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Journal Pre-proofs

Review on Spintronics: Principles and Device Applications

Atsufumi Hirohata, Keisuke Yamada, Yoshinobu Nakatani, Lucian Prejbeanu,

Bernard Diény, Philipp Pirro, Burkard Hillebrands

PII: S0304-8853(20)30235-3
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmmm.2020.166711
Reference: MAGMA 166711

To appear in: Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials

Received Date: 28 January 2020

Revised Date: 4 March 2020
Accepted Date: 7 March 2020

Please cite this article as: A. Hirohata, K. Yamada, Y. Nakatani, L. Prejbeanu, B. Diény, P. Pirro, B. Hillebrands,
Review on Spintronics: Principles and Device Applications, Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials
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 Review on Spintronics:
Principles and Device Applications

Atsufumi Hirohata,1) Keisuke Yamada,2) Yoshinobu Nakatani,3) Lucian Prejbeanu,4) Bernard

Diény,4) Philipp Pirro 5) and Burkard Hillebrands 5)

1) Department of Electronic Engineering, University of York, York YO10 5DD, United Kingdom
2) Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Science, Gifu University, Gifu 501-1112, Japan
3) Graduate School of Informatics and Engineering, University of Electro-Communications,
Chofu 182-8585, Japan
4) Spintec, CEA, 17 rue des Martyrs, 38054 Grenoble Cedex 9, France
5) Fachbereich Physik and Landesforschungszentrum OPTIMAS, Technische Universität
Kaiserslautern, 67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany

Abstract
Spintronics is one of the emerging fields for the next-generation nanoelectronic devices to
reduce their power consumption and to increase their memory and processing capabilities.
Such devices utilise the spin degree of freedom of electrons and/or holes, which can also
interact with their orbital moments. In these devices, the spin polarisation is controlled either
by magnetic layers used as spin-polarisers or analysers or via spin-orbit coupling. Spin
waves can also be used to carry spin current. In this review, the fundamental physics of these
phenomena is described first with respect to the spin generation methods as detailed in
Sections 2 ~ 9. The recent development in their device applications then follows in Sections
10 and 11. Future perspectives are provided at the end.

–1–
List of Abbreviations
1D one-dimensional
2D two-dimensional
2DEG two-dimensional electron gas
3D three-dimensional
AB Aharonov-Bohm
AEE anomalous Ettingshausen effect
AF antiferromagnetic, antiferromagnet
Alq3 tris(8-hydroxyquinolinato) aluminium
AMR anisotropic magnetoresistance
ANE anomalous Nernst effect
ARPES angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy
ASS Altshuler-Aronov-Spivak
BLS Brillouin light scattering
CIMS current-induced magnetisation switching
CIP current in the plane
CPP current perpendicular to the plane
CuPc copper phthalocyanine
DMI Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya interaction
DMS dilute magnetic semiconductor
DOS density of states
DRAM dynamic random access memory
DW domain wall
EDL electric double layer
EL electroluminescence
F fabrication rule
FET field effect transistor
FM ferromagnetic, ferromagnet
FMR ferromagnetic resonance
GMR giant magnetoresistance
HAMR heat-assisted magnetic recording
HDD hard disk drive
HM heavy metal
HMF half-metallic ferromagnet
LED light emitting diode
LLG Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert
LSMO LaxSr1-xMnO3
MAMR microwave-assisted magnetic recording
MCD magnetic circular dichroism
MO magneto-optical
MOS metal-oxide-semiconductor
MRAM magnetic random access memory
MTJ magnetic tunnel junction
MWCNT multi-walled carbon nanotube
NM non-magnetic, non-magnet
NOL nano-oxide layers
p-MTJ perpendicularly-magnetised magnetic tunnel junction
PSA perpendicular shape anisotropy
Py permalloy
QW quantum well
RA resistance-area product
ReRAM resistive random access memory

–2–
RM racetrack memory
RT room temperature
SAW surface acoustic wave
SC semiconducting, semiconductor
SET single electron transistor
SOT spin-orbit-torque
SP-STM spin-polarised scanning tunnelling microscopy
SQUID superconducting quantum interference device
SRAM static random access memory
SOT spin-orbit torque
STO spin-torque oscillator
STT spin-transfer torque
TAMR tunnelling anisotropic magnetoresistance
TI topological insulator
TMR tunnelling magnetoresistance
TR-MOKE time-resolved magneto-optical Kerr effect
VCMA voltage induced change of magnetic anisotropy
VCSEL vertical cavity surface emitting laser
YIG yttrium iron garnets

–3–
1. Introduction
For nano- and microscale devices and systems, the magnetics community has benefitted
from the development of nanofabrication techniques in the semiconductor area, such as
electron-beam lithography and Ar-ion milling. Even so, these two worlds have different
advantages and disadvantages as listed in Fig. 1. As an example of magnetic devices and
systems utilising a spin quantum number, a hard disk drive (HDD) has been invented by IBM
in 1956, which currently has a global market revenue of approximately $11bn in 2018 (376m
units shipped in 2018) [1]. Another field of applications is the one of magnetic field sensors,
with a market revenue of ~ $19b in 2018 [2]. On the other hand, the field of semiconductor
devices has a much larger market of ~ $469b in 2018 [3] which has been originally proposed
by Lilienfeld and demonstrated [4] by the invention of the transistor (transport resistor) by the
Bell Laboratory in 1947 [5].

Fig. 1 Comparison between magnetic and semiconducting materials.

For magnetic devices and systems, their electron transport properties are strongly
dependent on the atomic smoothness of their surfaces and interfaces, while for
semiconducting devices and systems, their transport properties are controlled by a depletion
layer, which can be intrinsically formed at their interfaces against a metallic layer with the
thickness between a few nm (e.g., InAs) and a few µm (e.g., Si and GaAs) for moderate
doping without a gate bias application. For a ferromagnetic (FM), non-magnetic (NM) and
semiconducting (SC) material, spin diffusion lengths are typically ~ 5, ~ 300 and ~ 1,000 nm.
For electron transport, the magnetic materials have a low resistivity of the order of (10–7 ~
10–8) m, while semiconductors with moderate doping or undoped have a higher resistivity
of the order of (10–5 ~ 108) m at room temperature (RT). The key parameters to

–4–
characterise the device and system performance are spin polarisation and doping density.
The spin polarisation determines the efficiency of the spin-polarised electron transport, while
the doping density controls the resistivity and spin diffusion length. Spin-transport can also
be achieved using magnons, the elementary quanta of spin waves [6],[7]. This can be
realized using magnetic insulators, such as yttrium iron garnets (YIG), with lower losses than
in metallic systems where electron current always generate Joule dissipation (see Section
5.3 for more details).

1.1. Magnetic length scale

The typical length scales of magnetic devices and systems are listed in Fig. 2. Spin
polarisation is transferred either by conduction electrons in a conductor or spin-wave
propagation across local magnetic moments in an insulator. In bulk magnets, the dipolar
(demagnetising) field from the edges of the sample plays an important role, which quite
frequently causes the breaking up of the magnetisation into domains [8]. The size ddomain of
the domains can range between tens of nanometres and micrometres or even millimetres
depending on the materials. These domains are separated by domain walls whose width
results from a tradeoff between exchange energy (characterised by the stiffness constant: A)
and anisotropy energy (characterised by anisotropy energy per unit volume). The domain
wall width can range from tens of nanometres to microns. When the size of the system is
sufficiently reduced, the exchange interaction plays a dominant role and results in a single-
domain state. The whole magnetisation is then aligned along the global easy axis defined by
the magnetic anisotropy, including the shape anisotropy. Magnetic distortions may still exist
at the edges of the device on a length scale called the exchange length which results from
the trade-off between exchange energy (A) and magnetostatic energy (𝜇0𝑀2s). This exchange
length is typically of the order of a few nm in materials such as Co or NiFe. From electronic
transport point of view, two main length scales exist: the elastic mean free path which is the
distance over which an electron can travel without being scattered. This length is spin-
dependent in magnetic material and can range from a fraction of nanometre to several tens
of nanometres. Another important length is the spin diffusion length which is the distance
over which an electron can keep the memory of its spin. This length can vary from a
nanometre in material with high spin orbit to a few hundred of nanometres or even more in
non-magnetic materials with weak spin orbit.

–5–
Fig. 2 Typical magnetic length scales and development of magnetic storage devices. After
Ref. [9].

It is interesting to correlate these length scales with characteristic length scales

encountered in the development of magnetic storage and non-volatile memory technology.
Magnetic media from tapes to hard disk drives are made of granular ferromagnetic materials
in which the grains are single domain and essentially uncoupled. The information (0 or 1) is
written in the form of magnetic domains (the bits) magnetised in one direction or the opposite
one along the easy axis of anisotropy. These domains involve bunch of tens or hundreds of
grains. Increasing the areal storage density in these media has consisted in reducing the
grain size from microns in audio tapes to a few nanometres in state-of-the-art hard disk
drives. This required increasing the media magnetic anisotropy to maintain thermal stability
of the magnetization of the individual grains. Magnetic random access memory (MRAM) is a
solid state memory. They are made of patterned magnetic tunnel junctions. Each bit is an
individual tunnel junction. The storage layer does not have then to be granular as in recording
media. In state of the art MRAM, the storage layer of each magnetic tunnel junction (MTJ)
has a typical thickness between 1.4 and 2nm and the MTJ is patterned in the form of a
cylinder of diameter in the range 20 ~ 50 nm.

