Chapter

Wearable Sensors and Devices:

Enhancing Human Life
Chris Cheng Zhang, Mark Yining Liu, Sky Yangziming Han,
Amirreza Sedaghat, Kevin Zhang and Haoyang Wang

Abstract

Wearable sensors are changing almost every sector including healthcare, fitness,
industrial, safety and even entertainment. These devices are intended to be comfort-
ably affixed to the body and to continually monitor physiological, environmental and
motion-related signals. This chapter first introduces the definition of wearable sen-
sors/devices, including various hardware architectures and development platforms,
and the differences from conventional sensors. There are currently thousands of
different sensors available. For example, widely used gyroscope sensors, acceleration
sensors, light sensors, temperature sensors, etc. These applications have been used in
industrial, medical, aerospace and other fields. Data collection methods and machine
learning (ML) techniques using wearable sensors today will also be described. The
importance of low-power design, efficient data handling, integrating artificial intelli-
gence into wearable sensors and the relationship to the Internet of Things (IoT) is
explored. Finally, this chapter discusses the challenges and future of this quickly
developing technology. At the end, we answer the question: will wearable sensors
disappear in the future or will they be used more?

Keywords: wearable sensor, hardware architectures, data collection, machine

learning, fall prevention

1. Introduction

Today, there are thousands of different sensors used in many fields. For example,
distance sensors or ultrasonic sensors are installed in vehicles to avoid collisions. Fog
sensors and heat sensors can be installed indoors to detect fires and trigger fire alarms.
Light sensors and cameras (which can also be a type of sensor) can be used in cleaning
robots. Carbon monoxide (CO) sensors are used to detect gas leaks. Fuel level sensors
are installed in gas tanks to detect the oil level (Figure 1).
However, for wearable sensors, although they share lots of features similar to
traditional sensors, but they do have their own special properties. Wearable sensors
are devices specifically designed to monitor physiological, environmental or motion-
related parameters while being comfortably worn on the body. These sensors have
transformed how data is collected and analyzed, offering real-time, continuous and
non-invasive data without the necessity for human monitoring or intervention.
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Figure 1.
Left: three-axis gyroscope + accelerometer; center: carbon monoxide (CO) sensor; right: ultrasonic sensor.

Figure 2.
Left: smartwatch, right: fitness tracker.

Their key attributes are portability, energy efficiency and adaptability, making them
versatile tools applicable across numerous fields, from everyday personal use to
industrial and medical applications (Figure 2).
Unlike traditional sensors, wearable sensors are customized for integration into
daily life. They are often embedded in accessories such as smartwatches, fitness
trackers or clothing. For example, a fitness tracker can monitor step counts, heart rate
and sleep patterns, while a body-worn movement sensor can record body motion in
real time for virtual representations. These devices have become indispensable,
enhancing convenience and functionality in previously unattainable ways.

1.1 Comparison between traditional sensors and wearable sensors

Wearable sensors and traditional sensors share the common goal of data collection
but differ significantly in their design, functionality and applications. Traditional
sensors are typically static and installed in fixed locations or embedded within
machines. They are oriented for specific tasks, such as detecting obstacles with ultra-
sonic sensors in vehicles or monitoring gas leaks with carbon monoxide sensors at
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Feature Traditional sensors Wearable sensors

Mobility Static, fixed locations Portable, worn on the body

application Task-specific, controlled environments Multifunctional, dynamic environments, user-

centric

Typical Obstacle detection (ultrasonic sensors Activity tracking (accelerometer, gyroscope),

use cases in vehicles), gas leak monitoring (CO health monitoring (heart rate, blood oxygen)
sensors)

User Often manual operation, specialized Seamless integration into daily routines, user-
interaction data retrieval tools friendly interfaces, wireless connectivity
(smartphone access)

Design Durability, precision for specific tasks Compactness, lightweight, long battery life,
priorities comfort

Data May require direct connection or Real-time data access via device or connected apps
access manual reading

Table 1.
Comparison of wearable and traditional sensors.

home. These sensors are effective in controlled environments where they do not
require mobility or adaptability. By contrast, wearable sensors are portable and spe-
cifically designed for continuous use on the human body. For instance, a smartwatch
with an accelerometer and gyroscope can track physical movements in real time,
enabling users to monitor their activity seamlessly throughout the day.
Another key difference lies in the applications of these sensors. Traditional sensors
are generally task-specific and in fixed settings, like gas detectors at home. On the
other hand, wearable sensors are multifunctional and user-centric. They can adapt to
dynamic environments and monitor a wide range of variables, such as heart rate,
blood oxygen level and activity. This versatility makes wearable sensors invaluable in
applications where traditional sensors would be limited by their static usages.
The interaction between users and these devices also varies. Traditional sensors often
require manual operation and human monitoring, with data retrieval necessitating
specialized tools. However, wearable sensors are designed to integrate seamlessly into
daily routines, allowing users to review the data collected easily. Their user-friendly
interfaces and wireless connectivity enable individuals to access real-time data effort-
lessly through the device itself or smartphones, enhancing convenience and usability.
Design features further distinguish wearable sensors from traditional sensors.
Traditional sensors prioritize durability and precision for specific tasks but are not
optimized for mobility or comfort. On the other hand, wearable sensors emphasize
compactness, lightweight and long-lasting battery life. These characteristics ensure
that users can wear them comfortably for extended periods while maintaining accu-
rate, real-time monitoring. Table 1 summarizes the key differences between wearable
and traditional sensors.

2. Hardware architectures of wearable sensors

2.1 Introduction: The compact and constrained

Today, wearable sensors are complex embedded systems designed for continuous,
on-body monitoring, constrained by power and size limitations. These sensor devices
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are characterized by specific limitations that greatly influence their built-in hardware
design. In contrast to computers or smartphones wearable sensors function within the
confines of performance capabilities they need for remarkable energy efficiency and
strict limitations regarding their physical size and shape. These limitations do not exist
in isolation; instead, they are close. Require evaluation and creative design approaches
for all hardware elements.
Wearable sensors have been getting better over time. They are purposely kept limited
in terms of performance to save energy and stay compact in size. They are designed with
duties in mind, like monitoring body signals or collecting information. This focused
approach differs from the computing capabilities of smartphones or laptops. Battery life is
a priority when it comes to devices, as it requires careful consideration of ultra-low power
design principles at all stages of the hardware architecture process. From choosing com-
ponents to executing sophisticated algorithms with energy efficiency in mind. Also
important is the design of sensors to ensure user comfort and seamless integration into life
while maintaining appealing esthetics. When creating sensors, the size and weight matter
a lot. Determine the need for very small components and new packaging methods as well
as flexible substrates, in certain situations. This section will explore the hardware ele-
ments that shape the structure of sensors, which include designing processing units,
memory management, communication module implementation, sensor interface com-
plexities and essential power management techniques.

2.2 Body signal acquisition and transmission principles

Wearable devices capture a diverse range of physiological signals using specialized

sensors, which are then typically processed and transmitted wirelessly. Understanding
the basic principles behind these processes is crucial for appreciating the capabilities
and limitations of wearable technology.

2.2.1 Common sensing modalities

Different sensors operate on distinct physical or chemical principles to measure

specific bodily functions:

• Photoplethysmography (PPG): Commonly used for heart rate and blood oxygen
(SpO2 ) monitoring. This optical technique involves emitting light (usually LED)
into the skin and measuring the amount of light reflected or transmitted back to a
photodetector. Changes in blood volume within the microvascular bed due to the
cardiac cycle modulate the light absorption/reflection, allowing estimation of
heart rate. Differential absorption at specific wavelengths (e.g., red and infrared)
enables SpO2 calculation [1].

• Electrocardiography (ECG): Measures the electrical activity of the heart via

electrodes placed on the skin. These electrodes detect the potential differences
generated by the depolarization and repolarization of heart muscle cells during
each heartbeat, providing detailed rhythm information useful for detecting
arrhythmias [2, 3].

• Electromyography (EMG): Detects the electrical potential generated by muscle

cells when they contract. Similar to ECG, electrodes placed on the skin over the
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muscle measure these signals, which can be used to assess muscle activity, fatigue
or control prosthetic devices [2, 3].

• Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs): Typically combine accelerometers and

gyroscopes. Accelerometers measure linear acceleration (including gravity),
often using the displacement of a micro-machined proof mass. Gyroscopes
measure angular velocity, often using the Coriolis effect on a vibrating structure.
Together, they provide detailed motion and orientation data used for activity
tracking, gait analysis and fall detection [3].

• Electrochemical sensors: Used for detecting specific chemical analytes. For

instance, continuous glucose monitors (CGMs) often use an enzyme (like glucose
oxidase) on an electrode. The enzyme reacts with glucose in the interstitial fluid,
producing an electrical signal proportional to the glucose concentration [4].

These raw analog signals are typically amplified, filtered to remove noise and then
converted to digital signals by analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) within the wear-
able device for processing by the microcontroller [5].

2.2.2 Data transmission

Once acquired and processed locally to some extent, data is often transmitted
wirelessly to a companion device (like a smartphone) or directly to the cloud. Com-
mon protocols include:

• Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE): Optimized for low-power consumption over short
ranges (up to 100 m). Ideal for periodic data transfer from sensors to smartphones
in applications like fitness tracking and basic health monitoring [6, 7].

• Wi-Fi: Offers significantly higher data rates and standard internet connectivity
but consumes more power. Suitable for wearables requiring larger data transfers
or direct cloud connection when near an access point [8].

• Cellular (e.g., Long-Term Evolution (LTE) and 5G): Provides wide-area

connectivity independent of a smartphone, enabling standalone functionality for
devices like advanced smartwatches or remote patient monitoring systems, albeit
with higher power demands [8, 9].

The choice of transmission technology depends on the specific application’s

requirements for data volume, frequency, range and battery life constraints.

