic

Grouping Symbols

SYMBOLIC FORM THE PARENTHESIS INDICATE THAT:

𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∨ ~r 𝑞 and ~r are grouped together

𝑝∧𝑞 ∨r 𝑝 and 𝑞 are grouped together

𝑝 and 𝑞 are grouped together

𝑝∧𝑞 → 𝑟∨s
𝑟 and 𝑠 are also grouped together
TRUTH TABLE
A truth table is a table that shows the truth
value of a compound statement for all
possible truth values of its simple
statements.
 Why do we need to
learn how to construct
truth tables?

Application in the Medical Field

Objectives of the Study
● The objective of this study is to provide elements for
discussion on the usefulness of teaching formal logic in
medical training. Medical students can improve and
systematize their medical reasoning, specifically during
diagnostic and therapeutic decision-making.
● As a corollary, this approach assimilates complex
diagnostic and therapeutic processes to logical formulae,
truth tables and flowcharts that can be easily
incorporated into clinical decision support systems.
Definition of Variables
The premises contained in the statement are identified
and assigned letters to each:

-p : increase of cardiac biomarkers (troponin)

-q : symptoms of myocardial ischemia
-r : electrocardiographic abnormalities
-s : alterations observed in echocardiogram or angiography
-t : acute myocardial infarction diagnosis
Logical Formulation

The formula resulting from the relationship

between the identified variables in the
statement is:

[𝒑 ˄ (𝒒 ˅ 𝒓 ˅ 𝒔)] → 𝒕

where ˄ represents the logical AND, ˅ the

logical OR and → implication or conditional.
Truth Table for Acute
Myocardial Infarction
Diagnosis
Let us explore the language
of symbolic logic…
Understanding Truth Tables
● A truth table lists all possible
combinations of truth values.
𝒑
In a two-valued logic system, a
single statement 𝒑 has two 𝑇
possible truth values: true (T)
and false (F). 𝐹
Understanding Truth Tables
Given two statements 𝒑 and 𝒒, there 𝒑 𝒒
are four possible truth value
combinations, that is, TT, TF, FT, FF. 𝑇 𝑇
As a result, there are four rows in the
truth table. 𝑇 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹
Understanding Truth Tables 𝒑 𝒒 𝒓

With three statements, there are eight 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇

truth value combinations, ranging 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹
from TTT to FFF. In general, given n
𝑇 𝐹 𝑇
statements, there are 𝟐𝒏 rows (or
cases) in the truth table. 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
𝐹 𝑇 𝐹
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
Basic Truth Tables

Negation, Conjunction, Disjunction, Conditional, Biconditional

Negation
Negation
Negation of p indicates the opposite of the proposition p
denoted by ~𝒑 read as “not 𝒑”

Example:
𝒑: Fishes can swim. True
~𝒑: Fishes cannot swim. False

𝒒: Bats can’t fly. False

~𝒒: Bats can fly. True
Writing the Negation of a Statement

1. 𝒑: Today is Monday.

2. 𝒒: 𝟐 is a rational number.

3. 𝒓: Even numbers are divisible by 2.

Writing the Negation of a Statement
1. 𝒑: Today is Monday.

2. 𝒒: 𝟐 is a rational number.

3. 𝒓: Even numbers are divisible by 2.

Answers:

1. ~𝒑: Today is not Monday.

2. ~𝒒: 𝟐 is an irrational number.

3. ~𝒓: Even numbers are not divisible by 2.

The Truth Table of Negation
The possible truth values of a
negation are opposite to the possible 𝒑 ~𝒑
truth values of the statement it
negates.
𝑇 𝐹
If 𝒑 is true, then ∼ 𝒑 is false. If 𝒑 is false,
then ∼ 𝒑 is true.
𝐹 𝑇
The Truth Values 𝒑 ~𝒑

𝑇 𝐹
1. 𝒒: 𝟐 is a rational number.
𝐹 𝑇
~𝒒: 𝟐 is an irrational number.

2. 𝒓: Even numbers are divisible by 2.

~𝒓: Even numbers are not divisible by 2.
The Truth Values

1. 𝒒: 𝟐 is a rational number. FALSE

~𝒒: 𝟐 is an irrational number. TRUE

2. 𝒓: Even numbers are divisible by 2. TRUE

~𝒓: Even numbers are not divisible by 2. FALSE
Take note:

The negation of the

negation of a statement is
the original statement.
Thus ~(~𝒑) can be replaced by 𝒑 in any statement.
Conjunction
Conjunction
Conjunction of 𝒑 and 𝒒 is formed by joining two
statements or propositions 𝒑 and 𝒒 with the word “and”
denoted by 𝒑 ∧ 𝒒 (read as “𝒑 and 𝒒”)

Example:
𝒑: Yesterday is Wednesday.
𝒒: Tomorrow is Friday.