–6–
 If the device considered lenthscale is smaller than the spin diffusion length, the electron
spin is preserved. In the regime where the considered length scale is much smaller than the
mean free path of the electrons (in mesoscopic systems), the electron momentum is also
preserved during transport (ballistic regime). One of the ultimate goals of spintronics is to
realise quantum functionalities using the long spin coherence length in a SC. For the first
step, spin-polarised three-terminal devices, which eventually lead to a single electron
transistor (SET) [10], providing fundamental data processing with a single electron, have also
been widely studied.

1.2. Spin generation

Spin-polarised electrons can be generated in NM materials using the following methods
[9]: spin injection from a FM, a magnetic field, an electric field, electromagnetic wave
introduction, Zeeman splitting, spin motive force, a thermal gradient and mechanical rotation
(see Fig. 3). One of the most common methods is spin injection from a FM material, e.g.,
conventional FM metals (Fe, Co, Ni and Gd), half-metallic ferromagnets (HMF) and dilute
magnetic semiconductors (DMS), attached to a NM metal or SC through an ohmic contact
or a tunnel barrier. A stray field at the edge of a FM can also be used to induce a population
difference in spin-polarised electrons in a NM material. Electromagnetic wave, e.g., circularly
polarised light and microwave, excites spin-polarised electrons in SC, dependent upon an
optical selection rule. The reverse effect generates circularly polarised light emission by a
spin-polarised electron current. This can be extended further to spin generation by
electromagnetic waves, including spin pumping and high-frequency spin induction. In
addition, a thermal gradient has been found to produce spin-polarised carrier flow due to the
spin Seebeck and Nernst effects etc., which can be useful for energy harvesting.

–7–
Fig. 3 Schematic diagram of major methods to generate a spin-polarised current. After Ref.
[9].

In spintronics [9],[11], the spin-current generation efficiency is the most critical figure of
merit for device applications [12]. The generation efficiency (𝜂) can typically be defined as
the generated spin current per unit energy introduced. For instance, when the spin current is
produced from a charge current by spin Hall effect, a charge to spin current conversion
effficieny is defined by the ratio between the electron-spin-current density generated (js)
divided by the electron-charge-current density introduced (jc): 𝜂 = js / jc [13]. Here, js is
commonly deduced from a measured voltage and its magnitude is dependent upon the
theoretical model exploited to interpret it. In some devices with a current flowing in the plane,
e.g., devices used for spin-orbit torque, spin-torque ferromagnetic resonance and spin Hall
measurements, it is very difficult to measure js and is widely known that js is assumed using
models, such as parallel conduction, leading to overestimation of 𝜂. As can be seen in Table
1, a series of spin-current generation methods without using systems including interfaces
have much higher efficiency than those with interfaces, which is favourable for device
applications. For example, an interface between a FM and a NM for spin generation by spin-
orbit effects and electromagnetic wave applications is limited by their efficiency to be ~ 20%
[17],[21] although 𝜂 is expected to reach ~100% in a magnetic tunnel junction with coherent
tunnelling across a MgO barrier in theory. Note that in Ref. [21], the efficiency is calculated
as a ratio between the absorbed and introduced microwave power, which can provide an

–8–
indicative efficiency. This is predominantly due to the interfacial spin scattering by the
presence of defects and contaminations. By utilising a highly spin-polarised FM, such as a
half-metallic Heusler alloy, the efficiency can be increased up to almost 30% to date [14].
However, scattering asymmetry can increase the effective spin polarisation in FM, e.g., 94%
reported at a Co/Ni interface [25]. Further increase in efficiency up to 100% using coherent
tunnelling with a MgO barrier has been theoretically predicted [15],[16].

Table 1 List of spin-current generation efficiency using various methods. After Ref. [12].
Efficiency
Method System Reference
()
Lateral spin-valve:
27% [14]
Electrical spin Co2FeSi/Cu/Co2FeSi
generation (Coherent tunnelling in a magnetic 100%
[15],[16]
tunnel junction) (theory)
Spin Hall: Pt0.85Hf0.15 (5.5)/Pt (0.5)/Co
(23 ± 2)% [17]
(1) (nm)
Spin-orbit effects Topological insulator: (Bi1-xSbx)2Te3 45 ~ 57%
[18]
thin films (max)
Quantum spin Hall: HgTe/(Hg,Cd)Te 100% [19]
Electric field (Interfacial band changes under a
N/A [20]
application field)
Electromagnetic
Spin pumping: Y3Fe5O12/Pt ~ 20% [21]
wave application
(Intrinsic Zeeman splitting at low
Spin-band splitting N/A [22]
temperature)
Influence of thermal
Pt/Ni0.2Zn0.3Fe2.5O4 film 10-3% [23]
gradient
(Geometrical phase introduced by a 100%
Geometrical phase [24]
field) (theory)
(Electrical motor for mechanical
Mechanical rotation N/A [11]
rotation)

On the other hand, 100% generation efficiency of spin currents is predicted to occur in NM
materials under certain conditions [23]. For example, a topological insulator is experimentally
demonstrated to generate a spin current with 𝜂 to be up to ~ 60% [18]. This is the maximum
value reported to date but it is under debate [24]. A mechanically-induced spin current to be
generated in a NM with a large spin-orbit coupling is also expected to have a high efficiency
of up to 100% in theory [11], which is governed by the efficiency of the electrical motor to
rotate an object [26]. It is therefore important to discuss the spin-current generation efficiency
of each method in details. Some of the systems may be difficult to be realised experimentally
but they may hold the key for the future design of spintronic applications. These
developments in spintronic phenomena and devices are listed in Fig. 4.

–9–
– 10 –
Fig. 4 Historical development of spintronic phenomena and devices.

2. Electrical Spin Generation

Spin-polarised electrons (and/or holes) can be injected into a NM material by flowing an
electrical current from a FM material. This is the most commonly used method for spin
generation demonstrated by tunnelling magnetoresistance (TMR) in 1975 [27], giant
magnetoresistance (GMR) in 1988 [28],[29] and Johnson transistor in 1993 [30], initiating the
research on magnetotranport. The magnetotransport is categorised as the first generation of
spintronics, which has been invented by abbreviating spin electronics in 2001 [31]. The
injection efficiency depends on the spin polarisation of the FM and the spin scattering at the
FM/NM interface. It is also important to eliminate any other effects, namely a stray field from
a FM, which distorts the estimation of the injection efficiency.

2.1. Tunnelling magnetoresistance

Resistance changes associated with the magnetic configuration have been demonstrated
in MTJ at low temperature as schematically shown in Fig. 5 [27]. TMR at RT has then be
achieved by Miyazaki [32] and Moodera [33] independently. Since then, the TMR ratio has
been improved very rapidly to 81% in a MTJ consisting of Co0.4Fe0.4B0.2 (3)/Al (0.6)-
Ox/Co0.4Fe0.4B0.2 (2.5) (thickness in nm) at RT [34]. Here, the TMR ratio can be defined as
[27]
TMR ratio = 2P1P2/(1-P1P2), (1)
where PFM1 and PFM2 are the spin polarisation of the FM1 and FM2 layers, respectively which
are defined as:
𝑁majority ― 𝑁minority
𝑃 = 𝑁majority + 𝑁minority, (2)

By replacing amorphous AlOx with epitaxial MgO, theoreticians have predicated over 1,000%
TMR ratios due to coherent tunnelling at an Fe/MgO interface [15],[16]. The Fe/MgO (and
CoFeB/MgO as later discovered) interface connects their 1 bands smoothly but not the other
bands, e.g., 2 and 5. Since the 1 bands are 100% spin polarised in Fe and CoFe alloys,
this allows the electrons to tunnel through the MgO barrier with an almost half metallic
character yielding the very high TMR amplitude observed in MgO-based MTJs. For the
coherent tunnelling, P1(2) can be 100%, leading to the TMR ratio of infinity. Experimentally,
giant TMR ratios have been reported by Parkin [35] and Yuasa [36] independently.
Accordingly, a TMR ratio as large as 604% has been achieved in a MTJ consisting of
Co0.2Fe0.6B0.2 (6)/MgO (2.1)/Co0.2Fe0.6B0.2 (4) (thickness in nm) at RT [37]. Such drastic

– 11 –
increase in the TMR ratio has been implemented in spintronic devices quickly with increasing
the areal density of HDD by almost four times over the last decade as well as recent
development in Gbit-scale MRAM, for example (see Section 11.2 for more details).

Fig. 5 Schematic diagram of spin-polarised electron tunnelling.