2.3 Low-power architectures: The Foundation of wearable design

The main idea driving the creation of sensor devices is the crucial need for low
energy usage rather than just being a nice feature to have; it is essential for extending
battery life span and ensuring comfort during wear while enabling continuous moni-
toring across various use cases like healthcare and fitness tracking tasks alike. Bringing
about an energy-efficient operation in wearables demands a thorough strategy that
considers all levels of the device’s design, from picking specific transistors to laying
out the overall system structure carefully.
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One key method to lower power usage is to reduce the power consumption of the
circuit from the battery. A significant portion of power consumption comes from the
switching of transistors within circuits. Techniques like clock gating, which disables
the clock signal to inactive circuit blocks and operand isolation, which prevents
unnecessary switching in functional units by isolating input data until it is needed, are
some of the strategies used for reducing this switching power [10]. Additionally, the
development of efficient algorithms is important as it results in switch operations and
less energy consumption. Leakage power or static power occurs when there is a flow
of current in circuits that are not actively switching functions. To reduce this type of
power consumption and save energy, it is crucial to choose transistors with leakage
currents and implement power gating technology for unused circuit blocks to
completely cut off the power supply when not in use. Furthermore, voltage scaling is
another method to decrease power consumption as power is directly proportional to
the square of the supply voltage, meaning that even small decreases in voltage can
result in significant energy savings [11]. Dynamic voltage and frequency scaling
(DVFS), used for managing power consumption efficiently, adjusts the voltage and
frequency of the processor in time according to the workload. This enables the system
to function at reduced power levels during times of low-performance demand.
The development of energy devices frequently requires strong teamwork between
hardware and software experts, known as hardware-software co-design. Factors like
the usage pattern of the application are used to determine the most suitable hardware
components to enhance power efficiency overall. For instance, a program that occa-
sionally collects information can take advantage of hardware features that enable deep
sleep modes with low power consumption when not in use. In order to assess and
compare hardware platforms for low power wearable uses in fields such as biomedi-
cine effectively and efficiently, benchmark suites like BiomedBench have been cre-
ated [12]. BiomedBench offers a collection of end-to-end TinyML (Tiny Machine
Learning) biomedical applications that cover idle timeframes in addition to acquisi-
tion and processing stages. This standardized set enables an evaluation of energy
efficiency across cutting-edge low-power platforms. This standardization aids hard-
ware developers in recognizing design elements that affect performance and assists
application designers in choosing the appropriate deployment platform [13].
Additionally, studies have grouped the methods of conserving power in medical
gadgets into a classification that covers organizing tasks, compressing signals, manag-
ing clocks and power. Scheduling techniques for tasks such as optimizing duty cycles
and evenly distributing workloads help decrease the device’s power usage. Signal
compression methods such as Compressive Sensing and Joint Compressive Sensing
reduce the data that requires processing and transmission, resulting in energy savings.
Some other strategies that are used for managing the clock in devices help in control-
ling power usage through methods like adjusting frequency and gating the clock
signal. In addition, power management tactics involve being aware of the power status
of the devices and shutting off the circuits to regulate energy consumption [14].
Choosing and implementing these low-power techniques is essential for ensuring the
energy efficiency needed for sensor applications.

2.4 The Core components of wearable technology

The overall architecture of a wearable sensor system integrates several key com-
ponents, each playing a vital role in data acquisition, processing and communication.

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Figure 3.
Block diagram of a typical wearable sensor system. Key components include sensors (e.g., accelerometer and
gyroscope), a microcontroller (containing the processor core, memory and peripherals), a power management unit,
communication modules (e.g., Bluetooth and Wi-Fi) and user interface elements (e.g., display and buttons).

Figure 3 presents a block diagram showing the typical arrangement of these

components.
The core processor in a wearable sensor acts like a “brain” that performs several
key functions: it processes sensor data, executes algorithms for analysis and controls
communication and user interface elements. Selecting a power-efficient processor is
essential for maximizing battery life in these devices.
The ARM Cortex-M series of microcontrollers has become an option, for devices
due to their energy-efficient design and suitability, for low-power wearable applica-
tions [15]. Among these processors is the Cortex-M0+, known for its power efficiency
and compact size, which makes it perfect for battery-operated wearables [15]. Despite
being compact and energy-efficient, the Cortex-M0+ has the ability to handle 32-bit
processing tasks effectively. This makes it suitable for sensor applications while still
maintaining power efficiency similar to that of 8 or 16-bit processors. The trade-off
between performance and power consumption makes the M0+ suitable because it
provides sufficient processing power for many wearable sensor tasks without the
higher power drain of more powerful processors like the M4 or M7. Its functionalities
are tailored for sensors and wearable gadgets, reinforcing battery longevity and cost
savings. Although the Cortex-M series includes processors, like M4 and M7, that are
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better suited for use than the Cortex-M0+, they come at the expense of power con-
sumption. This makes them more ideal for powering devices that require increased
performance [15].
In addition to the ARM Cortex-M series of processors used in sensors mentioned
by [16] study, there are other types of processing units employed based on the specific
needs of the application field. Microcontroller units (MCUs), which are processors
providing a mix of performance and energy efficiency, are commonly utilized for an
array of functions in wearables. Digital signal processing (DSP) chips are made for
handling signal processing tasks commonly found in sensors, like cleaning up sensor
signals and pulling out data from raw information. On the other hand, application-
specific integrated circuit (ASIC) chips are custom-designed to match the functions of
wearable gadgets [16]. Although ASICs can provide benefits in terms of energy effi-
ciency and speed, for their purposes. However, they usually come with high develop-
ment expenses and limited adaptability when compared to off-the-shelf, more
general-purpose processors. As stated more clearly, the disadvantages of ASICs are
their high initial development cost and their inflexibility to be reprogrammed for
different tasks. For example, a designed ASIC meant to accelerate data-driven classi-
fication in a wearable device showcased power usage that was significantly lower by
several degrees than a software version running on a standard low-power processor.
The latest wearable gadgets, like smartwatches, are now incorporating 64-bit ARM
processors to enhance their capabilities and provide users with richer features and
more complex interactions [17]. 64-bit processors offer advantages over their 32-bit
counterparts, including the ability to address more memory (crucial for complex
applications), handle larger data sets more efficiently and execute more complex
instructions. While these processors bring performance improvements to the devices,
allowing for advanced functions and better user experiences, they also pose the chal-
lenge of efficiently handling power usage and heat dissipation [17]. Research studies
indicate that ARM processors in watches go through design iterations using assertive
scaling methods to enhance performance. However, the optimal balance between
performance improvements and managing power consumption and heat remains a
concern. When comparing 64-bit ARM processors in watches, it is evident that no
single processor dominates all areas, but instead each shines in specific features. This
showcases the trade-offs involved in designing processors for technology.
Table 2 provides a comparison of different microcontroller options commonly
used in wearable devices, highlighting their trade-offs in terms of power consump-
tion, processing capabilities, cost and typical applications.

2.5 Managing data in limited resources environments

Efficient memory management is absolutely critical for the operation of compact,

battery-powered gadgets, directly impacting their performance and longevity [18].
Effectively handling these resources is vital for ensuring the seamless operation and
effectiveness of sensors. These devices utilize memory technologies tailored to specific
needs and functionalities, each with inherent trade-offs.
SRAM (Static RAM), widely recognized for its speed and easy accessibility com-
pared to other memory types, is also volatile and power-hungry. It only maintains
data while powered on—often found in wearables for short-term data storage, like
temporarily storing sensor data before processing and serving as cache memory to
hasten retrieval of commonly used information. Flash memory, in contrast, is a non-
volatile memory technology, capable of storing data without a constant power supply.
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Microcontroller Power Processing Cost Typical applications

consumption power

ARM Cortex-M0+ Very Low Low-Medium Low ($0.50–$2) Basic fitness trackers, simple
(10–100 μA/ (20–50 MHz) sensor hubs and low-power IoT
MHz) devices

ARM Cortex-M4 Low-Medium Medium (80– Medium ($1–$5) Smartwatches, more complex
(50–200 μA/ 200 MHz) fitness trackers, industrial sensors
MHz) and basic audio processing

ARM Cortex-M7 Medium- High (200– Medium-High Advanced smartwatches, medical

High (100– 600 MHz) ($3–$10) devices with signal processing,
300 μA/ complex sensor fusion
MHz)

DSPs Variable High Variable Audio processing, noise

(depends on (specialized cancelation and real-time sensor
architecture) for signal data filtering
processing)

ASICs Very Low High (for a High (initial NRE Highly specialized applications
(highly specific task) cost), Low (per requiring extreme power
optimized) unit at high efficiency or performance (e.g.,
volume) custom health monitoring chips)

Table 2.
Comparison of Microcontroller Options for Wearable Devices.

It is often utilized in gadgets to hold the device’s software code and larger sets of data,
like recorded sensor information. Two primary categories of flash memory exist: NOR
flash, which enables fast random access and is commonly employed for executing
code and NAND flash, which provides greater storage capacities at a lower cost per
bit, making it preferred for storing larger datasets. Ferroelectric RAM (FRAM) offers
another alternative. It combines the non-volatility of flash memory with the speed,
energy-efficient operation and strong durability (ability to endure numerous writing
cycles without performance degradation) of SRAM [19]. However, FRAM (Ferroelec-
tric RAM) may have lower capacity and a potentially higher cost than flash. FRAM is
especially suitable for devices that need to frequently record data without using up too
much energy.
To efficiently handle the memory and storage capacities in these devices, various
tactics are utilized. Data compression methods are crucial for cutting down the vol-
ume of data requiring storage, consequently decreasing memory consumption and
power usage (as there is less data to write and read) [14]. Selecting optimal data
structures and algorithms can also aid in lowering the memory requirements of appli-
cations and enhancing data retrieval speeds. Direct memory access (DMA) is a hard-
ware capability that enables components, like sensors and communication modules, to
move data directly to or from memory without needing involvement from the central
processing unit (CPU) [18]. By offloading data transfer duties from the CPU, DMA
significantly reduces the CPU’s burden and overall energy usage. This permits the
CPU to conserve power by entering low-power sleep states or focusing on other
processing activities [20]. Studies have looked into creating compact storage solutions
for gadgets that utilize DMA and the serial peripheral interface (SPI) protocol to
enable ongoing monitoring [20]. These solutions frequently arrange data into time-
based segments or files to minimize control overhead and simplify the handling of
scheduled data captures [20]. Research, such as that found in ScholarWorks, has

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highlighted ultra-low-power NAND flash memory as an excellent storage choice for

sensor networks due to its notably reduced energy usage per byte when contrasted
with traditional serial flash memory choices [21]. In essence, the development of
memory and storage systems for gadgets necessitates a careful balancing of factors
such as memory capacity, power usage, cost and the unique demands of the target
applications.