𝒑 ∧ 𝒒: Yesterday is Wednesday and tomorrow is Friday.

The Truth Table of Conjunction
A conjunction 𝒑 ∧ 𝒒 is true only when
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑∧𝒒
both of its conjuncts are true. It is
false in all other three cases.
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇 𝐹
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
Disjunction
Disjunction
Disjunction of 𝒑 and 𝒒 is formed by joining two
statements/propositions 𝒑 and 𝒒 with the word “or”
denoted by 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 (read as “𝒑 or 𝒒”)

Example:
𝒑: I am going to the park.
𝒒: I am going to sleep all day.

𝒑 ∨ 𝒒: I am going to the park or I am going to sleep all day.

The Truth Table of Disjunction
A disjunction 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 is false only when
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑∨𝒒
both of its disjuncts are false. In the
other three cases, the disjunction is
true.
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹 𝑇
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
Examples
Determine whether each compound statement is true of false.

● 𝟗≥𝟒

● 𝟒 + 𝟐 = 𝟔 and 𝟑 is not a prime number.

Examples
Determine whether each compound statement is true of false.

● 𝟗≥𝟒
𝒑: 𝟗 = 𝟒 𝒒: 𝟗 > 𝟒
Examples
Determine whether each compound statement is true of false.

● 𝟗≥𝟒
𝒑: 𝟗 = 𝟒 𝒒: 𝟗 > 𝟒

𝒑 𝒒 𝒑∨𝒒
Examples
Determine whether each compound statement is true of false.

● 𝟗≥𝟒
𝒑: 𝟗 = 𝟒 𝒒: 𝟗 > 𝟒

𝒑 𝒒 𝒑∨𝒒
𝐹 𝑇
Examples
Determine whether each compound statement is true of false.

● 𝟗≥𝟒
𝒑: 𝟗 = 𝟒 𝒒: 𝟗 > 𝟒

𝒑 𝒒 𝒑∨𝒒
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
Examples
Determine whether each compound statement is true of false.

● 𝟒 + 𝟐 = 𝟔 and 𝟑 is not a prime number.

𝒑: 𝟒 + 𝟐 = 𝟔 𝒒: 𝟑 is not a prime number

Examples
Determine whether each compound statement is true of false.

● 𝟒 + 𝟐 = 𝟔 and 𝟑 is not a prime number.

𝒑: 𝟒 + 𝟐 = 𝟔 𝒒: 𝟑 is not a prime number

𝒑 𝒒 𝒑∧𝒒
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
Conditional
Conditional Statements
Conditional Statements are usually expressed as “If 𝒑
then 𝒒” denoted by 𝒑 → 𝒒 (read as “𝒑 implies 𝒒”) where 𝒑 is
a hypothesis/premise and 𝒒 is a conclusion.

Example:
𝒑: Two triangles are similar.
𝒒: The corresponding sides are proportional.

𝒑 → 𝒒: If two triangles are similar then the corresponding

sides are proportional.
The Truth Table of the Conditional
The conditional 𝒑 → 𝒒 is false if 𝒑 is
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑→𝒒
true and 𝒒 is false. It is true in all other
cases.
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
 The Derived Forms of
Conditional Statements

Watch this 6-minute video

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OxPb5-s3xkE
The Derived Forms
There are three ways to restate a conditional statement –
the converse, the inverse and the contrapositive.
However, restating the statement into one of these forms
may change the meaning of the original statement. The
conditional 𝒑 → 𝒒, may be restated in the following forms:

Converse Form: 𝒒→𝒑

Inverse Form: ~𝒑 → ~𝒒
Contrapositive Form: ~𝒒 → ~𝒑
Example
Write the converse, inverse and contrapositive of the
given sentence.

“Every rectangle is a parallelogram.”

𝒑 → 𝒒: If it is a rectangle, then it is a parallelogram.

Example
Write the converse, inverse and contrapositive of the
given sentence.

“Every rectangle is a parallelogram.”

𝒑 → 𝒒: If it is a rectangle, then it is a parallelogram.

Converse Form:
𝒒 → 𝒑: If it is a parallelogram, then it is a rectangle.
Example
Write the converse, inverse and contrapositive of the
given sentence.

“Every rectangle is a parallelogram.”

𝒑 → 𝒒: If it is a rectangle, then it is a parallelogram.