2.2. Giant magnetoresistance

Another key discovery in magnetotransport is the GMR of metallic magnetic multilayers by
Fert [28] and Grünberg [29] independently. A [Fe (3)/Cr (0.9)]60 (thickness in nm) structure
shows a resistance change of 50% by the application of a magnetic field at 4.2K [28]. The
GMR effect depends on spin-dependent scattering of electrons as discussed below. The
critical measure of efficient magnetic transport in these devices is a MR ratio, which is defined
by
MR ratio = ΔR / R = (RAP – RP) / RP, (3)

– 12 –
where RP and RAP represent the resistance measured for parallel and antiparallel
configurations of the FM magnetisations, respectively. Low field GMR sensors called spin-
valves were introduced by IBM in 1998. The larger signal changes provided by these sensors
as compared to the previously existing magnetoresistive sensors based on anisotropic
magnetoresistance (AMR) allowed larger margin for reading out stored data in hard disk
drives. Later, the GMR ratio has been increased up to be 65% at 300K in a [Co (0.8)/Cu
(0.83)]60 (thickness in nm) junction [38]. By replacing the FM with a half-metallic FM
Co2FeGa0.5Ge0.5, the maximum GMR ratio has been reported to be 82% at RT [39].
A voltage application gives rise to an electron flow in the direction opposite to the electric
field either in the layer plane (CIP; current-in-plane) or perpendicular to the plane (CPP)
geometry [40],[25]. It should be noted that the GMR effect depends on the FM thickness tFM
and NM interlayer thickness tNM. In the CIP geometry, the critical length scales are given by
the mean free paths, both in the FM layer where they are spin-dependent and in the interlayer
material (typically ~ 20 nm in Cu). The CIP-GMR decreases rapidly as a function of tNM due
to both electron scattering reducing the electron flow traversing the spacer layer and due to
current shunting in this layer. In the CPP geometry, the critical thickness is given by the spin
diffusion length, which is around 100 nm ~ 1 µm for the NM interlayer materials [41].
Theoretically, the most commonly accepted model to explain the CPP-GMR behaviour is
the Valet-Fert model [42]. Based on the two-current model, RP and RAP have the following
relationship:
2
[𝛽𝜌 {𝑡FM (𝑡FM + 𝑡NM)}𝐿 + 2𝛾𝑟 𝑛]
FM
∗
b
∗

𝑅P = 𝑅AP ― 𝑅AP , (4)

where 𝛽 is the bulk asymmetry coefficient defined as 𝜌↑(↓) = 2𝜌FM ∗ [1 ― ( + )𝛽]. Here, 𝜌FM ∗
= 𝑡FM(𝜌↑ + 𝜌↓) 2 is the effective resistance of both up (↑) and down (↓) spins, where 𝑡FM is
the thickness of a FM layer. For NM, the effective resistance can be determined as 𝜌↑(↓) = 2
𝜌NM ∗ and the thickness of a NM layer is 𝑡NM. 𝐿 = 𝑛(𝑡FM + 𝑡NM) is the total thickness of a
GMR multilayer with n time repeats. 𝛾 is the interfacial spin asymmetry coefficient
determined as 𝑟↑(↓) = 2𝑟b ∗ [1 ― ( + )𝛾], where 𝑟b ∗ is the spin-dependent interfacial
resistance per unit area. Therefore, the larger 𝜌FM ∗ , 𝛾 and 𝑟b ∗ are required for the larger
the CPP-GMR ratio.

2.3. Spin injection

The spin injection into a SC has been originally proposed to form a spin-polarised field
effect transistor (spin FET) by Datta and Das [43]. The spin-polarised electrons are then
demonstrated to be injected from the first FM (source) in NM Au and detected electrically by
the second FM (drain) [30]. The drain can also be replaced with a quantum well (QW) to

– 13 –
detect the injected spin-polarised electrons (and/or holes) as circularly-polarised
electroluminescence (EL), i.e., a spin-polarised light emitting diode (spin LED).
For efficient spin injection, the conductance matching at the FM/NM interfaces have been
investigated by Schmidt et al. [44], identifying a fundamental obstacle to achieving efficient
spin transmission across the interfaces via a diffusive process with spin-polarised electrons
flowing in the vicinity of the Fermi level. Their calculations suggest that a few electrons with
different spin polarisation from the majority spins at the Fermi level may reduce the spin
polarisation in the semiconductor due to the conductance mismatch between them. Ideally
100% spin polarisation needs to be used for the source and drain to achieve highly efficient
spin injection as described in Section 10.1.
Such an obstacle can be overcome by using either ballistic electrons [45] or very thin
tunnelling barriers between the FM and the SC [46]. If the tunnel resistance is larger than the
resistance in a SC or NM, which is much larger than that in a FM, spin injection with up to
100% efficiency can be achieved.

2.3.1. Spin-polarised transistor

As originally proposed by Datta and Das [43], a two dimensional electron gas (2DEG) in a
SC has been widely exploited as a possible medium for spin-polarised electron transport due
to its high in-plane mobility. Using InAs with almost negligible depletion layer thickness
formed at the interfaces and edges, successful spin injection has been demonstrated with
almost 1% change at 75K [47]. To exclude a Hall voltage induced by a strong magnetic field,
a multi-terminal geometry has been proposed [48] and used [49] but without success. The
magnetic-field-induced spin generation (see Section 3) can also be avoided by patterning
into an asymmetric multi-terminal geometry.
Using GaAs, detailed spin transport in n-GaAs has been investigated by focused cross-
sectional Kerr imaging [50]. The image in Ref. [50] verifies the exponential decay of spin-
polarised electrons injected from a Co0.68Fe0.32 electrode, which agrees with the spin
relaxation in GaAs. Theoretical calculations reveal that the Fe/GaAs(001) as well as
Fe/ZnSe(001) interfaces can achieve coherent tunnelling with a spin polarisation of 99% [51].
Crooker et al. measured the spin polarisation of 32% at an Fe/GaAs Schottky junction [52].
In Fe/GaAs/Fe junctions, more up spin electrons can be injected on one side and more down
spins can be ejected from the other end by flowing current across the junction. This indicates
that positive spin polarisation is achieved in reversed bias, while negative polarisation is
achieved in forward bias. Experimentally, however, the reversal of spin-polarisation has been
reported with respect to the applied bias, which can be caused by spin transport through an
interfacial resonant state [53]. An abrupt Fe/GaAs interface is the only way to avoid such

– 14 –
reversal. Fleet et al. have succeeded to grow epitaxially abrupt Fe/GaAs(001) interface by
cold deposition at ~ 173K, confirming reproducible spin-polarised current injection without
bias-dependent reversal [54]. This may be very promising systems for future spin-injection
devices.

2.3.2. Spin-polarised light emission

A FM/SC Schottky diode, consisting of an Fe (20 nm)/GaAs/InGaAs QW LED structure,
has been used to measure circularly-polarised EL [55]. Spin injection from the Fe to the GaAs
is achieved with an efficiency of about 2% at 25K but the right and left circularly polarised EL
intensity does not show a clear difference. Later, Hanbicki et al. have performed a similar
experiment with an Fe (12.5 nm)/AlGaAs/GaAs QW LED and have observed a spin injection
efficiency of 30% [56]. They clearly observed a significant difference between the right and
left circular EL intensity. The spin polarisation is estimated to be 13% at 4.5K (8% at 240K).
Taking the spin relaxation time in the QW into account, they reported a small temperature
dependence in the spin injection efficiency, which is consistent with spin-polarised electron
tunnelling theory. Successful spin injection from epitaxial Fe into n-GaAs(001) has been
demonstrated by detecting circularly-polarised EL at 4K [57].
Jonker’s group in the Naval Research Laboratory has then inserted a tunnelling barrier at
the FM/SC interface to achieve ballistic spin injection. Spin polarisation of 30% at 4.5K has
been measured in an Fe/Al2O3/GaAs system [58]. By using coherent tunnelling with an
epitaxial MgO(001) barrier, spin polarisation of 55% has been achieved [59]. This leads a
spin injection efficiency of 32% at 290K [60]. However, atomic mixing across the MgO barrier
during the annealing required to crystallise the barrier needs to be prevented.
As an indirect bandgap SC, poor spin injection has been expected for Si [61]. It has also
long been believed that intrinsic spin polarisation in Si is typically a few percent at RT and
hence spin injection into Si is very difficult. However, nanoelectronic devices predominantly
depend on Si-based technology, requiring spin injection into Si with high efficiency. A junction
of Co/Al2O3/Si has been used to demonstrate that the resistance-area product (RA) product
can be tuned over eight orders of magnitude for the conductance matching by inserting an
ultrathin Gd layer, which has a lower work function against Si [62]. Such tunability in the RA
product is very useful to realise a spin metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) FET, which
requires a narrow RA window against the Si doping density. Recently, spin injection into Si
has been successfully demonstrated by Jonker et al. in an Fe/Al2O3/n-Si with an LED
structure underneath [63]. Circular light polarisation of 5.6% has been reported at 20K (2.8%
at 125K), indicating an injected spin polarisation of approximately 30% in Si. This experiment
has opened a door to Si spintronics, which possesses a significant advantage for

– 15 –
implementation of spintronics into current Si-based nano-electronics, e.g., spin-polarised
MOSFET. Recently, a microwave-induced spin current has been reported to be introduced
in p-Si through Ni0.8Fe0.2, demonstrating a spin diffusion length of 150 nm [64].

2.3.3. Lateral spin-valve

A pioneering work on spin injection into a NM metal has been carried out by Johnson [30],
followed by many studies without success. In 2000, Jedema et al. re-energised spin-injection
studies by using a non-local geometry (see Fig. 6) [65]. They have successfully demonstrated
diffusive spin injection from a FM Ni0.8Fe0.2 nanowire electrode, spin accumulation in a NM
Cu nanowire and spin detection by another NiFe nano-electrode. Spin polarisation of the
injected current is measured to be a few % and the corresponding spin diffusion length in Cu
is estimated to be 350 nm at RT. They have further extended their study onto ballistic spin
injection by inserting an Al-O tunnelling barrier at the FM/NM interface with increasing the
spin signals [66].
A spin current 𝑱s and a charge current 𝑱c can be expressed as
ℏ
𝑱s = ― 2𝑒(𝒋↑ ― 𝒋↓), (5)

𝑱 c = 𝒋↑ + 𝒋↓. (6)
These currents follow the diffusion equation. For the spin current, the spin diffusion equation
is written as
1 1
∇2(𝜇↑ ― 𝜇↓) = 𝐷𝜏sf(𝜇↑ ― 𝜇↓) ≡ 𝜆2(𝜇↑ ― 𝜇↓), (7)

where 𝜆 is the spin diffusion length (= 𝐷𝜏sf) and 𝜏sf is the spin flip time.