2.6 Efficient energy usage in continuous sensing to stay active without draining
battery power

In the field of sensor applications, like health and wellness monitoring devices, as
mentioned in a study by FutureTrends research [7], it is essential to have sensors that
can continuously track environmental data over time to ensure accurate monitoring
results without draining the battery life of the wearable devices too quickly due to
constant data processing demands. Time-consuming processing tasks are crucial for
preserving battery life and enabling sensing operations.
A key strategy for saving energy is duty cycling [14]. This approach includes
turning the sensor and processing unit on and off at intervals to collect and analyze
data efficiently while conserving power when not in use. The duty cycle refers to the
proportion of time the devices are active compared to the total duration. It can be
customized according to the needs of a particular application and how frequently the
parameters being monitored are likely to fluctuate. In situations where there are
minimal changes in the data being analyzed, one can use a low-duty cycle to cut down
on power usage significantly. Another important method to save energy is by utilizing
signal processing algorithms designed for low-power consumption. With the help of
algorithms that are less computationally intensive, the processing unit can carry out
data analysis tasks with fewer operations, resulting in lower power consumption. For
instance, optimized filtering techniques can be employed to eliminate noise and effi-
cient methods for feature extraction can reduce the volume of data that needs
processing. Utilizing hardware acceleration is crucial for enhancing energy efficiency
in computing systems dedicated to sensing [16]. Specialized hardware components, or
accelerators, are tailored to execute particular demanding functions, like signal
processing or machine learning inference, with lower power consumption compared
to general-purpose processors at comparable performance levels. By delegating these
tasks to dedicated hardware units, the primary processing unit can operate at a
reduced power level for extended durations.
In event-driven sensing methodology, data acquisition and processing are initiated
upon detection of a significant change or event in the environment being monitored
[22]. This strategy prevents unnecessary sampling and processing during periods of
stability in the variables, resultantly leading to considerable energy conservation
benefits. In a scenario, a wearable accelerometer might engage in analysis only when it
detects a sudden motion change, suggesting a fall occurrence. When dealing with
sensors in different situations in a network, data aggregation is a useful method to
save power [22]. By handling and combining information from multiple sensors
within the network before sending it wirelessly, the overall data transmission volume
can be notably decreased, resulting in energy conservation for both processing and
communication tasks. Studies have also delved into the idea of using energy for
context recognition and forecasting on smartwatches [23]. Through the use of
abstraction to transform raw sensor data into valuable information entities and carry-
ing out predictive functions directly on the device itself, one can reduce the necessity
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for frequent data transmission to external devices. This leads to decreased power
usage [23]. Additionally, energy harvesting technologies, such as solar panels, thermal
converters and kinetic energy harvesters, have the capability to complement battery
power in gadgets, allowing for extended or potentially continuous functionality [11].
By harnessing energy from the surrounding environment or the user’s own body to
generate electricity, these advancements can lessen dependence on batteries and
prolong the functionality of wearable sensors.

2.7 Connecting sensors and gathering data; bridging the gap between the physical
and digital realms

Wearable sensors can connect with the environment, transforming real-life events
into digital data through their sensor interfaces and data collection methods, which
play a crucial role in their efficiency. Various communication protocols are frequently
employed to link sensors with the processing unit in gadgets [24]. Among these are
I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit) and SPI.
The I2C protocol is commonly used for linking lower-speed devices to a micro-
controller. It involves two lines: a data line (SDA – Serial Data) and a serial clock line
(SCL – Serial Clock). One of the benefits of I2C is its simplicity, as it only requires two
wires for communication. Additionally, it can handle multiple slave devices on one
bus, with a master device overseeing the communication process. In research and
when developing systems for prototyping purposes, modularity and solid backing in
integrated circuits are frequently favored [24]. Nevertheless, SPI generally provides
faster data transfer speeds than I2C but may present address restrictions that come
into play when connecting with numerous sensors [24].
SPI is a communication protocol that operates using four wires: a serial clock
(SCK), a master out slave in (MOSI), a master in slave out (MISO) and a slave select
(SS). Compared to I2C (inter-integrated circuit), SPI provides faster transfer speeds
and enables full-duplex communication, where information can be transmitted and
received concurrently [25]. However, it needs more pins than I2C. It also does not
include a built-in addressing system for multiple slave devices, usually needing a
separate slave select line for each sensor [26]. The decision between I2C and SPI relies
on the needs of the application, taking into account aspects like the quantity of
sensors, the desired data speeds and the available microcontroller pin count (Table 3).

Feature I2C SPI

Speed (Data Rate) Lower (up to 3.4 Mbps) Higher (several Mbps or
MHz)

Complexity (Number of Wires) Simpler (2 wires) More complex (4+ wires)

Complexity (Protocol) More complex (addressing, Simpler (no arbitration)

arbitration)

Power consumption Generally lower Generally higher

Scalability (Number of High (multiple slaves on one bus) Limited by SS pins

Devices)

Noise immunity Lower (shared bus) Higher (separate lines)

Full/Half-duplex Half-duplex Full-duplex

Table 3.
Comparison of I2C and SPI Protocols.

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Analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) are essential components in sensor technology,

as they convert analog output signals into digital values that can be read by a microcon-
troller [16]. When it comes to sensors, important ADC specifications to consider are
resolution (the bit depth for representing analog values), sampling rate (measurement
frequency) and power usage efficiency. The resolution influences the quality of the
representation of the analog signal and the sampling rate controls how often sensor data is
captured. In devices like wearables, due to power limitations, it is important to pick ADCs
that provide the required performance features with minimal power consumption. Usu-
ally, before sensor signals are sent to an ADC, they go through signal conditioning
circuitry [5]. The circuitry might have amplifiers to boost the signal strength and filters to
minimize any disturbances or interference present in the signal from the sensors before
converting it into a digital format for dependable digitization by the ADC.
Wearable sensors can wirelessly connect with devices like smartphones, tablets or
cloud servers. This feature allows data to be sent for storage, analysis and user
engagement purposes. Wearable devices use communication technologies that have
unique qualities suited for different applications [8].
Bluetooth low energy (BLE) is a technology in wearable devices known for its
exceptional energy efficiency due to the minimal power it consumes [7]. It is fre-
quently utilized for close-range communication with smartphones and neighboring
gadgets to enable data exchange for fitness trackers and health monitors, such as
smartwatches. Wi-Fi provides higher data speeds and has a greater coverage distance
than BLE but generally requires more power (Wireless Communications). The devices
that are wearable and require high bandwidth, for instance, Internet-connected
smartwatches, use them. Near-field communication (NFC) is a low-power communi-
cation technology with a short range and is used in many applications for purposes
such as payments and data exchange between nearby devices, as suggested in [8].
Wearable devices that need to stay connected across wide areas and function inde-
pendently, without depending on a smartphone, often use cellular technologies like
long-term evolution (LTE) and the emerging 5G networks, according to Wireless
Communications research [8]. Although these cellular technologies provide a wider
coverage range compared to short-range options, they do consume more power as a
trade-off feature. Moreover, this technology, having appeared, makes it possible to
support a large number of wearable sensors and devices in industrial and IoT envi-
ronments, as found in the wireless communications research (Table 4) [27].

Technology Range Data rate Power use Applications

BLE Up to 100 m Up to 2 Mbps Very Low Fitness trackers, health monitors,

smartwatches (data sync)

Wi-Fi Up to 100 m Up to several High Smartwatches (internet), some

(indoor) hundred Mbps medical devices

NFC Few cm Up to 424 kbps Very Low Contactless payments, data transfer,
access control

Cellular Wide area Up to 100+ Mbps High Smartwatches (cellular), remote

(LTE) (km) (downlink) health monitoring

Cellular Wide area Up to Gbps High (potential future connected wearables

(5G) (km) for IoT opt.)

Table 4.
Comparison of wireless communication technologies for wearables.

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The design of the network linking sensors can differ based on the usage scenario
employed. In a point-to-point setup, the wearable gadget communicates directly with
a device, like a smartphone, using Bluetooth technology. In a star network configura-
tion, multiple wearable gadgets link to a hub, which could be a base station or
smartphone, serving as a gateway. Mesh networks enable devices to not only commu-
nicate with a central point but also exchange data among themselves while traversing
the network. In situations where there are sensors connected to each other, using
devices such as smartphones as intermediaries can enhance reliability and scope.
These smartphones act as bridges between the sensors, receiving data through short-
range methods like Bluetooth and then transmitting it to cloud servers or centers
through networks such as Wi-Fi or cellular connections [9].

2.8 Power management: Extending the lifeline of wearable devices

The longevity of sensors heavily relies upon the battery life they possess; hence, the
implementation of power management strategies becomes crucial to prolong their usage
time effectively by minimizing energy usage in all operational facets of the device.
One of the methods employed in managing power is dynamic voltage and fre-
quency scaling (DVFS), which regulates the voltage and clock frequency of the pro-
cessor based on the workload. In the case of the device operating under conditions that
require more power, the voltage and frequency are increased to provide the necessary
performance [10]. However, in times of low activity or when the device is idle, the
voltage and frequency can be lowered to conserve power. Another important method
is power gating, which entails turning off the power supply to sections of circuits not
in use. By doing this, static leakage power can be greatly minimized, which plays a
significant role in the overall power usage of current integrated circuits. Power man-
agement integrated circuits (PMICs) are specifically designed integrated circuits that
effectively allocate power in wearable devices [28]. In their role, they monitor the
charging of the battery and control the voltage needed for different components as
well as include different power save modes for greater energy efficiency.
In the case of wearable devices, energy harvesting technologies can potentially
supplement or even replace batteries, according to [11]. These technologies get energy
from the environment or the human body, for example, small photovoltaic cells that
collect energy from solar power, thermoelectric generators that work on the principle
of converting heat energy from body warmth or kinetic energy from body movements
through piezoelectric or electromagnetic devices. Although the available power is
usually small, it may be sufficient for operating low-power sensors or extending the
battery life of some gadgets. Recent research has also been conducted on the improve-
ment of the power management policies to enhance the energy efficiency in sensor
networks. For example, HEEPS (Hybrid Energy-Efficient Power manager Scheduling)
integrates dynamic power management policies and DVFS to enhance power con-
sumption [10]. These latest strategies are aimed at predicting and analyzing the sensor
node behaviors in order to use the energy conservation techniques properly.