Inverse Form:
~𝒑 → ~𝒒: If it is not a rectangle, then it is not a
parallelogram.
Example
Write the converse, inverse and contrapositive of the
given sentence.

“Every rectangle is a parallelogram.”

𝒑 → 𝒒: If it is a rectangle, then it is a parallelogram.

Contrapositive Form:
~𝒒 → ~𝒑: If it is not a parallelogram, then it is not a
rectangle.
Biconditional
Biconditional Statements
Biconditional statements are expressed as 𝒑 ↔ 𝒒 which
represents “𝒑 if and only if 𝒒.” This statement is equivalent
to (𝒑 → 𝒒) ∧ (𝒒 → 𝒑)

Example:
𝒑: You pass the exam.
𝒒: You get a score of 75% or higher.

𝒑 ↔ 𝒒: You pass the exam if and only if you get a score of

75% or higher.
The Truth Table of the Biconditional
The biconditional 𝒑 ↔ 𝒒 is true only
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑↔𝒒
when 𝒑 and 𝒒 have the same truth
value. It is false in all other cases.
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇 𝐹
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
Examples
Identify the truth value of the following statements.

● 𝒙 + 𝟒 = 𝟕 if and only if 𝒙 = 𝟑.

● If 𝟓 > 𝟑, then 𝟐 + 𝟕 = 𝟑.
Examples
Identify the truth value of the following statements.

● 𝒙 + 𝟒 = 𝟕 if and only if 𝒙 = 𝟑.
○ Both equations are true when 𝑥 = 3, and both are
false when 𝒙 ≠ 𝟑.

○ Both equations have the same truth value for any

given value of 𝑥, so this is a true statement.
Examples
Identify the truth value of the following statements.

● If 𝟓 > 𝟑, then 𝟐 + 𝟕 = 𝟑.

○ Because the antecedent is true and the

consequent is false, this is a false
statement.
 Truth Tables of
Compound Statements

The truth table of a compound statement involving two or more statements

can be constructed from the truth tables of each of the simple statements.
Constructing Truth Tables
For a statement that involves a combination of conjunctions,
disjunctions, negations, conditionals and/or biconditionals.
Example 1
Construct a table for: 𝒑 𝒒
~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒
𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹
Example 1
Construct a table for: 𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑
~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒
𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹
Example 1
Construct a table for: 𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑
~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒
𝑇 𝑇 𝐹
𝑇 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹
Example 1
Construct a table for: 𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑
~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒
𝑇 𝑇 𝐹
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹
Example 1
Construct a table for: 𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑
~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒
𝑇 𝑇 𝐹
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹
Example 1
Construct a table for: 𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑
~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒
𝑇 𝑇 𝐹
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
Example 1
Construct a table for: 𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑
~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒
𝑇 𝑇 𝐹
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
Example 1
Construct a table for: 𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒
~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒
𝑇 𝑇 𝐹
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
Example 1
Construct a table for: 𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒
~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒
𝑇 𝑇 𝐹
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑∨𝒒

𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
Example 1
Construct a table for: 𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒
~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒
𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑∨𝒒

𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
Example 1
Construct a table for: 𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒
~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒
𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑∨𝒒

𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
Example 1
Construct a table for: 𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒
~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒
𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑∨𝒒

𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
Example 1
Construct a table for: 𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒
~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒
𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑∨𝒒

𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
Example 1
Truth Table for: 𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒
~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒
𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
Example 2
Construct a table for: 𝒑 𝒒
~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 ∧ ~𝒒
𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹
Example 2
Construct a table for: 𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑
~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 ∧ ~𝒒
𝑇 𝑇 𝐹
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
Example 2
Construct a table for: 𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒
~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 ∧ ~𝒒
𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
 Construct a table for:
Example 2 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 ∧ ~𝒒

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 ∧ ~𝒒

𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
 Construct a table for:
Example 2 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 ∧ ~𝒒

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 ∧ ~𝒒

𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
 Construct a table for:
Example 2 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 ∧ ~𝒒

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 ∧ ~𝒒

𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
 Construct a table for:
Example 2 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 ∧ ~𝒒

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 ∧ ~𝒒

𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
 Construct a table for:
Example 2 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 ∧ ~𝒒

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 ∧ ~𝒒

𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
 Construct a table for:
Example 2 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 ∧ ~𝒒

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 ∧ ~𝒒

𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
 Construct a table for:
Example 2 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 ∧ ~𝒒

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 ∧ ~𝒒

𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
 Construct a table for:
Example 2 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 ∧ ~𝒒

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 ∧ ~𝒒

𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
Example 2 Truth Table for: ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 ∧ ~𝒒

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 ∧ ~𝒒

𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
Let us try… (Skills Check #3)

Construct truth tables for each of the

following compound statements.