– 16 –
Fig. 6 Schematic movie of a lateral spin-valve with pure spin and charge currents
(animation).

Non-local spin-valve systems have been extensively employed to investigate efficient spin
injection by minimising interfacial scattering in both diffusive [67] and ballistic contacts [68],
and also by optimising the junction area [69]. A 185 nm wide Ag nanowire has been employed
to increase the spin-valve signals due to its longer spin diffusion length [70]. For the 300 nm
separation between two FM wires (NiFe), R as large as 8.2 m at 79K has been reported.
In these devices, the junction resistance is a key parameter to control interfacial spin
polarisation. Later, 24% spin polarisation at a NiFe/Ag interface at 79K and 25% at a Co/Au
interface at 4K are the best values achieved. By replacing FM with a half-metallic FM,
Co2FeSi, the largest injection efficiency of 27% has been reported at RT [71]. This is still only
the half of the expected value from FM spin polarisation.

2.3.4. Organic junction

Spin-current injection into organic (namely carbon-based) matrerials is called as organic
(carbon-based) spintronics, which has been attracting intensive studies recently. One of the

– 17 –
pioneering works has demonstrated successful spin-current injection into a multi-walled
carbon nanotube (MWCNT) using ferromagnetic Co electrodes by achieving 9% MR at 4.2K
[72]. Highly spin-polarised currents have then been injected into the MWCNTs using
La0.7Sr0.3MnO3 electrodes [73]. A large GMR ratio of up to 61% is observed and the spin
diffusion length of a MWCNT is estimated to be ~ 50 µm at 5K. In parallel, spin injection into
graphene has also been demonstrated at RT in a non-local spin-valve structure [74]. In order
to improve the spin injection efficiency into graphene, a high quality Al2O3 tunnelling barrier
has been introduced on the epitaxial graphene grown on SiC in the local spin-valve [75]. The
corresponding GMR ratio is reported to be 9.4% at 1.4K and the spin diffusion length is found
to be over 100 µm, confirming the strong advantage of such carbon-based media as a spin-
polarised electron career for device applications.
Vertical spin-valve devices have also been investigated intensively. By employing organic
molecule tris(8-hydroxyquinolinato) aluminium (Alq3) as the non-metallic spacer sandwiched
between LaxSr1-xMnO3 (LSMO) and Co electrodes, the GMR ratio of 40% has been achieved
at 11K [76]. By using an interface consisting of ferromagnetic cobalt and an organic
semiconductor of copper phthalocyanine (CuPc), a very highly efficient spin injection has
been demonstrated at RT, showing the spin injection efficiency of (85 ~ 90)% [77].

2.4. Spin-transfer torque

2.4.1. Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert equation
The dynamics of the magnetisation 𝑴 upon application of an external field Heff can be
phenomenologically described by the Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert (LLG) equation [78],[79]:
𝑑𝑴 𝛼 𝑑𝑴
𝑑𝑡 = ―𝛾𝑴 × 𝑯eff + 𝑀𝑴 × 𝑑𝑡 . (8)

Here, the second term is the relaxation term with the Gilbert damping constant 𝛼. It describes
essentially the coupling of the magnetisation precession to eventually the phonon bath, i.e.,
how the magnetic excitation energy is transfered to the lattice. The relaxation term increases
with increasing temperature as described by the s-d scattering model [80]. Here, conduction
electrons (s) are scattered by localised spins (d) during the spin relaxation process, releasing
the corresponding momentum into the lattice via the spin-orbit interaction at high
temperature. This results in the spin relaxation, i.e., 𝛼, to be proportional to the resistivity of
the system 𝜌 (resistivity like). At low temperature, on the other hand, 𝛼 is proportional to the
conductivity of the system 𝜎 (conductivity like).
The spin relaxation time 𝜏 can be approximated as
1
𝜏 ~𝜔 𝜏𝑝
2
(D’yakonov-Perel model for large electron scattering probabilities [81]) or

– 18 –
 1 1
𝜏 ∝ 𝜏𝑝 (Elliott-Yaffet model for strong spin-orbit interactions [82],[83]), (9)

where 𝜔 is the Lamor frequency and 𝜏𝑝 is the momentum relaxation time of an electron. To
descrive the conductivity-like damping at low temperature, the breathing Fermi surface model
has been proposed [84],[85],[86].
𝛾
The spin-transfer torque (STT) can be described as 𝑑𝒎 × (𝒎 × ∆𝑱s) (𝒎: the unit vector of

the magnetisation) [87],[88]. By adding this term to the LLG equation, the magnetisation
dynamics can be explained using the Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert-Slonczewski equation Eq. (8):
𝑑𝑴 𝑑𝒎 𝛾
𝑑𝑡 = ―𝛾𝒎 × 𝑯eff +𝛼𝒎 × 𝑑𝑡 ― 𝑑𝒎 × (𝒎 × ∆𝑱s). (10)

For a particular direction of the spin current, STT is antiparallel to the Gilbert damping
1∂
torque. Here, the Gauss law (𝛾∂𝑡𝒎 ∙ 𝑉 = ― ∫𝑱s𝑑𝑆 = ―∆𝑱s, V = Sd: volume of a FM layer with

area S and thickness d) is applied to convert the second term. This equation indicates that
the increase in the spin current 𝑱s reduces the relaxation, leading to the precessional motion
of magnetization yielding magnetisation switching or steady-state spin-torque oscillation.
Equation (10) is used to simulate the motion of DW and skyrmions as presented in Figs. 7
and 18, respectively (see the detailed implementation as detailed in Ref. [89]).
Under the presence of STT, a shift in precession frequency occurs similar to the Doppler
effect (spin Doppler effect). The shift of spin wave propagation in a NiFe wire under STT has
been demonstrated at RT as the spin Doppler effect [90].

2.4.2. Giant magnetoresistive nanopillar

In a GMR junction, the effect of STT effect can be induced in FM1/NM/FM2 type of
structures by flowing a CPP electrical current through it [87],[88]. Conduction electrons are
spin-polarised by flowing through FM1 and exert a torque on the “localised” electrons, such
as 3d electrons for transition metals, in FM2 after having traversed the NM spacer. This
induces rotation of the spins of the “local” electrons in FM2. In a nanoscale junction, such
STT can reverse the magnetisation of FM2 by flowing a current above a threshold (critical
current density, jc), which is typically of the order below 107 A/cm2. The STT effect has first
been demonstrated in a point contact [91] and later in CPP-GMR [92] and TMR nanopillars,
which offer a key building block for the development of MRAM. Using a CPP-GMR nanopillar,
an effective STT has been realised by combining two techniques, precise nanofabrication
and atomically controlled film growth. A substantial decrease in jc for current-induced
magnetisation switching (CIMS) has been achieved in a CPP pseudo-spin-valve nanopillar

– 19 –
by inserting a spin-scattering Ru ultrathin layer [93] and an additional FM layer [94]. This is
an improved structure compared with a simple pseudo-spin-valve with a spin-scattering layer
and has successfully achieved jc of 2  106 A/cm2. Further reduction in the critical current
density has been achieved by modifying the shape of the nanopillar into a nanoring, where
the magnetisation in each FM layer forms a vortex state at remanence for example [95].
These magnetisation directions are aligned to be either clockwise or anti-clockwise by
carefully demagnetising the nanopillar, so that a vertical current assists CIMS by introducing
an Ampère field without minor magnetic-moment curling or domains, i.e., no stray field.
For further increase in CPP-GMR ratios, a spin-valve transistor has been developed by
Monsma et al. in 1996 [96]. The spin-valve transistor utilises the difference in a magneto-
current passing through a spin-valve in its hot-electron regime, which is typically < 1 eV above
the Fermi energy. In their initial proposal, insulating MgO is inserted between an emitter
electrode for spin injection and a base electrode to induce perpendicular magnetic anisotropy
in the spin-valve, achieving the magneto-current chages of 85% at 60K [97].

2.4.3. Magnetic Tunnel junction nanopillar

A TMR nanopillar with an Al-O barrier has then been employed for CIMS showing a TMR
ratio of ~ 30% and Jc ≤ 107 A/cm2 [98]. After the discovery of coherent tunnelling across an
epitaxial MgO barrier, improved operation of a TMR nanopillar has been demonstrated with
a TMR ratio of ~ 100% and Jc ~ 6  106 A/cm2 with a pulsed current of 100 ms duration [99].
This has been followed by a further improvement with a TMR ratio of 160% and Jc of 2.5 
106 A/cm2 [100].
In order to improve the downsize scalability of ultrasmall out-of-plane magnetized MTJs
for STT-MRAM cells, it was proposed to increase the effective anisotropy by benefiting from
an out-of-plane magnetic shape anisotropy [101],[102]. This is made possible by a significant
increase in the FM thickness. The anisotropy stability factor  (= E / kBT) is then enhanced
thanks to the combined influence of the interfacial anisotropy at the magnetic electrode/MgO
interface [103],[104] and of the vertical shape anisotropy. Concerning the TMR amplitude,
the TMR ratio depends on the spin-dependent band configurations along the interface with
the tunnel barrier. It can be modified by forming a QW formed at the interface between FM
and tunnelling barrier layers. This can be achieved by the insertion of a very thin metallic Cr
layer in the vicinity of the interface with realising a symmetric band configuration [105].
Recently, a resonant tunnelling junction through the QW state has been proposed by forming
a double tunnelling barrier made of MgAlOx, i.e., double MTJ, and has demonstrated the
corresponding TMR oscillation for the FM layer thickness up to 12 nm [106]. A double MTJ

– 20 –
including double QW has also shown quantum resonant tunnelling up to the FM thickness of
10 nm [107].