2.9 Hardware design and the rise of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine
learning in wearables

In the realm of sensor technology, AI and ML are being integrated into devices at a
rise [29]. The reason for this shift is to enable the wearables to work autonomously by
analyzing the sensor data in real time, providing personalized insights and responding
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Current Developments in Biosensors and Emerging Smart Technologies

quickly to the user’s needs or variations in the environment. Hardware architectures

are being tailored and refined to meet the increasing computational needs for on-
device AI processing. This adaptation is necessary because machine learning algo-
rithms, especially complex ones used for tasks like real-time activity recognition or
physiological anomaly detection, often involve intensive computations (such as
matrix operations or iterative optimizations) that demand efficient hardware acceler-
ation to run within the strict power budgets of wearable devices [29, 30].
A significant improvement is the integration of new hardware accelerators, such as
neural processing units (NPUs) and tensor processing units (TPUs), which are
designed to excel at matrix multiplications and other computations that are essential
for machine learning algorithms [16]. When run on general-purpose CPUs, these
accelerators may enhance the performance and energy efficiency of AI tasks consid-
erably. Additionally, there are efforts to optimize memory architectures for efficiently
supplying data to these processing units during machine learning calculations, thus
reducing bottlenecks and enhancing overall efficiency. Given the power usage limita-
tions of wearable gadgets, there is an emphasis on crafting and picking energy-
efficient AI algorithms, commonly known as TinyML [13]. These algorithms are
developed to use them in wearable devices with limited resources, and for this reason,
these algorithms are small in size and less computationally complex. These algorithms
are developed to occupy less memory space and need fewer computations.
The integration of AI and ML in wearable devices also has numerous benefits. On-
chip AI enables the evaluation of sensor information without the help of other servers.
This leads to decreased delays in the flow of information and provides instant output
to the users. Furthermore, decreasing the data processing burden at the device level
also improves the privacy of the users. Reducing the dependency on the cloud can
increase the robustness and dependability of applications, particularly in areas with
poor network coverage. However, the integration of AI and ML in wearables is not
without some challenges. These are the challenges, though: limited resources and
memory of these devices and the necessity of designing power-conservative devices.
Despite all these, AI and ML are already common in wearables for functions such as
identifying movements (for instance, identifying different forms of exercise),
checking health (for instance, for falls or irregular heartbeats) and assisting people
with information and suggestions.

2.10 Hardware design summary

Wearable sensor hardware designs are a combination of computer engineering and

material science, with human-computer interaction mixed in. To create them, you
have to find that sweet spot between performance and power efficiency, as well as the
size and shape of the devices. In this section of the book, the energy design principles
focus is seen in all aspects of technology hardware, from choosing low-power con-
sumption processors and memory to integrating intuitive sensing mechanisms and
power management. This is because selecting the appropriate sensor interface pro-
tocols and the wireless communication technologies that go with them determines
how quickly data is sampled and sent, as well as how complex and power-hungry the
process is. In addition, the growing tendency to incorporate intelligence and machine
learning into devices is challenging the hardware design to support the required
specialized architectures and efficient algorithms that are capable of operating prop-
erly within the constraints of these systems. The continuous progress in stretchable
electronics alongside eco-materials and energy-efficient AI technology indicates a
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promising future for wearable sensors with enhanced capabilities and seamless inte-
gration in upcoming devices.

3. Non-medical application

Wearable sensors are used in various fields of life and have become an integral part
of everyday life. Devices such as smartwatches and fitness trackers are nowadays
more sophisticated and finding new uses. Although most often associated with the
health industry, these sensors have many other applications besides medical. In this
section, the various non-medical applications of wearable sensors are highlighted with
examples of how they are used across different sectors and the possible future appli-
cations that can be envisioned. Biosensors attached to the skin work by identifying
and measuring different biological signals, including heart rate, body temperature or
even the electrical activity of the muscles [31]. Signal acquisition relies on sensors
converting physiological events into measurable data. For example, heart rate is com-
monly measured using photoplethysmography (PPG), where light emitted by LEDs
reflects off blood vessels under the skin; variations in reflected light intensity,
detected by a photodiode, correlate with blood volume changes caused by heartbeats
[1, 32]. Muscle activity (electromyography, EMG) is detected via electrodes sensing
the electrical potential generated by muscle cells during contraction [2, 3]. This raw
sensor data is typically digitized and undergoes initial processing on the device before
being transmitted wirelessly, often using Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), to a
smartphone or computer for detailed analysis and visualization [33]. The manner in
which these signals are measured depends on the type of sensor used. Some may use
biological molecules like enzymes or antibodies to interact with specific substances in
body fluids or on the skin. This capacity to capture and analyze biological information
is what makes wearable sensors so versatile and amenable to use in a variety of fields.
Despite their use in the management of individual health, research-ready wearable
technology offers a unique opportunity for advanced analytics. When incorporated
with clinical practice, these sensors can offer valuable information on patient care and
outcomes [34]. This points to the wider role of wearable sensors beyond their use in
individual disease management to further research and healthcare.

3.1 Wearable sensors in fitness and everyday life

Wearable technology has revolutionized the way people approach fitness and
health. Devices like Fitbits and Apple Watches track a number of activities including
steps, distance covered, calories consumed, heart rate and even sleep [35]. This data
helps people monitor their progress, set goals and make informed decisions about
their health. It is important that wearable technology is moving from basic fitness
trackers to providing more detailed health information. Some devices, like the Apple
Watch Series 10 and Fitbit Sense 4, use AI to check blood oxygen levels, identify heart
rhythm irregularities and even predict stress levels [36]. This continuous tracking
capability offers users a better understanding of their health than occasional checks
and equips them to take precautions for better health. Integration with voice controls
and smart home features adds to the list of benefits of wearables in everyday life.
Users can control home appliances, unlock cars and get information without having to
use their hands, thus making these devices almost indispensable for many.
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3.2 Non-medical types of wearable sensors

Wearable devices utilize a variety of sensor technologies to capture and interpret

different types of data. Some of the most common types of sensors include (Table 5)
[31].

3.3 Wearable sensors in sports

Wearable sensors are being used in sports activities and practices, helping athletes
and coaches to enhance performance and prevent injuries. Advanced wearables ana-
lyze player performance, track biomechanics and even identify early signs of injury
[37]. This data helps coaches to design better training programs, manage player
workload and improve team performance (Figure 4).

Sensor type Application Example

Pressure Altitude monitoring, detecting pressure changes Altimeter watches, fitness bands

Humidity Monitoring local relative humidity, skin moisture Multi-mode watches, fitness bands

Position Measuring changes in the angle of a magnetic field Smartwatches, fitness trackers

Piezo film Monitoring user motion and activity levels Fitness bands, motion capture
systems

Accelerometer Measuring acceleration and movement Smartphones, fitness trackers

Gyroscope Measuring orientation and rotation Smartphones, VR headsets

Magnetometer Measuring magnetic fields for navigation Smartphones, compass apps

Optical Measuring heart rate and blood oxygen levels Smartwatches, pulse oximeters

Temperature Measuring local air temperature or skin Multi-mode watches, fitness bands
temperature

Table 5.
Common sensor types in wearable devices.

Figure 4.
Illustration of wearable sensors integrated into a sports and fitness context. Examples shown include a smartwatch,
chest strap, smart clothing, shoe sensors, earbuds and a sensor hub for data aggregation and transmission.

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For example, wearable sensors can measure an athlete’s speed, acceleration and
agility. This data can be used to determine where the athlete has potential for
improvement and to design specific training plans for the athlete. Wearable sensors
can also monitor an athlete’s heart rate and breathing, which can help to prevent
overtraining and injuries.

3.4 Wearable sensors in the workplace

Wearable sensors are finding increasing applications in various industries, enhancing

safety and productivity. In manufacturing, smart gloves can alert workers to excessive
pressure, helping prevent injuries on assembly lines. Wearable sensors can also monitor
worker fatigue and stress levels, potentially preventing accidents and promoting a
healthier work environment. The resurgence of the Industrial Internet of Things (IoT) is
further driving the adoption of wearable sensors in industrial settings [37]. This trend is
fueled by the need for improved efficiency, stricter safety regulations and the growing
concern for worker safety in increasingly demanding environments. Wearable sensors
are being used to monitor worker exposure to hazardous materials, track their location
in real-time and provide alerts in case of emergencies. In corporate offices, wearables
can encourage employees to take breaks, stand up or engage in physical activity, pro-
moting well-being and reducing burnout. Some companies are even using wearable
sensors to track employee productivity and provide feedback on their performance.

3.5 Wearable sensors in entertainment and gaming

Wearable sensors are changing the entertainment industry, especially in gaming

and Virtual Reality. Motion-sensing controllers, such as those used in the Nintendo
Wii and PlayStation Move, let players interact with the game in a more engaging way
[38]. Virtual Reality (VR) headsets work by tracking head and body movements and
creating a realistic environment, distinguishing between the real and virtual worlds
[39]. Wearable sensors are also being used to create new forms of entertainment. For
instance, some companies are developing wearable devices that can be used to track
dancers’ movements and give feedback on their performance. This could be used to
create interactive dance shows or to help dancers improve their steps.

3.6 Wearable sensors in the movie industry

Wearable sensors are gradually finding their place in the movie industry, especially
in the creation of visual effects and animation. Motion capture technology, which uses
sensors to replicate an actor’s movements, is currently used to create realistic
computer-generated characters [35]. This technology has been used in films such as
Avatar and The Lord of the Rings to bring imaginary beings and characters to life.
Wearable sensors are also being used to enhance the immersive and interactive movie-
watching experience. Some companies are developing products that can be worn to
track the audience’s emotions and give feedback to the filmmakers. This could be used
to create films that are tailored to the viewer’s preferences.

3.7 Wearable sensors in education

Wearable sensors have the potential to redefine the world of education. Smart
glasses can provide students with an immersive learning experience, while sensors
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Current Developments in Biosensors and Emerging Smart Technologies

integrated into clothing can monitor student engagement and provide feedback to the
teacher [40]. This technology can individualize education, inform who needs addi-
tional support and create more productive learning environments. For example,
wearable sensors can be used to track students’ eye movements and attention spans.
This data can be used to identify students who are struggling to focus and who need
extra help. Wearable sensors can also be used to measure students’ learning progress
and provide them with individualized feedback.

3.8 Wearable sensors in pet care

Wearable sensors are no longer new in the field of pet care; they are gradually
becoming popular in improving the quality of life of our best friends. Smart feeders
ensure that pets eat the right amount of food at the right time, while GPS trackers
provide peace of mind to owners by tracking the location of their pets [41]. Smart pet
cameras allow owners to play with and interact with their pets in other ways, thus

Figure 5.
Wearable sensor applications.

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enhancing the bond between humans and their pets. These sensors can also be used to
monitor a pet’s level of activity and duration of sleep, which can give useful informa-
tion on the animal’s general health. This data can be used to identify potential health
issues and decide on the best course of treatment for the animal (Figure 5).

3.9 The future of non-medical wearable sensors

Wearable sensors that are not medical are the future and current and future
developments are being made on these devices. The major trends worldwide, includ-
ing the growth of the digital health sector, extended reality (XR) and the IIoT (Indus-
trial Internet of Things), are greatly impacting the future of wearable sensor
development [39]. These trends are leading to the need for smaller, more energy-
efficient and more versatile sensors that can be easily integrated into our daily lives.
Some of the major trends that will influence the future of wearables are:

• Miniaturization and integration: Wearable sensors will become less visible, more
compact and more diversely incorporated into various objects. This includes
making them embedded in clothes and jewelry, and even making them implantable
devices [42]. For example, companies like NC State’s ASSIST Center are coming up
with “invisible” wearables that can be integrated into clothing or even under the
nails [43]. The use of electrochemistry in sensor design also helps in the fabrication
of smaller and more flexible devices that can stick to the body [44].