𝑎 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 → ~𝑞

(𝑏) 𝑞 ∧ ~𝑞 ∨ 𝑝

𝑐 ∼ 𝑟 ∧ (𝑝 ∨ ∼ 𝑞)

(𝑑) 𝑝 ∨ ∼ (𝑞 → 𝑟)
Logical Equivalence
 Tautologies, Contradictions,
Logical Equivalence, and Fallacies

Watch this 5-minute video

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v-oNJOx_LjE
Logical Equivalence
● Two mathematical statements are logically
equivalent if the final output of their truth tables are
exactly the same.
● For example, 𝒑 → 𝒒 is not logically equivalent to 𝒒 → 𝒑
but 𝒑 → 𝒒 is logically equivalent to ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒.
● If P and Q are compound statements, then P and Q
are logically equivalent if and only if 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 is a
tautology.
Truth Table to show the equivalence of
𝒑 → 𝒒 and ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒.

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 𝒑→𝒒 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒

𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹
Truth Table to show the equivalence of
𝒑 → 𝒒 and ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒.

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 𝒑→𝒒 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒

𝑇 𝑇 𝐹
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
Truth Table to show the equivalence of
𝒑 → 𝒒 and ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒.

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 𝒑→𝒒 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒

𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 T
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 F
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 T
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 T
Truth Table to show the equivalence of
𝒑 → 𝒒 and ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒.

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 𝒑→𝒒 ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒

𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 T T
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 F F
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 T T
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 T T
Notation for Equivalent Statements
● The notation 𝒑 ≡ 𝒒 is used to indicate that
the statements 𝒑 and 𝒒 are equivalent.
● From the example, we can write that:

○ 𝒑 → 𝒒 ≡ ~𝒑 ∨ 𝒒
De Morgan’s Laws
De Morgan’s Laws for Statements

For any statements 𝒑 and 𝒒 ,

~ 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 ≡ ~𝒑 ∧ ~𝒒

~ 𝒑 ∧ 𝒒 ≡ ~𝒑 ∨ ~𝒒
De Morgan’s Laws for Statements
Show that ~ 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 and ~𝒑 ∧ ~𝒒 are equivalent statements.

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒 ~ 𝒑∨𝒒 ~𝒑 ∧ ~𝒒

𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹
De Morgan’s Laws for Statements
Show that ~ 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 and ~𝒑 ∧ ~𝒒 are equivalent statements.

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒 ~ 𝒑∨𝒒 ~𝒑 ∧ ~𝒒

𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
De Morgan’s Laws for Statements
Show that ~ 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 and ~𝒑 ∧ ~𝒒 are equivalent statements.

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒 𝒑∨𝒒 ~ 𝒑∨𝒒 ~𝒑 ∧ ~𝒒

𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹
De Morgan’s Laws for Statements
Show that ~ 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 and ~𝒑 ∧ ~𝒒 are equivalent statements.

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒 𝒑∨𝒒 ~ 𝒑∨𝒒 ~𝒑 ∧ ~𝒒

𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 F
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 F
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 F
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 T
De Morgan’s Laws for Statements
Show that ~ 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 and ~𝒑 ∧ ~𝒒 are equivalent statements.

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒 𝒑∨𝒒 ~ 𝒑∨𝒒 ~𝒑 ∧ ~𝒒

𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 F
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 F
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 F
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 T
De Morgan’s Laws for Statements
Show that ~ 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 and ~𝒑 ∧ ~𝒒 are equivalent statements.

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒 𝒑∨𝒒 ~ 𝒑∨𝒒 ~𝒑 ∧ ~𝒒

𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 F F
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 F F
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 F F
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 T T
De Morgan’s Laws for Statements
Show that ~ 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 and ~𝒑 ∧ ~𝒒 are equivalent statements.

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒 𝒑∨𝒒 ~ 𝒑∨𝒒 ~𝒑 ∧ ~𝒒

𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 F F
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 F F
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 F F
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 T T
Hence, ~ 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 ≡ ~𝒑 ∧ ~𝒒.
De Morgan’s Laws for Statements
Show that ~ 𝒑 ∧ 𝒒 and ~𝒑 ∨ ~𝒒 are equivalent statements.

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒 𝒑∧𝒒 ~ 𝒑∧𝒒 ~𝒑 ∨ ~𝒒

𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹
De Morgan’s Laws for Statements
Show that ~ 𝒑 ∧ 𝒒 and ~𝒑 ∨ ~𝒒 are equivalent statements.