2.4.4. Ferromagnetic nanowire

By utilising the STT effect, magnetic moments in a domain can also be rotated by flowing
an electrical current through DW. This can lead to the displacement of the magnetic DW in a
micro- or nanoscale FM wires [108]. This offers the basis for a new magnetic solid-state
storage device type, i.e., the racetrack memory.
In 1970, DW motion by a magnetic field was studied for the development of the magnetic
bubble memory [see Fig. 7(a)]. The DW motion velocity is proportional to the external
magnetic field for the weak field case. However, for the strong field case, the averaged
velocity decreases due to the change of the DW motion direction with time (Walker’s
breakdown). When Walker’s breakdown occurs, the magnetisation rotates continuously and
the direction of the magnetisation at the wall centre switches continuously. The critical field
for the Walker breakdown (Walker’s field HW) can be defined as [109]
𝐻w = 2𝜋𝑀S𝛼 (11)
Here, MS is the saturation magnetisation and  is the Gilbert damping constant.
For the current induced case, the DW motion mechanism changes by the 𝛽 term

introduced by Thiaville et al. [89] and given by 𝛽 = (𝜆𝐽 𝜆𝑠𝑓) = ℏ 𝐽 ∙ 𝜏𝑠𝑓, with J: the s-d
2

exchange interaction energy, 𝜏𝑠𝑓: the spin-flip time, 𝜆𝐽 and 𝜆𝑠𝑓: the associated diffusion
lengths [see Fig. 7(b)]. For 𝛽 = 0, the DW motion does not occur below a certain current
threshold. In all cases, the DW is pinned by heterogeneity of the sample, the speed of the
DW motion can be categorised into three regimes; creep, depinning and flow, as
schematically shown in Fig. 7(c). A critical current Jc (or a field) is required for the DW
displacement, depinning. DW then moves steadily. Jc is typically at the order of 1012 A/cm2.

– 21 –
(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

– 22 –
 (vi)

(vii)
Fig. 7 DW can be moved by application of either an electrical current or a magnetic field
(after Refs. [110],[111]). (a) DW motion applied by the magnetic field. (b) The DW motion
induced by an applied current for various values of  (c) Three regimes of DW motions
applied by driving foce, i.e., a magnetic field and/or spin-polarised current.
(i) DW moves while maintaining its structure: steady-state motion. (ii) The magnetisation
rotation occurs continuously in the entire DW: precessional motion. (iii) The DW motion is
stopped in time for (iii, iv)  = 0, (v)  = , (vi, vii)  = 2. The DW motions at (iv, vii) and (v,
vi) are the precessional and the steady motion, respectively. The corresponding animations
are shown for the cases (i) ~ (vii).

3. Spin-Orbit Effects
3.1. Spin Hall effects
Non-local spin-valves have also been used to detect both spin Hall and inverse spin Hall
effects via the spin-orbit interactions as detailed in Section 3.2, showing the advantages of
the lateral device configuration. A charge current in a paramagnetic metal has been predicted
to induce a transverse spin imbalance without the application of a magnetic field, resulting in
the spin Hall effect [112],[113]. On the contrary, a spin current can also induce a spin Hall
voltage without a charge current or a magnetic field, i.e., the inverse spin Hall effect. This is
theoretically equivalent to anomalous Hall effect in a FM material and originates from the
spin-orbit scattering of conduction electrons through skew and side-jump scattering.
A spin Hall effect has first been measured in InSb [114] and Ge [115] at low temperature.
RT observation has been demonstrated at the edges of a GaAs semiconductor channel by
magneto-optical Kerr imaging [116]. The spin Hall effect has then been detected in a metallic
lateral spin-valve [117]. Here, a spin current is injected into a 60 nm wide Al wire from a 250
nm wide Co0.80Fe0.20 wire by the non-local method. The spin Hall voltage is then measured
at the other end of the Al wire. By employing a perpendicularly magnetised FePt and a Au
Hall bar, both spin Hall and inverse spin Hall effects as large as 2.9 m have been detailed
at RT for a separation between the injector and detector of 70 nm [118]. Such a large signal
is very useful for the generation and detection of spin polarisation in a NM material. The spin-

– 23 –
injection Hall effect, which is a transverse voltage response to the local spin polarisation of
injected charge carriers, has also been reported in a 2DEG photovoltaic cell of
GaAs/AlGaAs/GaAs [119]. The spin-dependent photovoltaic effect resulting from this effect
has been found to convert the degree of circular polarisation of light directly to a voltage
signal. These effects are summarised in Fig. 8.

Fig. 8 Schematic diagrams of Hall effects, (a) conventional Hall effect, (b) anomalous Hall
effect (AHE), (c) spin Hall effect (SHE), (d) quantum Hall effect (QHE), (e) quantum
anomalous Hall effect (QAHE) and (f) quantum spin Hall effect (QSHE) [120].

An anomalous Hall effect can be induced by replacing a magnetic field with the intrinsic
magnetisation in a FM. Unlike the conventional Hall effect caused by the Lorentz force, the
anomalous Hall effect is also caused by the spin-orbit interactions. The intrinsic anomalous
Hall effect occurs by impurity scattering without any angle or shift changes. The extrinsic
anomalous Hall effect occurs by either skew scattering at a finite angle for low impurity
concentration or side jump with a finite shift by high impurity concentration. The macroscopic
scattering angle can be measured as the spin Hall angle 𝜃SH. Further increase in the impurity
modifies the band structure, leading to hopping conduction [120].
In a two-dimensional insulator, the Hall conductance can be quantised as a multiple of
e2/h, quantum anomalous Hall effect. This has been reported in Cr-doped Bi2Se3 [121]. In
the quantum anisotropic Hall effect, a huge MR exceeding 2,000% at 30mK can be observed
at the chaege neutral point.

3.2. Spin-orbit torque

– 24 –
 The spin-orbit interaction can be determined as
𝐻SOI = 𝜂SO𝒔 ∙ 𝑳, (12)
where 𝜂SO is the spin-orbit interaction constant, 𝒔 and 𝑳 are the spin and orbital moments.
𝜂SO is determined as
𝑞ℏ2
𝜂SO = ― (𝑔 ― 1)2𝑚2𝑐2 (1𝑟𝑑𝜙(𝑟)
𝑑𝑟 ). (13)

Here, 𝑔 is the Lande g-factor, 𝑞 is the electron charge, ℏ is the Planck constant divided by
2π, m is the electron mass, c is the speed of light, 𝜙(𝑟) is the scalar potential.
Spin-orbit interactions play an important role in SC as detailed below in Sections 11.7 and
11.8. In a spin Hall device, three configurations can be achieved as shown in Fig. 9. The
spin-orbit torque is induced through the spin-orbit interaction in FM/heavy metal (HM) bilayers
by flowing an in-plane electrical current. The magnitude of the induced torque can be
evaluated by the switching current required for CIMS, Jc. For the perpendicular
magnetisation, Jc is estimated to be (2.0 ± 0.1)  1010 A/m with the 𝜃SH of (– 0.25 ± 0.02).
For the in-plane magnetisation perpendicular to the electrical current direction, Jc is reduced
to 1.0  1010 A/m with the 𝜃SH of – 0.08, while for the in-plane magnetisation parallel to the
current, Jc is also reduced to (4.3 ± 0.2)  1010 A/m with the 𝜃SH of (– 0.22 ± 0.01). As shown
in Fig. 9(c), the last case has the fast damping process.

Fig. 9 Spin Hall effects depending on three different configurations, (a) perpendicular
magnetisation and in-plane magnetisations with an electrical current (b) perpendicular and
(c) along the magnetisation [122].

– 25 –
3.3. Antiferromagnetic/ferrimagnetic spintronics
3.3.1. Tunnelling anisotropic magnetoresistance
For a junction consisting of a FM/tunnelling barrier/NM, the resistance can be controlled
by magnetisation rotation through the spin-orbit interaction at the interface, which is called
tunnelling anisotropic magnetoresistance (TAMR). This effect has first been demonstrated
experimentally by Gould et al. with a junction of Ga0.94Mn0.06As (70)/AlOx (1.4)/Ti (5)/Au (300)
(thickness in nm) [123]. A TAMR ratio of ~ 0.4% has also been measured with GaAs as a
tunnel barrier [124]. Further increase in TAMR to 13% has been reported for a textured Co
(1)/Pt (1)/Co (1)/Pt (0.5)/Al-O (2)/Pt (5) (thickness in nm) junction with perpendicular
magnetic anisotropy [125]. In this case the TAMR has also been reported to be dependent
strongly on the crystalline structure of the tunnelling barrier [126]. By replacing an amorphous
Al-O barrier with highly-textured MgO in MTJs with
Co0.49Fe0.21B0.30/Co0.70Fe0.30/Oxide/Co0.70Fe0.30/Co0.49Fe0.21B0.30, The TMR has been
increased from 89% to 377% at 10 K.