• Enhanced functionality: Wearables will have better sensors that can tell between
various postures and conditions and give more specific information [39]. This
includes sensors that can capture a more complete set of biometrics,
environmental factors and even emotional states.

• Improved user experience: Wearables will have better user interfaces and features
like voice control, gesture control and haptic feedback for better usability [42].
This will make wearables more convenient and easy to use, and thus available for
the use of a wider audience.

• Energy harvesting: Wearables will use energy harvesting technologies such as solar
threads to power themselves and eliminate or reduce the need for batteries [45].
This will improve the convenience and environmental friendliness of the device.

• Artificial Intelligence (AI): AI will be extremely important in analyzing the large

amount of data collected from wearables and presenting the results in a meaningful
manner to the users [43]. This will allow wearables to provide more useful
information that can help people make decisions about their health, fitness and daily
life.

• Integration with connected vehicles: It is anticipated that wearable sensors will be

integrated with connected vehicles to enable cars to check the driver’s alertness,
stress levels and even his or her blood alcohol content, which can help prevent
accidents and improve the level of driver assistance [39].

Future wearables will not only improve existing technologies but also will be
critical in the diagnosis and treatment of disease at an early stage [43]. This could
revolutionize healthcare by helping to prevent and improve the accuracy of care.
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3.10 Challenges and opportunities

Despite the exciting potential of non-medical wearable sensors, several challenges

remain in the field:

• Data accuracy: This is because the accuracy and precision of the sensor data are
important in many applications where accuracy is crucial [46]. Accuracy can be
compromised by motion artifacts, signal interference and sensor position variability.
Further work is also needed in sensor technology and data processing algorithms.

• Data security and privacy: Wearables gather a lot of data on people, and this has
implications for privacy and security [47]. This paper highlights the need for
robust measures to protect this sensitive data. This includes the use of strong
encryption, secure storage of the data and clear guidelines on how access to and
use of the data will be done.

• User adoption and engagement: In order to achieve high adoption rates, wearables
must be easy to use, comfortable and attractive [46]. This means that design factors,
user interfaces and the overall user experience must be taken into consideration.

• Standardization: The current absence of standards in wearables limits the ability

to compare data and share information across different devices [46]. It is
important to establish industry standards for data and communication protocols.

• Technical challenges: There are some technical issues in the development of

wearable sensors such as mechanical impedance, noise, delamination and
stretching [48]. The human body is a dynamic system that poses several challenges.

This throws up several challenges that new materials, better fabrication techniques
and a better understanding of human physiology are needed to address. This is
because collaboration between stakeholders is a very vital factor in order to foster
innovation, to ensure ethical development of the devices as well as to ensure that they
are used properly. Wearable sensors are now available for purposes other than step
counting and are changing various aspects of life in various fields including sports,
entertainment, education and many other applications.
The use of wearable sensors is increasing and with this use comes societal implica-
tions. As these devices gather vast amounts of personal data, it is imperative that ethical
considerations are made and principles for development and implementation are
needed. The impact of wearables on productivity, privacy, autonomy and equality has
to be considered. There are, however, risks and issues that need to be dealt with in order
to really realize the opportunities that lie ahead with non-medical wearable sensors.

4. Traditional medical applications

4.1 Traditional medical applications of wearable sensors and devices

Wearable sensors have changed the healthcare sector by giving real-time monitor-
ing and feedback to patients. These devices are embedded with sensors and wireless
communication systems that provide real-time data to patients and doctors, which can
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help in decision-making in the management of the patient. This real-time capability

stems from specialized sensors capturing specific biosignals. Electrocardiogram
(ECG) sensors, for instance, use skin-contact electrodes to detect the electrical signals
generated by the heart’s depolarization and repolarization cycles, providing
diagnostic-quality rhythm information [2, 32]. Continuous glucose monitors (CGMs)
often utilize minimally invasive electrochemical sensors that measure glucose levels in
interstitial fluid via enzymatic reactions (e.g., using glucose oxidase) [4, 49]. The
acquired signals are amplified, filtered, digitized by analog-to-digital converters
(ADCs) and processed by an onboard microcontroller. Secure data transfer to patient
monitoring devices or healthcare platforms is crucial, typically achieved using pro-
tocols like BLE for personal devices or sometimes cellular communication for remote
patient monitoring systems [3, 6]. Such devices are thought to be crucial for new,
digital, preventive and personalized medicine. They are currently used for four main
purposes in healthcare:

• Monitoring: Gathering information from populations with respect to various

biophysical processes.

• Screening: The process of identifying specific conditions and people affiliated with
those conditions in a specific dataset.

• Detection: The use of wearable sensors in diagnosing given biomedical conditions

from wearable data.

• Prediction: The use of wearables in predicting different health states or the

progression of a given disease.

This section focuses on conventional medical applications of wearable sensors and

devices, including the control of chronic diseases, measurement of vital signs, specific
uses in cardiology and neurology and assistance for the elderly. It also describes the
drawbacks and promising aspects of this technology (Figure 6).

4.2 Chronic disease management

Wearable sensors are valuable assets in managing chronic diseases, providing real-
time and tailored feedback to patients. These devices offer real-time data that patients
and healthcare providers can use to monitor health parameters (e.g., heart rate, blood
pressure and blood glucose) and trends, enabling adjustments to management plans.
Research has shown that wearables enhance treatment outcomes and overall chronic
disease management [50]. Furthermore, remote patient monitoring with wearables
can improve home care effectiveness and potentially decrease hospital admissions.
Wearables also enhance patient engagement in chronic disease care and prevention
[51]. This contributes significantly to cost-effectiveness in healthcare [52].

4.3 Diabetes management

Continuous glucose monitors (CGMs) have transformed diabetes management by

providing real-time glucose readings without frequent finger-prick tests. These
devices use a small skin sensor to measure glucose levels from interstitial fluid, send-
ing data to a receiver like a mobile phone app. CGMs offer numerous advantages:
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Current Developments in Biosensors and Emerging Smart Technologies

Figure 6.
Applications of wearable sensors in healthcare. This illustration depicts various uses of wearable sensors, including
detecting sleep patterns, measuring respiratory intensity, monitoring blood pressure, detecting vascular infarction
and measuring body temperature. The central figure represents the integration of these sensors into a comprehensive
health monitoring system.

• Improved glycemic control: Helps maintain glucose levels within a target range
through feedback and alerts [53].

• Reduced hypoglycemia: Notifies users of low blood sugar risks, enabling preventive
action [54].

• Personalized treatment: Provides data for tailoring insulin regimens and other
treatments [49].

Examples include the Dexcom G7 and Abbott Freestyle Libre 2 [55, 56]. Figure 7
illustrates the typical architecture of a CGM system, showing the flow of data from the
sensor to the user and healthcare provider.

Figure 7.
A continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) system architecture. The diagram shows the data flow from the diabetic
patient’s glucose sensor, through a mobile application and data storage, to the doctor’s phone and monitoring
system.

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4.4 Cardiovascular disease management

Wearable sensors aid in cardiovascular disease management by tracking heart rate,

blood pressure and detecting irregular heartbeats through devices like smartwatches
with ECG (Electrocardiogram) capabilities (e.g., Apple Watch) [57]. Wearable blood
pressure monitors, such as the Omron HeartGuide, provide continuous monitoring for
hypertension control [58].

4.5 Respiratory disease management

Wearable sensors are used in managing respiratory conditions like asthma

and COPD by monitoring breathing rate, patterns and oxygen saturation. This
continuous tracking helps identify symptom worsening, allowing for early
intervention. Data collected by wearables aids healthcare providers in adjusting med-
ications [59].

4.6 Vital signs monitoring

Wearable sensors provide convenient, real-time and potentially continuous mea-

surements of vital signs. Wearable heart rate monitors typically use optical PPG
sensors, as described earlier, analyzing light modulation by blood flow [32, 60].
Respiratory rate is often tracked indirectly using accelerometers within IMUs to
measure chest wall movements associated with breathing or sometimes estimated
from modulations in PPG or ECG signals [3, 61]. Wearable temperature sensors,
commonly thermistors, provide real-time skin temperature data, which can indicate
trends related to fever or physiological stress [54]. Data from these sensors is usually
transmitted wirelessly via BLE [33].

4.7 Types of sensors used in medical wearables

Medical wearable devices monitor various body functions using different sensors,
including [62]:

• Accelerometers: Often part of an inertial measurement unit (IMU), these detect

linear acceleration resulting from movement or gravity. The signal originates
from the displacement of a proof mass within the sensor. In healthcare, this data
helps quantify physical activity levels, analyze gait, monitor sleep posture and
detect falls by identifying characteristic impact patterns [3].

• Heart rate sensors: Primarily use PPG technology, detecting volumetric changes in
blood circulation via optical means (light emission and detection) through the
skin. This allows continuous monitoring of heart rate and rhythm variability,
which is useful in cardiovascular health and fitness assessment [1, 32].

• ECG sensors: Measure the bioelectrical potentials generated by the heart muscle
using conductive electrodes placed on the skin. These provide detailed
information about heart rhythm and can detect arrhythmias, which is crucial for
diagnosing and managing heart conditions [2].

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Current Developments in Biosensors and Emerging Smart Technologies

• Blood oxygen sensors: Measure peripheral blood oxygen saturation (SpO2) using
pulse oximetry. This technique typically uses red and infrared LEDs and a
photodetector to measure the differential light absorption characteristics of
oxygenated versus deoxygenated hemoglobin pulsating within the arteries
[1, 32]. Useful in managing respiratory conditions and assessing overall
physiological status.

These integrated sensors provide users and doctors with a comprehensive over-
view of health status and conditions.

4.8 Kinds of wearable sensors and their applications

Wearable sensors come in various types and are used in different parts of the body,
depending on the specific health condition being monitored. Some key types of sen-
sors include [61]:

• Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs): These sensors, used in fitness trackers, track
and estimate data on the user’s sleep, activity and location.

• Electrochemical biosensors: These sensors monitor chemical levels in the body, such
as glucose levels in people with diabetes.

• Wearable electrodes: These sensors measure electrical activity in the body, such as
heart rhythms (ECG) or brain activity (EEG – electroencephalogram).

The table below provides a summary of different sensor types and their applica-
tions (Table 6).

4.9 Challenges and opportunities

While wearable sensors offer significant potential for improving healthcare, there
are also challenges that need to be addressed.

• Data accuracy and reliability: Correct sensor data is crucial for medical decisions.
Potential errors include sensor drift, motion artifacts, skin contact issues and
environmental conditions. Addressing these requires sensor calibration, signal
processing and validation studies [63].