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒 𝒑∧𝒒 ~ 𝒑∧𝒒 ~𝒑 ∨ ~𝒒

𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
De Morgan’s Laws for Statements
Show that ~ 𝒑 ∧ 𝒒 and ~𝒑 ∨ ~𝒒 are equivalent statements.

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒 𝒑∧𝒒 ~ 𝒑∧𝒒 ~𝒑 ∨ ~𝒒

𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹
De Morgan’s Laws for Statements
Show that ~ 𝒑 ∧ 𝒒 and ~𝒑 ∨ ~𝒒 are equivalent statements.

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒 𝒑∧𝒒 ~ 𝒑∧𝒒 ~𝒑 ∨ ~𝒒

𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 F
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 T
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 T
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 T
De Morgan’s Laws for Statements
Show that ~ 𝒑 ∧ 𝒒 and ~𝒑 ∨ ~𝒒 are equivalent statements.

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒 𝒑∧𝒒 ~ 𝒑∧𝒒 ~𝒑 ∨ ~𝒒

𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 F F
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 T T
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 T T
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 T T
Hence, ~ 𝒑 ∧ 𝒒 ≡ ~𝒑 ∨ ~𝒒.
Let us try this…

Use De Morgan’s laws to restate the following

sentences in an equivalent form.

○ It is not true that, I graduated or I got a

job.

○ It is not true that, I am going to the

dance and I am going to the game.
Let us try this…
Given: “It is not true that, I graduated or I got a job.”

Solution:
Let 𝒑 represent the statement “I graduated.”
Let 𝒒 represent the statement “I got a job.”
Let us try this…
Given: “It is not true that, I graduated or I got a job.”

Solution:
Let 𝒑 represent the statement “I graduated.”
Let 𝒒 represent the statement “I got a job.”
In symbolic form, the original sentence is, ~ 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 . One of De
Morgan’s laws states that this is equivalent to ~𝒑 ∧ ~𝒒.
Thus, a sentence that is equivalent to the original sentence is

“I did not graduate and I did not get a job.”

Let us try this…
Given: “It is not true that, I am going to the dance and I am
going to the game.”

Solution:
Let 𝒑 represent the statement “I am going to the dance.”
Let 𝒒 represent the statement “I am going to the game.”
Let us try this…
Given: “It is not true that, I am going to the dance and I am
going to the game.”

Solution:
Let 𝒑 represent the statement “I am going to the dance.”
Let 𝒒 represent the statement “I am going to the game.”

In symbolic form, the original sentence is, ~ 𝒑 ∧ 𝒒 . One of De

Morgan’s laws states that this is equivalent to ~𝒑 ∨ ~𝒒.
Let us try this…
Solution:
Let 𝒑 represent the statement “I am going to the dance.”
Let 𝒒 represent the statement “I am going to the game.”

In symbolic form, the original sentence is, ~ 𝒑 ∧ 𝒒 . One of De

Morgan’s laws states that this is equivalent to ~𝒑 ∨ ~𝒒.
Thus, a sentence that is equivalent to the original sentence is

“I am not going to the dance or I am not going to the game.”

Quantifiers
Quantifiers
An Existential quantifier indicates that the statement is true
for at least one element denoted by ∃

● uses the words “some”, “there exists” and “at least one”
● Examples:

○ Some birds do not fly.

○ There exists a relationship between the mathematical

language and the English language.

○ There is a number whose square is 9.

Quantifiers
A Universal quantifier indicates that the statement is true for
all or at all times denoted by ∀

● “None” or “no” indicates the non-existence of something

● “All” and “every”
● Examples:

○ All prime numbers are greater than 1.

○ No prime number is less than 1.

Negation of Quantified Statements
Negation of Quantified Statements
Examples:

𝒑: All dogs are mean. F

~𝒑: Some dogs are not mean. T

𝒒: No doctors write in a legible manner. F

~𝒒: Some doctors write in a legible manner. T

 End of Module 2 Notes

GIMB
 04
Practice
Exercises
Skills Check Up
Skills Check Up Tasks are posted in
CeLo+.
These tasks are not graded but you are
required to accomplish these tasks.
Answer Keys will be visible after your
Skills Check Up attempt.
Graded Activities are posted
in CeLo+.
Please take note of the
deadline of submission.
MMW Quiz #2
Monday/Wednesday Schedule:
September 20, 2021
Tuesday/Thursday Class Schedule:
September 20, 2021