3.3.2. Antiferromagnetic spintronics

Antiferromagnetic (AF) materials have been investigated intensively both theoretically and
experimentally since the initial discovery by Néel [127]. For example, MnOx exhibits AF
behaviour due to the antiparallel alignment of Mn magnetic moments [128] via
superexchange interactions [129]. Due to the antiparallel alignment of the moments with the
same amplitude, it is very difficult to characterise the AF behaviour directly using
macroscopic measurements. Accordingly, a FM/AF bilayer has been commonly used to
induce interfacial exchange coupling to pin the magnetisation of the FM layer. This results in
a shift in the corresponding magnetisation curve, which is known as exchange bias field Hex,
along the direction of the magnetic field applied [130]. In such a bilayer, the AF properties,
e.g., magnetic anisotropy and temperature dependence, can be indirectly characterised by
measuring Hex due to the interfacial FM/AF coupling. From the device application point of
view, Hex can pin one of the FM magnetisations in a FM1/NM/FM2 junction, providing a spin-
valve structure [131]. By replacing the NM layer with an insulating barrier, MTJ can be
fabricated in a similar manner. MTJ is a basic building block for a read head of HDD, which
is the most common data storage recording almost 85% of the information produced by
human being. MTJs are also used as a data bit cell of MRAM.
Recently, by flowing an electrical current in an AF layer, spin polarisation has been
demonstrated to be induced, leading to AF spintronics [132],[133]. For these spintronic
applications, an IrMn3 alloy has been predominantly used due to its corrosion resistance and
robustness against device fabrication processes in nanometre-scale in both thickness and

– 26 –
in-plane dimensions. STT on AF layer has theoretically been predicted by Núñez et al. [134]
and has experimentally confirmed by Wei et al. by measuring the current dependence of an
exchange bias field in a spin-valve consisting of CoFe (10)/Cu (10)/CoFe (3)/FeMn (8)
(thickness in nm) [135]. A damping-like STT has also been calculated to induce the
precessional motion of an AF magnetic moment, resulting in THz oscillation [136], which has
been experimentally demonstrated in a spin-Hall oscillator [137] and imaging [138]. Spin
pumping from the AF layer has also been measured recently [139]. However, the spin
diffusion length in the AF layer is measured to be at the order of a few nm [133].
From the application viewpoint, a large anomalous Hall effect has been reported in non-
collinear AF materials, e.g., Mn5Si3 [140], Mn3Sn [141] which is also knows as a Wyle metal.
A spin Hall effect has then been measured in Ir0.20Mn0.80 [142] for example, revealing the spin
Hall angle to be almost 80% of Pt value. Spin Hall magnetoresistance has also been reported
in bilayers, e.g., YIG/IrMn3 [143].
The 90° order-parameter rotation in AF CuMnAs has been performed by a current density
of 106 A/cm2 with a ~1 ps pulse, which has been detected via anisotropic magnetoresistance
[144]. Additionally, CIMS has been demonstrated in FM/AF bilayers via the creation of in-
plane exchange bias recently [145]. The electrical switching of AF ordering can be read using
anisotropic magnetoresistance and spin Hall MR (see Section 3.1). Complete electrcal
writing and reading can be achieved with large signals [146]. These findings prove that AF
spintronics can offer new devices with THz operationability. It should be noted that similar
behaviour and devices can be achieved using ferrimagnets (see for example, [147]).

3.4. Magnetic skyrmions

The Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya interaction (DMI) is described by

𝐻DMI = ― 𝑫 ∙ (𝒔𝑖 × 𝒔𝑗) (14)

where 𝑫 is the DMI vector based on the crystalline structure [148],[149]. Note, that due to
the cross product, Eq. (14) contains a chirality. As shown in Fig. 10, in a FM film with
perpendicular anisotropy, the spins can rotate either along the radius or circumference to
form a vortex configuration [150]. The difference in the rotation depends on the direction of
the Dzyaloshinskii–Moriya vector.

– 27 –
Fig. 10 Schematic diagram of DMI induced at the FM/HM interface [150].

A magnetic skyrmion is a quasi-particle theoretically predicted by Skyrme [151], consisting

of a vortex configuration of magnetic spins as Fig. 11. The skyrmions can be categorised into
three types: Bloch, Néel and anti-skyrmions. The Bloch type is formed by spin alignments
with continuously rotating across the skyrmion radius from perpendicular-to-plane to in-plane
and back to perpendicular-to-plane, the in-plane component of the magnetization being along
the radius. The Néel type is formed by the uniform rotation of spins but the in-plane
component of the magnetization is tangential to the radius. The anti-skyrmion is a
combination of these two types with in-plane spin rotation along two directions.
The first observation was made by Mühlbauer et al. [152] in a MnSi film. The diameter of
the skyrmion (typically of the order of ~10 nm) can be controlled by the type of material and
magnetic fields. These skyrmions can be displaced by an electrical current, allowing the use
of skyrmions instead of magnetic DWs as an information career in a racetrack memory [153].
Magnetic skyrmions are solid states topologically protected defects. However, stable smectic
liquid-crystalline structure of skyrmions has also recently been observed [154].

(a) (b)

– 28 –
 (c)
Fig. 11 Skyrmions in a 2D FM with uniaxial magnetic anisotropy along the vertical axis.
Moving along a diameter, the spin rotates (a) Bloch type by 2π around an axis perpendicular
to the diameter and (b) Néel type by 2π around the diameter [155] and (c) anti-skyrmion.

3.5. Topological insulators

Topological insulators (TIs) have been theoretically proposed in two-dimensional (2D)
materials in 2005 [156],[157]. The theory has later been extended to the three-dimensional
(3D) scenario [158]. Here, a spin gapless state needs to be formed at the edge (for 2D) or
on the surface (for 3D), where an opposite spin current flows in an opposite direction, i.e.,
helical state. For the 2D TI, the conduction and valence bands are connected by a cross-
shaped edge bands across the Fermi level, forming a spin gapless state. By stacking the 2D
TI, a 3D weak TI can be formed, while intrinsic spin gapless band, i.e. Dirac cone, in 3D can
form a strong TI.
Experimentally, 2D quantum well consisting of CdTe/HgTe/CdTe has been widely studied
since its conductance measurements [19]. For a 3D case, Bi1-xSbx alloys have been predicted
to be TI with the (111) surface [159] and experimentally confirmed with angle-resolved
photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES) [160]. TI has been discovered at the center of the
surface Brillouin zone with only one Dirac cone in tetradymite-type crystal structures Bi2Se3
[161] and Bi2Te3 [162]. Similarly, TI has been demonstrated in the other materials, such as
thallium-based chalcogenides (TlBiSe2 [163],[164] and TlBiTe2 [165]). Topological Hall effect
has been predicted [166] and measured in a FM/NM TI bilayer of
Crx(Bi1−ySby)2−xTe3/(Bi1−ySby)2Te3 [167] for example. Such TIs have also been reported to
exhibt large spin-Hall angles, e.g., 2~3.5 for Bi3Se2 and 52 for BiSb at RT [168]. In a
Bi0.9Sb0.1/MnGa bilayer, for example, the critical current density for STT switching has been
reported to be 1.5  106 A/cm2, which can be applicable for devices.

4. Electric Field Applications

4.1. Voltage controlled magnetism

– 29 –
 In 2000, Ohno et al have achieved a magnetic phase transition between ferromagnetic and
paramagnetic phase by applying a bias voltage on an InMnAs layer sandwiched within FET
[169]. A positive bias on the gate created an electric field which repels holes, thus reducing
the Mn-Mn exchange interactions causing the Mn ions to become paramagnetic. A negative
voltage generates an electric field which attracts holes, thus strengthening the Mn-Mn
exchange interactions and causing the Mn ions to become ferromagnetic. Although these
phenomena were only seen at 25K with a bias voltage of ± 125 V, this constituted a significant
step towards the realisation of fully electrically controlled spintronic devices.
Gate control of the spin-orbit interaction in InGaAs was demonstrated by Nitta et al. [170].
This is clear evidence of the controllability of the spin orbit interaction in 2DEG by an electric
field through the Rashba Hamiltonian. They have observed Schubnikov-de Haas oscillations
in an In0.53Ga0.47As/In0.52Al0.48As QW as a function of a gate voltage. Recently, full gate-
voltage operation has been demonstrated [171]. By applying a few V (up to ± 3 V), a uniform
oscillation was measured in a non-local geometry below 40K. This result unambiguously
proves the gate operation by an electric field.

4.2. Voltage-control in a ferromagnet

A similar control in magnetic behaviour has been demonstrated in FePd [172] as well as
an ultrathin Co film [173]. For a sample, consisting of a 0.4 nm thick Co layer, + 10 V induces
FM but – 10 V induces NM behaviour, corresponding to ± 2 MV/cm2. Similarly, Ni
nanoparticles dispersed between Ti and Pt layers show a change between
superparamagnetism and ferromagnetism with respect to the in-plane strain directions [174].
The voltage control is achieved via the electrical modulation of the spin-orbit interaction at
the interface between a 3d-transition FM and a dielectric layer.
Voltage control switching of magnetisation has been implemented in MTJs in the view of
zero standby power and ultralow active power consumption [175]. Voltage-controlled
magnetic anisotropy (VCMA) has been demonstrated in an ultrathin Fe layer with atomical
iridium doping. In a Cr (30)/Fe (1.0)/Ir (0.05)/MgO (2.5) (thickness in nm) junction, a large
interfacial perpendicular anisotropy up to 3.7 mJ/m2 is achieved, which is 1.8 times larger
than that of the pure Fe/MgO interface. The VCMA coefficient is reported to be up to
320 fJV/m) as well as high-speed response.
Ionic materials have also been used to further extend the controllability by a voltage
application [176]. The non-volatile voltage control of the DMI by ionic-liquid gating on a
Pt/Co/HfO2 film. The voltage effect is reported to scale with the voltage application time,
which can be linked to the migration of oxygen species from HfO2 into Co and Pt. The Curie
temperature (TC) of Co can be controlled by applying the gate voltage of ± 2 V through

– 30 –
forming an electric double layer (EDL) in a polymer film containing an ionic liquid, which is
induced by a large amount of carrier density control due to the formation of the EDL [177].