• Data security and privacy: Protecting sensitive health data is paramount. This
involves strong encryption, data governance policies and informed consent [64].

Sensor type Application

Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs) Monitoring physical activity, sleep patterns and detecting falls

Electrochemical biosensors Monitoring glucose levels in individuals with diabetes

Wearable electrodes Measuring heart rhythms (ECG) and brain activity (EEG)

Table 6.
Wearable sensor types and applications.

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• User adoption and adherence: Engaging patients in continuous use is crucial.

Factors affecting adherence include device discomfort, ease of use, user
motivation, perceived usefulness and integration with daily activities.
Approaches include user-centered design and behavioral interventions [65].
• Interoperability and integration: Integrating wearable data with healthcare systems
and EHRs requires data standardization, exchange protocols and consistent
security controls among vendors and healthcare organizations [66].
Despite these challenges, the future of wearable sensors in healthcare is promising.
Developments in sensor technology, AI and data analysis create opportunities for
personalized healthcare, telemedicine and disease prediction [63]. An NIH study
demonstrated the potential of smartwatches to indicate inflammation through heart
rate changes, opening new possibilities for disease detection [60].

4.10 The future of wearable sensors in healthcare

Wearable sensors are rapidly transforming healthcare, and their impact is expected
to grow with advancements in:

• Miniaturization and comfort: Compact, non-stigmatizing and less intrusive

sensors will enhance user adoption, integrating seamlessly into daily life [49].

• Advanced sensing capabilities: New sensors and materials will enable the
monitoring of a wider range of physiological parameters and biomarkers,
providing comprehensive health insights [49].

• AI and machine learning: AI and machine learning algorithms will analyze

wearable sensor data, identifying patterns and predicting health outcomes [53].

• Integration with other technologies: Integration with VR and AR technologies will

create immersive healthcare experiences and improve patient engagement [53].

Wearable sensors are poised to transform healthcare by empowering individuals to

take control of their health and enabling personalized, proactive care.

5. Latest medical applications

Today, more and more sensors are used in new medical applications. Two recent
applications are introduced below.

5.1 Hospital caregivers turning immobile patients

In hospital and long-term care environments, patients often spend extended periods
of time lying in bed. After a long time lying in the same position, pressure ulcers can
start to form, which may cause pain, irritation, open wounds and infection if left
unattended. Pressure ulcers are sometimes referred to as bedsores or pressure sores [67].
As a result, many care homes and hospitals have implemented a policy of turning or
rolling a patient in their bed every 2 hours or so. This allows for better blood circulation,
decreasing the likelihood of adverse health effects. That being said, turning a patient in
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Current Developments in Biosensors and Emerging Smart Technologies

Figure 8.
Turning procedure.

their bed can often be a difficult task, and there are usually specific methods used by the
caregiver to make sure the patient stays safe throughout the process [68].
This method involves multiple steps. As shown in Figure 8, the first step is that the
patient should have their arm folded on shoulder and lie flat on back. The second step
is to have the patients’ legs bent slightly and turned halfway with a pillow under their
back. The last step would involve the patient being fully turned on their side with a
pillow between their thighs [69].
A new application is developed recently in order to assist and analyze the proper
patient turning process. The main goal of this project is to develop an automated solution
to monitor whether the caregiver is administering care according to the steps shown
above [70, 71]. To do this, the researchers used a Raspberry Pi and mounted a camera and
other sensors set up with OpenCV and MediaPipe Pose [72]. TensorFlow Lite was also
used to make the machine learning model. These three open-source libraries are available
in both Python and C++, which makes it more flexible although this project is done with
Python. The system allows the camera to recognize specific parts of the body, as well as
other objects such as pillows. These can then be used to judge whether or not a patient is in
the correct position during the process of being turned. The software can also qualitatively
judge each step for correctness and give visible feedback through the form of LED signals.
Figure 9 shows an example of how a person’s posture could be tracked using a set of
coordinates on the person’s notable extremities. Once all of the desired points are shown
on the screen, MediaPipe Pose will constantly track the person’s position and any changes
in it. There are three main steps for turning the patient. The first step involves folding one
arm to the opposite shoulder while the other arm remains straight, with both legs being
straight during the process. For the second step, the patient should rotate toward the side
on which the hand is straight for around 45  70 degrees, and both knees should be bent
while not being on top of each other. The pillow should be underneath the patient’s back
by the end of this step. For the final step, the patient should be fully rotated 90 degrees on
their side, their knees should be bent and the neck should remain straight. Knees and
ankles should be aligned vertically with the pillow in between.

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Figure 9.
Example of posture tracking using coordinates.

If each step is met without error, the green light lights up as an indication to the
caregiver that they can move to the next step. To define more rigorously how these
steps are met, for the first step, the distance between the palm and the shoulder would
be obtained to check if it is lower than the pre-defined distance. The elbow flexing
angle will be checked if it is between 35 degrees and 70 degrees to make sure the arm is
bending the way it should be. For the arm that should remain straight, it will be
checked if it has a flexing angle between 160 and 180 degrees (Figure 10). To take
uncertainties in posture into account, a buffer is put in to allow for some degree of
error. The last criterion for this step would be checking if the patient’s leg is straight.
The program will return a true value if the patient has a hip angle between 70 and 110
degrees and a leg angle of 160 to 180 degrees for both legs.
For the second step, both patient’s knees should be between 50 and 150 degrees
(Figure 11). The next criterion for success would be whether the patient is halfway
rotated, but there was no way to obtain the angle of the patient if the camera is
directly on top of them. To circumvent this, it is required to obtain the distance
between both sides of the patient’s shoulders and check whether it is greater than a
given distance. The next requirement is that the patient’s legs should not be stacked on
one another, so the distance between both sides of the elbows, knees and ankles
should be greater than the threshold previously trained, respectively. Lastly, since the

Figure 10.
Step 1: Prepare to turn.

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Current Developments in Biosensors and Emerging Smart Technologies

Figure 11.
Step 2: Half-turning.

Figure 12.
Step 3: Fully turned.

pillow needed to be placed behind the patient’s back, the coordinates of the pillows
were collected using an object detection algorithm and then checked whether they lay
around the back area of the patient. If all the criteria are satisfied, the LED for Step 2
will light up and the software will start detecting criteria for Step 3 (Figure 12).
For the last step, the first criterion to check is whether the person is rotated by 90
degrees. This was determined using the distance between both sides of the shoulders.
In this case, the distance should be below a threshold. The angle of the knees is also
checked to make sure they are bent and their range should be between 90 and 150
degrees. To check whether the patient’s neck is straight, the neck angle is obtained and
would only return true if it is between 150 and 210 degrees, such that the patient
would have some degree of freedom for their posture while keeping their neck as
straight as possible. Lastly, to make sure the pillow is within the patient’s thigh, the
coordinates of the pillow are obtained again and the program would check whether
the inner corners of the pillow are lying within the patient’s thigh by comparing the
coordinates of patient’s knee and heel with the pillow corners.

6. Fall prevention application

Falls are a significant public health concern, especially among seniors and older
adults, leading to severe injuries, decreased independence and increased healthcare
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Figure 13.
Intel realsense depth camera D435.

costs. Automated fall detection systems have emerged as a potential solution to address
this issue by detecting falls in real time and alerting caregivers or emergency services.
While traditional fall detection methods rely on wearable devices, challenges arise in
accurately detecting falls in complex environments. This application proposes a camera-
based analysis of human pose using the depth camera, such as Intel RealSense Depth
Camera D435 (Figure 13), with the assistance of wearable sensors to enhance the
accuracy and reliability of fall detection systems. The system can analyze human poses
in three-dimensional space. This depth-based analysis includes calculating the depth of
pose landmarks, estimating the body’s center of mass depth and tracking the velocity of
movement. The findings of this study contribute to the field of fall detection, offering
insights into the advantages of wearable sensors and camera-based analysis of human
pose and improving the safety of individuals at risk of falls [73].
The depth camera is utilized in this study, providing synchronized depth and color
frames that capture detailed scene depth information. By aligning the depth frames
with the corresponding color frames, a robust foundation for analyzing human poses
in three-dimensional space is established [74]. The potential of depth information to
improve the detection and tracking of human poses is investigated by leveraging the
integration of OpenCV, MediaPipe and Numpy libraries in Python.
Depth camera can be used in various situations and applications, such as hand pose
tracking in Augmented Reality [74]. To detect and track human poses, a pose module
and a depth gradient map module were created, utilizing the depth information to
enhance the accuracy of pose estimation. Characteristics, such as the depth of each
pose landmark and the approximate depth of the body’s center of mass, are calculated
and incorporated into the analysis. The detected poses, including the depth informa-
tion, coordinates and velocity of selected landmarks, are recorded in a structured
manner using a pandas data frame. This enables further analysis and facilitates the
future integration of machine learning techniques for fall detection.
A fall detection algorithm is proposed that utilizes the calculated features, such as
the depth of specific pose landmarks and the velocity of movement, as inputs to a
machine learning model. The features could be classified by the model, which is
trained on a labeled dataset of fall and non-fall samples, to detect and differentiate
falls from ordinary activities [73].
In order to accurately detect human position, a pose module and a depth gradient
map module were created and utilized by the depth-based fall detection system.
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Current Developments in Biosensors and Emerging Smart Technologies

The capturing of synchronized depth and color frames is done using the RealSense
camera, thereby providing comprehensive information for the analysis of human
poses in three-dimensional space.
Once the pose landmarks are detected in the color frames, the computation of a
depth gradient map using OpenCV takes place, which represents the variations in
depth values across the image. By the analysis of the depth gradients around each pose
landmark, the approximate depth in the scene is determined. For the calculation of the
depth of each pose landmark, consideration is given to the corresponding region in the
depth gradient map. The identification of the pixels with high-depth gradients around
a particular landmark allows for the inference of its depth relative to the camera.
Additionally, the estimation of the approximate depth of the body’s center of mass is
achieved by considering the combined information from multiple pose landmarks.
The tracking of the velocity of pose landmarks is performed over consecutive
frames in order to capture the dynamics of human movement. The calculation of the
displacement of each landmark between frames and the division of it by the time
interval allows the velocity vector to be obtained. Fall detection benefits from this
velocity information as it enables the analysis of abnormal motion patterns associated
with falling.
After recording a video using the D435 camera, individual frames of the video can
be manually assigned to specific states based on the pose of the person. This process
involves categorizing each frame into one of three distinct states: “safe,” “risky,” and
“fallen” (Figure 14). The “safe” state represents the condition in which the person is
standing in a normal position, exhibiting no immediate risk of falling over. In this
state, the individual’s posture and body alignment indicate a stable and secure stance.
The “risky” state corresponds to a precarious situation where the person is at a
heightened risk of losing balance and potentially experiencing a fall. Here, the pose
characteristics may include factors such as a significant shift in body weight, an
unsteady posture or an improper distribution of body mass. Lastly, the “fallen” state
denotes the occurrence of an actual fall event, indicating that the person has
completely lost balance and has fallen to the ground. The pose in this state typically
exhibits distinct patterns, such as a horizontal or near-horizontal alignment of the
body.
By systematically assigning frames to these different states, a large dataset com-
prising a wide range of fall and non-fall samples can be constructed. This dataset
serves as a valuable resource for training and evaluating machine learning algorithms
designed for fall detection. Each frame provides visual information that can be used to
extract meaningful features and patterns indicative of fall events.

Figure 14.
Frames are assigned special states.

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Figure 15.
System recognizing the state of falling by using trained dataset.

This dataset enables the development and refinement of machine learning models
that can accurately classify and differentiate between safe, risky and fallen states
based on visual cues. By training these models on a diverse set of real-world scenarios,
they can learn to generalize and identify potential fall events in various environments
and with different individuals.
By employing a camera-based approach for human pose analysis, significant fea-
tures and patterns that differentiate regular activities from fall events can be
extracted. Figure 13 shows the sample of recognition using the trained dataset. Fall
detection systems greatly benefit from visual analysis as it plays a vital role in
comprehending the dynamics and distinctive attributes of fall events. The technology
showcased in this study not only facilitates the creation of a comprehensive dataset
encompassing diverse fall and non-fall samples but also reinforces the importance of
visual analysis in advancing fall detection methodologies.
The implications of a depth-based analysis of human pose extend beyond fall
detection. This technology can be applied to activity recognition, gait analysis, reha-
bilitation monitoring and elderly care, among others. By understanding and
interpreting human pose visually, valuable insights can be extracted to support a
range of applications in healthcare, fitness and human-computer interaction
(Figure 15).
This depth-based analysis of human pose for fall detection presents a promising
approach to enhance safety and well-being. By leveraging advanced techniques, such
as machine learning, the accuracy, scalability and applicability of fall detection sys-
tems can be improved. This research contributes to the growing field of human pose
analysis and paves the way for advancements in safety, healthcare and quality of life.

7. Data collection method and machine learning using wearable sensor

In recent years, the use of machine learning has transformed numerous industries
and paved the way for groundbreaking innovations. Machine learning enables com-
puter systems to learn from data and make predictions or decisions without being
programmed to do so [76]. In the context of wearable sensors, machine learning is
primarily employed to automatically recognize patterns within the collected physio-
logical or motion data. These patterns can correspond to specific activities (like walk-
ing, running and sleeping), health events (like falls or cardiac arrhythmias) or user
states (like stress levels), enabling the device to provide meaningful feedback or alerts
[30, 71]. It provides valuable insights that have positioned them as powerful tools for
data-driven decision-making and automation.
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7.1 Data collection and transmission

Data collection is an essential component of the machine learning algorithms used

as predictive models such as patient falls mentioned above [77]. Machine learning
algorithms require large data sets to classify patterns related to risky or safe behavior,
which can be used to predict and prevent subsequent falls. For the Fall Prevention
Project mentioned above, data collection involves tracking the coordinate motion of a
watch prototype integrated with various wearable sensors.
The Fall Prevention Project aims to create a device that can help prevent falls by
using motion-detecting sensors and depth cameras coupled with machine learning
[78]. After data is collected, the device can be utilized to warn caretakers when
patients are at risk of falling before it happens. The device fabricated to accomplish
this is a wearable watch, composed of a microcontroller attached to an accelerometer
and gyroscope sensor. The watch collects coordinate data of the patient’s movements,
and from the data collected, a machine learning algorithm is implemented to identify
patterns and establish a predictive model.
The sensor used for this project is an MPU6050 accelerometer and gyroscope
(Figure 16), a sensor useful for applications that require accurate motion tracking and
orientation [78]. The MPU6050 was chosen for its low cost and low power require-
ments, requiring only 3.3 V of power and 3.6 mA of current while measurements are
being taken. The MPU6050 incorporates a gyroscope to measure rotation and angular
velocity around an axis and an accelerometer to track changes in velocity and orien-
tation of the device with respect to the earth’s surface. Altogether, this enables the
wearer to track complex motion in 3D space. In the context of the Fall Prevention
Project, the sensor is principally employed to quantify the position of the wristwatch
along the x, y and z axes.
The gyroscope relies on the ESP8266 Wi-Fi microchip for data transmission. The
Wi-Fi microchip is coded using the Arduino framework to transmit data over the local
internet network onto a device such as a laptop. From the user’s device, the data can
be formatted, stored and manipulated. The circuitry is integrated with a rechargeable
3.3 V battery into a 3D-printed watch with an adjustable wrist strap designed to
accommodate a range of wrist sizes (Figure 17).

Figure 16.
MPU6050 accelerometer and gyroscope.

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Figure 17.
A wrist-attachment prototype watch with multi-sensors.

7.2 Machine learning models

The use of machine learning has accelerated growth in various fields and one of the
fields that has benefited the most is medicine. For example, the use of machine
learning algorithms to analyze medical data collected by sensors acquired above has
produced significant technological advances that have improved patient care and
hospital processes [76].
Below four commonly used methods used in machine learning that have proven to
be highly effective in a variety of applications will be discussed. By exploring these
methods, we gain insight into the diverse techniques employed in machine learning
and their practical implementation.

7.2.1 Linear Regression

Linear regression is one of the most commonly understood techniques used for
machine learning. A very simple linear regression model consists of one input variable
(x) and one output variable (y). By plotting each data point on a set of axes, a “line of
best fit” may be drawn through the data (Figure 18). Subsequently, one may predict
the value of the output variable (y) for any given input (x). Fundamentally, linear
regression seeks to model the linear relationship between a dependent output variable
and one or more independent input variables by finding the best-fitting straight line
(or hyperplane) through the data points. This method is particularly useful in wear-
able applications for predicting continuous physiological parameters where a linear
relationship with sensor features (like signal characteristics) is assumed or approxi-
mated. For example, linear regression models have been developed to estimate blood
pressure variations based on features extracted from photoplethysmography (PPG)
signals obtained from smartwatches [79].
One particular application of this approach that is more commonly used is least
squares regression. Minimizing the sum of the squared residuals (distance from the
line of best fit) allows the computer to determine the best internal parameters for the
computer to classify future data.

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Current Developments in Biosensors and Emerging Smart Technologies

Figure 18.
Simplified linear regression model.

In practice, linear regression usually contains a combination of input variables,

which allows for greater complexity in the fitting process for the line of best fit. There
are also numerous more optimization methods to improve internal parameters; how-
ever, the basis of linear regression remains the same.

7.2.2 QDA

Quadratic discriminant analysis follows a very similar premise to linear regression,

with the main difference being the relationship of the input to the output variable.
While linear regression assumes a linear relationship between input and output vari-
ables, QDA assumes a quadratic relationship. Quadratic discriminant analysis is a
probabilistic classification algorithm. It assumes that the measurements from each
class (e.g., “walking” and “running”) are drawn from a Gaussian distribution and
calculates a quadratic decision boundary between classes. Unlike linear discriminant
analysis (LDA), QDA does not assume that the covariance matrices of the classes are
equal, allowing for more flexible, curved boundaries. This characteristic makes QDA
potentially advantageous for classifying sensor data where the separation between
different activities or health states in the feature space is inherently non-linear, such as
in complex human activity recognition (HAR) tasks using inertial sensors [80, 81].
More specifically, it assumes a Gaussian distribution of the data and formulates a
curve to fit the data as best as possible (Figure 19). As a result, the “line of best fit”
starts assuming a “curve of best fit.” One advantage of this approach over linear
regression is its precision. For data that do not possess any sort of natural association
or contain a lot of outliers, a curve of best fit would be more appropriate to classify it.
One downside of it is its computational complexity compared to linear regression.

7.2.3 kNN

The k-Nearest Neighbors algorithm is a technique that uses proximity to determine

the classification of a new data point. Selecting the k-nearest neighbors (where k is
some constant) and seeing where the larger proportion of neighbors are classified
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Figure 19.
Quadratic discriminant analysis (QDA) model.

Figure 20.
Simplified k-nearest neighbors (kNN) algorithm.

allows the computer to find the appropriate classification for that new data point
(Figure 20). The core principle of kNN is “feature similarity”: it classifies a new data
point based on the majority class among its “k” nearest neighbors in the multi-
dimensional feature space. The “nearness” is typically measured using a distance
metric, like Euclidean distance, calculated on features extracted from the sensor data
(e.g., mean acceleration, signal variance and frequency components). kNN is rela-
tively simple to implement and is often used as a baseline or effective method for tasks
like classifying different types of physical activities (walking, running and cycling)
based on patterns observed in accelerometer and gyroscope data collected from a
wearable device. Due to its relative simplicity and reliance on feature similarity, kNN
is often effective for tasks like classifying different types of physical activities (walk-
ing, running and cycling) based on IMU data [82] or distinguishing between sleep and
wake states using wrist-worn accelerometer signals [83]. More specifically, the dis-
tance to each neighbor from the unclassified data point is stored in a list, which is
subsequently sorted in ascending order. Some variations of the algorithm may also

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Current Developments in Biosensors and Emerging Smart Technologies

assign additional weight to each category based on the relative proximity of each data
point to another.

7.2.4 Unsupervised Learning

Training a “custom model” is also a very widely used technique within machine
learning. However, it is notably more abstract than the other three methods outlined
above. It involves providing data to the computer with no explicit labels or informa-
tion about the expected output, which is characterized by the lack of a training set.
The computer then performs complex processing tasks to uncover hidden patterns in
the data and perform its own categorization (Figure 21). Unlike the supervised
methods above, unsupervised learning algorithms work with unlabeled data, seeking
to uncover inherent structures or groupings within it. Common techniques include
clustering (like k-means), which groups similar data points together and anomaly
detection, which identifies data points that deviate significantly from the norm. In
wearables, unsupervised learning might be used to automatically discover different
types of activities performed by a user without pre-defined labels, cluster users based
on their long-term behavior patterns derived from sensor data or detect unusual
physiological readings (e.g., an unexpected heart rate spike during rest) that could
indicate a potential health issue [84]. Similarly, clustering algorithms can automati-
cally group segments of sensor data corresponding to distinct, potentially unknown,
user activities or behavioral states, enabling personalized activity model discovery
from long-term wearable recordings [85].
One notable drawback of unsupervised learning is that it is much more computa-
tionally intensive compared to supervised learning techniques and usually requires
more time to uncover the patterns hidden in the data.
As we move forward, it is crucial to harness the full potential of machine learning
while ensuring responsible practices and ethical considerations. By doing so, we can
unlock even greater possibilities for innovation, discovery and societal impact, ulti-
mately improving the way we interact with visual data and transforming numerous
fields for the better.