5. Electromagnetic Wave Application

5.1. Optical induction
5.1.1. Photoexciation
Another method for creating a spin current is photoexcitation, which uses circularly
polarised light to excite spin-polarised electrons and typically detects the spin polarisation as
electrical signals. The possibility of generating a spin-dependent current through thin film
tunnel junctions consisting of Co/Al2O3/GaAs and Co/-MnAl/AlAs/GaAs has been first
discussed by Prins et al. using photoexcitation [178]. For the former structure, a spin-
dependent tunnelling current is observed, while only magnetic circular dichroism (MCD)
signals are seen in the latter. In their experiment, a sample with a 2 nm thick Al2O3 tunnelling
barrier showed the largest helical asymmetry of approximately 1.2% at 1.5 eV (near the GaAs
band gap) in the photoexcited current. Accordingly, many studies of spin-dependent
tunnelling through MOS junctions have been carried out e.g., Ref. [179], especially to achieve
optically pumped spin-polarised scanning tunnelling microscopy (SP-STM) [180].
Accordingly, evidence for RT spin generation has been systematically investigated at the
FM/SC interface in forward bias [181]. The bias and GaAs doping density dependence of
photoexcited currents suggest that electron tunnelling is the spin-dependent transport
mechanism. Temperature-dependent measurements of band gap engineered NiFe/AlGaAs
barrier/GaAs structures support the mechanism. In addition, strong photoexcited currents at
RT have been observed in spin-valve/semiconductor structures. The difference in the optical
magnetocurrent obtained between parallel and antiparallel spin-valve configurations is
extremely large (up to 2,400%). The photon energy dependence of the photoexcited currents
also proved that the largest signals can be achieved with the photon energy at the SC
bandgap. The effect of a QW in the semiconductor on spin-polarised electron transport
across the FM/SC interface has also been made [182]. Since 20 nm thick FeCo and Fe films
are used for the measurement, MCD background signals dominate the polarised
photocurrent, resulting in at most, 0.5% of the photocurrent being attributable to a true spin-
dependent signal at 10K. The spin filtering effect can be used for future spintronic devices,
such as an optically assisted magnetic sensor.

5.1.2. All optical magnetisation switching

– 31 –
 Ultrafast light pulses in the femtosecond regime have been used for all-optical
magnetisation reversal. To understand this phenomenon, the easiest route is to use
circularly- and linearly-polarised light, which carries angular momentum. Such circularly-
polarised light has been used for all-optical magnetisation reversal in a 20 nm thick Ni film
[183]. The reversal speed is reported to be 260 fs, which is much faster than that in the other
devices, such as MTJs and GMR junctions. [Co(0.4)/Pt(0.7)]N (thickness in nm, N ≤ 8)
multilayers also show magneto-optical magnetisation reversal [184]. This is a new method
for the magneto-optical control of a FM magnetisation applicable for integrated magneto-
optical data storage [185].
Circularly-polarised pulsed light has also been introduced into 10 nm thick Fe to generate
a pulsed current [186]. The pulsed current is detected up to 20 THz via the inverse spin Hall
effect through a neightbouring Au layer. This method has been further advanced to serve as
a source of THz radiation [187],[188]. A further application is to switch a magnetic storage
layer by introducing ultrafast laser pulses as a means of energy-efficient magnetic storage.
Single pulse switching has been demonstrated [189]. Magnetisation reversal still holds a
great advantage over the current Si technology due to its reversal speed which is in the
femtosecond [190]. A focused circularly polarised beam (100 µm diameter and 40 fs pulse)
has been used to reverse the magnetisation of a Gd0.220Fe0.746Co0.034 film. A small Gilbert
damping constant is essential for high-frequency operation.

5.2. Microwave induction

5.2.1. Spin pumping
FMR excitations under microwaves irraditation has bee studied in FM/NM bilayers. By an
inverse effect of the spin-transfer torque, the magnetisation precession in the FM layer yields
a DC spin-polarised difusion current in the NM layer.L This phenomenon is called spin
pumping [191]. A spin current generated by the spin pumping has been detected as an
inverse spin Hall voltage [192]. A similar effect can be observed using a FM insulator, offering
a new paradigm for spintronics. The spin pumping into a superconducting material has been
demonstrated in a Ni0.8Fe0.2/Nb bilayer system, showing decrease in the spin pumping signal
below the superconducting transition temperature [193].

5.2.2. Ferromagnetic magnetic resonance

In order to adopt spintronic devices into the current Si technology, which is operated over
3 GHz at this stage, spin operation at a few GHz frequency is required. As a first step towards
high-frequency operation, both fast settling of spin oscillation, which is defined by a damping
constant, and fundamental spin dynamics in devices need to be investigated.

– 32 –
 Ferromagnetic resonance (FMR) has been measured for a permalloy (Py, Ni0.8Fe0.2) film
[194]. The relaxation time was found to be of the order of 108 s-1 and it depends on the
thickness of a capping Cu layer. This small value of the damping constant (≥ 0.02) is an
important parameter for the reduction of a switching current. To date permalloy films have
been commonly used. However, Heusler alloy films can have much smaller damping
constants compared to permalloy [195],[196],[197] with values of  down to the range of
0.0005 [197]. Aditionally, they can have more advantages due to their very large spin
polarisation (100% in theory, recently demonstated experimentally in Ref. [197]).

5.2.3. Spin-transfer torque oscillation

In a GMR nanopillar, microwave oscillations have been demonstrated taking advantage of
the angular dependence of STT without the application of an external magnetic field [198].
The nanopillar consisting of a Ni0.81Fe0.19 (4)/Cu (10)/Ni0.81Fe0.19 (15) (thickness in nm) stack
shows a frequency-dependent STT. Broader frequency response has been achieved for a
spin-valve nanopillar of Ni0.81Fe0.19 (5)/Cu (40)/Ni0.81Fe0.19 (60) (thickness in nm) in the
oscillation frequency range between 300 kHz and ~ 1.1 GHz. High-frequency operation has
then been extended to a MTJ nanopillar of Co0.60Fe0.20B0.20/MgO/Co0.60Fe0.20B0.20 with
microwave generation in the vicinity of 7 GHz [199] and (3 ~ 8) GHz [200]. The frequency of
these devices can be controlled by a bias current or voltage.
To date, the linewidth of the microwave oscillation in MTJ is still of the order of ~ 100 MHz,
which is much wider than that required for device applications. Typically, Q-factor of 10,000
is required for reliable device operation, leading to < 1 MHz linewidth. These devices also
have an output power of ~ 0.1 µW, which is three orders of magnitude larger than the
conventional GMR-based oscillators.
Vortex core oscillation has also been reported in the frequency range between 300 kHz
and 1.1 GHz in a Py (60)/Cu (40)/Py (5) (thickness in nm) nanopillar [201]. Electrically
switching of a vortex core has been demonstrated with an ac current in a 50 nm thick Py disc
(diameter: 1 µm) [202].
In theory, these FM discs and FM/NM/FM stacks can be operated almost up to the FMR
frequency (~ a few 10 GHz), which has better advantage than the current Si-based devices.
In preliminary demonstrations, a point contact can realise very large Q-factor for the
frequency-dependence of the power spectral density [203]. However, by patterning the FM
layer or the entire GMR/TMR stack into a nanopillar or disc, the Q-factor decreases
significantly due to the presence of the edges. In order to overcome this issue, a new design
needs to be developed.

– 33 –
5.2.4. Spin-orbit torque oscillation
As discussed in Section 3.2, spin-orbit torque (SOT) can also switch a FM magnetisation
and induce its oscillatory behaviour [204],[205]. SOT is known to be more efficient and faster
than STT by almost one order of magnitude. SOT oscillations have been reported in MTJ of
CoFeB/MgO/CoFeB patterned on a Ta electrode [206]. Under a magnetic field application of
– 160 Oe, 1.6 ~ 1.8 GHz oscillation is realised. Subsequently, higher oscillation of ~7.5 GHz
has also been demonstrated by introducing an electrical current into a micron-size disc of
NiFe (5)/Pt (8) (thickness in nm) [207]. By applying the effects of external microwave signals
on SOT oscillators consisting of Py (5)/Pt (8) (thickness in nm) discs, the frequency of the
auto-oscillation can be efficiently synchronised using an external RF frequency equal to twice
that of the auto-oscillations [208]. SOT is characterised a strong increase of the oscillation
linewidth with temperature which is correlated with the emergence of an additional higher-
frequency oscillation mode [209].Similar GHz oscillations have been realised in YIG/Pt [210]
and Bi2Se3 [211].