8. Future of wearable sensors

Wearable sensors have changed from the basic devices that could measure physical
parameters such as steps taken and heart rate to devices that can monitor different

Figure 21.
Unsupervised learning visual aid.

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aspects of a person’s physical and environmental conditions. This change has been
facilitated by the improvement in materials science, microelectronics and data analy-
sis to create new opportunities in healthcare, fitness and interaction between human
and machine. This chapter looks at the future of wearable sensors, with emphasis on
the present and the emerging trends. This chapter is a review of the current literature
on the future of wearable sensors.

8.1 Current trends in wearable sensor technology

The development of wearable sensor technology is still ongoing and more so in

terms of making the devices smaller, more accurate and multifunctional. The follow-
ing table illustrates some of the key trends (Table 7).

8.2 Emerging technologies and applications

The following are some of the emerging technologies that are shaping the future of
wearable sensors:

Trend Description Applications

Skin-like sensors Researchers are developing sensors that Continuous health monitoring, athletic
mimic the properties of human skin, performance tracking and medical
allowing for comfortable and unobtrusive diagnostics
monitoring of various biomarkers. These
sensors can conform to the body’s contours
and measure temperature, pressure, strain
and even biomolecules like glucose and
lactate [86].

E-tattoos Ultrathin, skin-soft electronics that can Telemedicine, mobile health, human-
noninvasively and accurately digitize machine interactions
physiological and psychological
information from the human body without
compromising comfort or mobility. They
can perform a wide range of functions,
including sensing, wound healing and
energy harvesting [45].

Smart contact Smart contact lenses are transforming Continuous health monitoring, diagnosis
lenses ocular health management and disease and management of ophthalmic,
monitoring. The integration of sensors and metabolic and neurological diseases
wireless communication within these
lenses enables continuous health
monitoring [87].

Wearable sweat Wearable sweat sensors continuously and Personalized health monitoring, precision
sensors noninvasively monitor health indicators medicine
through sweat [88].

Haptic Human- HHMIs enhance how we interact with Immersive experiences in the metaverse,
Machine machines and robots by combining tactile robotics and interactive devices
Interfaces sensation with haptic feedback [89].
(HHMIs)

Table 7.
Current trends in wearable sensor technology.

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Current Developments in Biosensors and Emerging Smart Technologies

• Artificial Intelligence (AI): AI, particularly machine learning and deep learning
models (like convolutional neural networks – CNNs and recurrent neural
networks – RNNs/LSTMs), will increasingly analyze the large, complex datasets
generated by wearable sensors to provide highly personalized insights,
sophisticated pattern recognition and predictive capabilities. These advanced
algorithms can automatically learn relevant features from raw time-series sensor
data, enabling more accurate detection of subtle health changes (e.g., early
disease onset prediction) or nuanced activity classification compared to
traditional methods [29, 30]. For instance, AI can be employed in the analysis of
sensor data in order to identify the onset of a disease or the likelihood of an injury
in athletes.

• Bioresorbable electronics: These transient electronic systems are able to erode,

degrade or cease to exist at certain rates [90] once they are deployed for their
purpose. This technology may hold promise to change the current implantable
medical devices that require surgical removal. For instance, bioresorbable sensors
could be used to assist with the healing process after surgery and then disappear
once they are no longer required.

• Flexible and stretchable electronics: This has only been made possible due to the
development of sensor that can be incorporated in clothing, bandages and even
implanted in the body [91]. These flexible and stretchable electronics offer new
opportunities for conventional and non-invasive health care management. For
instance, electronic textiles integrated with sensors can monitor the various vital
signs and give instant feedback on physical activities.

• New materials: The production of wearable sensors has been backed up by the
research of gold nanoparticles, graphene pellets that have been treated with
antibodies and artificial DNA [92]. These materials can enhance the sensor
sensitivity, enabling the detection of a larger number of biomarkers with higher
sensitivity.

• Energy harvesting: This chapter presents a review of the current research into the
use of ambient energy sources to power wearable sensors such as body heat,
movement and sunlight [93]. This could mean that there will be no need for
batteries, hence making the wearable sensors more convenient and sustainable.
For instance, mechanical stress of body movement can be employed in the
generation of electricity using piezoelectric materials.

These emerging technologies are paving the way for a wide range of new applica-
tions for wearable sensors, including:

• Preventive medicine: By enabling continuous monitoring of various physiological

parameters, wearable sensors play a crucial role in preventive medicine, allowing
for the early detection of diseases before symptoms become apparent. For
example, they can be utilized to identify precursors or early indicators of
conditions such as heart disease, diabetes and potentially certain cancers [94].
A specific application involves individuals at risk for cardiac arrhythmias using
wearables for extended periods to record infrequent episodes that might be
missed during standard clinical evaluations. This capability supports a paradigm
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shift in healthcare, moving the focus from merely extending “life expectancy”
toward enhancing “health expectancy” through proactive health management.

• Personalized medicine: Wearable sensors can help track people’s response to drugs
and treatments and thus help in the development of better care plans and treatment
outcomes [95]. Wearable sensors are useful to monitor the levels of drugs in the
body and thus help with individualized drug delivery and treatment monitoring.

• Remote patient monitoring: Wearable sensors can assist healthcare providers in

patient care at the patient’s home or in the community, thus reducing the number
of hospital admissions [96].

• Sport and fitness: Wearable sensors can furnish the sportsperson and the fitness
enthusiasts with elaborate information about their performance which can go a
long way in improving their training and minimizing on injuries. But, it is crucial
to consider the negative effect of peer comparison of activity information [97].
While some people may be encouraged by the comparison of their performance
with others, others may be demoralized and this may slow them down.

• Human-computer interaction: Wearable sensors can be used to control other

electronic devices for instance smartphones and computers, through gestures and
movements [98]. This technology can enhance the accessibility to individuals
with disabilities and open new possibilities of human interactions in virtual and
augmented reality.

8.3 Challenges and future directions

Despite the rapid progress in wearable sensor technology, several challenges

remain:

• Data security and privacy: Wearable sensors collect sensitive personal data, raising
concerns about data security and privacy. Robust security measures and ethical
guidelines are needed to protect user data and ensure responsible use of this
technology. In addition to security measures, there is a need for expertise in data
management and analysis, as well as the development of user-friendly
visualization tools to make the data accessible and understandable to both users
and healthcare providers [99].

• User acceptance: The widespread adoption of wearable sensors depends on user

acceptance. Devices need to be comfortable, easy to use and provide meaningful
insights to encourage long-term use. Concerns about the accuracy of wearables
and the complexity of some devices can also influence user adoption.
Importantly, user perceptions of wearables are context-dependent and can be
influenced by both internal and external factors [100]. Personalized feedback
and support from wearables can improve user engagement and long-term
adherence.

• Accessibility: Equitable access to wearable technology is crucial. Concerns about

the cost of wearables and the need for smartphones to interpret data can create

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Current Developments in Biosensors and Emerging Smart Technologies

barriers for some individuals [101]. Addressing these accessibility concerns is

essential to ensure that the benefits of wearable sensors are available to everyone.

• Integration with existing healthcare systems: The integration of wearable sensor data
into the current healthcare settings can be quite complex. The need for
standardization of data and interchangeable software is therefore important in
order to facilitate data collection and analysis. However, it is also important for
healthcare providers to be trained and supported to be able to work with the
wearable sensor data in clinical practice.

The future of wearable sensors depends on overcoming these challenges and the
progress in the field of material science, microelectronics and data analysis. With the
continuation of the development of these technologies, wearable sensors will become
an inseparable part of people’s lives, changing the field of healthcare, sports and
human-machine interfaces. Wearable sensors are not new; we have been using simple
wearable devices like pedometers and heart rate monitors for a long time. The devel-
opment of materials science, microelectronics and data analysis has led to the creation
of sophisticated devices that can track numerous parameters of a person’s physiolog-
ical and environmental state. This technology has the potential to change the fields of
healthcare, fitness and human-computer interaction. Some issues that still exist
include: security of data, acceptance of the device by the users and the existing
healthcare systems. Improvement, therefore, is anticipated in the development of
wearable sensor technologies with better technologies, designs and concepts in the
future. Wearable sensors can empower people by providing them with individualized
support and encouragement, active involvement in the self-care process and better
health outcomes [102]. In the future, wearable sensors will become even more wide-
spread and interconnected with people’s lives. In the next update:

• Increased personalization: Wearable sensors will become increasingly

personalized, providing tailored insights and recommendations based on
individual needs and preferences.

• Seamless integration: Wearable sensors will be seamlessly integrated with other

technologies, such as smartphones, smart homes and even implanted medical
devices.

• Expanded applications: Wearable sensors will find new applications in areas such
as education, workplace safety and environmental monitoring.

Nevertheless, it is crucial to consider the ethical, social and economic implications

of this technology. As wearable sensors become more sophisticated and collect more
data, issues regarding privacy, data ownership and potential prejudice will be raised. It
is crucial to make sure that the creation and application of wearable sensor technology
are conducted ethically and in the best interest of people and the society.

9. Conclusions

Wearable sensor technology has been introduced to the public with simple devices
like step counters and heart rate monitors. As this chapter shows, they are now fit to
40
Wearable Sensors and Devices: Enhancing Human Life
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.1010293

monitor and analyze many different types of physiological, environmental and

motion-related data that hold a vast potential to transform healthcare, fitness and
many other areas of life. This chapter has also established that wearable sensors are
helping caregivers in hospitals, preventing falls and improving workplace safety. The
integration of machine learning is an additional asset that enhances the capabilities of
these devices and has the potential to create even more innovative solutions in the
future.
On the other hand, the development of wearable sensor technology is accompanied
by several problems. It is important to address data accuracy, security and privacy
issues as well as other factors such as user adoption, accessibility and compatibility
with existing systems. As we work to overcome these challenges and promote sus-
tainable innovation, wearable sensors can help revolutionize our lives and create a
future in which technology is an integral part of our lives.

Author details

Chris Cheng Zhang1*, Mark Yining Liu2, Sky Yangziming Han3, Amirreza Sedaghat4,
Kevin Zhang5 and Haoyang Wang1

1 Cansight Technology Corp., Vancouver, Canada

2 University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada

3 A.R. MacNeil Secondary School, Richmond, Canada

4 Cansight Technology Corp., Toronto, Canada

5 University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

© 2025 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0),
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited.
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Current Developments in Biosensors and Emerging Smart Technologies

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