5.3. Spin waves

Low energy magnetisation dynamics can be described as oscillatory motion of the
magnetisation, i.e., by spin waves and their quanta, magnons. The magnetisation precesses
in the vicinity of its equilibrium state and the minor precessional motion propagates in the
lattice, which can be detected, e.g., by Brillouin light scattering (BLS). Hence the oscillatory
motion is tied to the lattice and can be quantised as a magnon. The magnon flow can be
determined as

𝑱𝒎 = ℏ∑𝒌𝒗𝒌𝑛𝒌, (15)

where 𝒗𝒌 is the group velocity of the spin wave (=∂𝜔𝒌 ∂𝒌) and 𝑛𝒌 is the distribution function
of the spin wave.
Spin waves have been reported to possess very long coherence length, especially in
insulators, e.g., 7 µm for -Fe2O3 [212] and cm distances for YIG, which can be useful for
logic applications. A nanoscaled reconfigurable directional coupler has been calculated and
fabricated using YIG [213]. YIG with the thickness and width down to 39 and 50 nm,
respectively, has been used as a waveguide [214]. Further reduction may allow such spin-
wave logic to be implemented in a logic device. The field is often termed magnonics or
magnon spintronics. For recent reviews see, e.g., Refs. [6],[7]. Issues are generation,
propagation and detection of spin waves, manipulation, interaction (in particular nonlinear
interactions), as well as novel states such as macroscopic magnonic quantum states [215].
Progress has been very successful, provided by by the superior properties of spin waves,

– 34 –
such as short wavelengths (favouring scalability down to the nanometre range [216]), good
isolation of waveguides (no unintended cross talk), parametric amplification [217], access to
interference based functionalities (such as the majority gate [218],[219]) and nonlinear
interaction (needed for information processing). Many of the concepts developed some time
ago in the field of integrated optics have been successfully transferred into magnonics.
Examples are the development of ultra-narrow magnonic waveguides, majority based logic
[220], the magnon transistor [221], magnonic Bose-Einstein condensates carrying
supercurrents, Boguliubov waves and the ac Josephson effect [222].

6. Spin-Band Splitting
6.1. Spin filtering
The search for an applicable spin-filtering layer has successfully produced very large TMR
values using a large Zeeman splitting in the magnetic semiconductors EuO and EuS [223].
Spin filtering has also been reported using Europium and Chromium calcogenides rock-salt,
e.g., EuO and EuSe, and the spinels, e.g., CdCr2S4 and CdCr2Se4 [224],[225]. For example,
EuS shows a TMR ratio of up to 110% at 2K, which disappears above TC ∼ 16.8K [226].
Larger TMR ratios has been reported using coherent tunnelling with a MgO barrier as
detailed in Section 2.1, of which lattice matching can be precisely controlled by Al doping
[227].

6.2. Spin light emitting diode

Since DMS show a large Zeeman splitting and ferromagnetism [228], DMS can be used
as a spin aligner to inject spin-polarised carriers, i.e., spin-polarised electrons for n-SC or
holes for p-SC. The spin polarisation of the injected carriers is detected optically through
circularly polarised EL from the SC (e.g., GaAs), which are called spin LEDs. With FM p-
GaMnAs as a spin aligner, spin-polarised hole injection has been reported at low temperature
[229]. At forward bias, spin-polarised holes from the p-GaMnAs as well as unpolarised
electrons from the n-GaAs layer are injected into the InGaAs QW, so that the recombination
of the spin-polarised holes can create circularly polarised EL emission from the QW.
However, as the spin relaxation time for the holes is much shorter than that for the electrons
[230], the spin polarisation signal through the recombination process in the GaAs is very
small (about ± 1%). On the other hand, using paramagnetic n-BeMnZnSe with large Zeeman
splitting as a spin aligner, highly efficient electron spin injection has been achieved with the
applied field of ~ 30 kOe (spin polarisation in EL ~ 90%) [231]. This is because the spin
diffusion length of the electrons has been reported to be above 100 µm in the GaAs [232].

– 35 –
Similar results have been obtained using CdMnTe [233], ZnMnSe [234],[235], ZnSe [236]
and MnGe [237] but only at low temperatures (typically T < 80K). Since RT ferromagnetism
has been predicted in several DMS compounds [238] but not yet observed, spin injection at
RT with a DMS may be achievable in the near future.

7. Influence of Thermal Gradient

Spin caloritronics has a great potential for energy harvesting and highly efficient spin
transport [239]. By attaching Pt electrodes at both ends of a Ni0.81Fe0.19 strip with a
temperature gradient across the strip, spin-polarised electrons with opposite sign of the
polarisation can be collected at both ends dependent upon the directions of magnetisation
of the strip and the temperature gradient (spin Seebeck effect) [240]. The structure is much
larger than the nanometre scale (up to a millimetre scale), however, the essence of the effect
can be understood in a simple one-dimensional (1D) model. This effect converts thermal
energy into a spin voltage, which is another method to generate spin-polarised electrons.
In FM insulators, e.g., YIG and ferrites (Fe2O3), spin waves can be generated by a thermal
gradient due to the spin Seebeck and Nernst effects (see Fig. 12) without an associated
electrical current, see, e.g., Ref. [240]. Also, the opposite effect of spin-wave heat conveyers
is known [241]. This is advantageous for harvesting energy from heating source which can
be solar radiation or heat from hot parts of electronic circuits.

Fig. 12 Schematic images of flows of energy in (a) the Seebeck device (p-type) and (b) the
Nernst device during operation [242].

Similarly, anomalous spin caloritronic effects have been investigated. The anomalous
Nernst effect (ANE) is the voltage generation along the cross product of the magnetisation

– 36 –
and the temperature gradient T. The amplitude of ANE is controlled by the magnitude of
magnetic anisotropy of a material used [243]. On the other hand, anomalous Ettingshausen
effect (AEE) can be induced T along the cross product of the current Jc and the
magnetisation [244]. In an FePt thin film, the reciprocal relationship between ANE and AEE
has been evaluated. These spincaloritronic effects are promissing for energy harvesting from
thermal gradients but the amplitude oft these effects is still too small to date for practical
application.

8. Geometrical Phase
The quantum phases of charged particles in mesoscopic structures have been
investigated intensively. Their interference and oscillatory behaviours were induced by
application of an external field [245]. Electrons traveling along semiconductor or normal metal
rings threaded by a magnetic flux acquire a quantum dynamical phase that produces
interference phenomena such as the Aharonov-Bohm (AB) [246] and Altshuler-Aronov-
Spivak (AAS) [247] effects. AB oscillations have been reported in a NiFe/Cu/NiFe nanoring,
demonstrating a crossover regime between the quantum-phase effects and ferromagnetism
[248]. In addition, when the spin of the electron rotates during its orbital motion along the
ring-shaped path, the electron acquires an additional phase element known as the
geometrical or Berry phase [249].
Although spin geometrical phase has been demonstrated to be controlled in a
semicondutor ring array [250], no conclusive experimental proof on a persistent spin current
has been reported to date unfortunately. A NM nanoring [inner diameter: (200 ~ 350) nm]
with an FePt nanopillar [diameter: (120 ~ 270) nm] inside has been fabricated by a
combination of electron- beam lithography and Ar-ion milling [251]. The Cu nanoring is 150
nm wide and 20 nm thick. The centre nanopillar is designed to provide a nonuniform magnetic
field in the nanoring in its remanent state after perpendicular saturation. Four contacts are
fabricated near the nanoring for measurement of the induced current. A minor change in the
non-local signal is demonstrated indicating the possible experimental confirmation of a
persistent spin current induced by the Berry phase.

9. Mechanical Rotation
In 2011, Matsuo et al. [252] proposed a method for generation of a pure spin current by
mechanical rotation, based on the Barnett effect [253],[254]. By solving the Pauli-
Schrödinger equation, they predicted that a spin current could be generated via angular

– 37 –
momentum carried by a conductor rotating mechanically at high speed given by a (𝛀 × 𝑹) ×
𝑩 term, where 𝛀 is angular frequency, 𝑹 is distance from the centre of rotation and 𝑩 is
applied magnetic field. This additional term gives rise to spin-dependent wave packet
velocities. For materials with a large spin-orbit coupling parameter, a detectable spin
imbalance is expected to be accumulated at the edges of the sample as electrons with
opposite spins migrate in opposite directions.
The magnitude of the spin current generated by a uniformly rotating body is given by
ℏ𝛀
𝑱𝐒 = 2𝑛𝑞𝑅𝜂SO 𝐸F 𝜔C, (16)

where 𝑱𝐒 is the spin current density, 𝑞 is the electron charge, 𝑛 is the electron density, 𝑅
is the radius of rotation, 𝜂SO is the spin-orbit coupling parameter of the material, 𝛺 is the
angular frequency and 𝐸F is the Fermi energy. The term 𝜔C = 𝑞𝐵 𝑚 is the cyclotron
frequency for the wave packet of electrons treated in the derivation, where 𝑞 is the charge
of the wave packet and 𝑚 is its mass. In the case of 𝐵 ≈ 1 T, 𝛺 ≈ 1 kHz, 𝜂SO ≈ 0.59 (as in
Pt), 𝑘𝐹 ≈ 1010 m-1 and 𝑅 ≈ 0.1 m, Matsuo et al. estimates the spin current generated at the

edges of the Pt foil to be of |𝑱𝐒| ≈ 104 A/cm2. In the presence of impurity scattering, the spin

current for the radial (𝐽𝑟S) and azimuthal (𝐽𝜙S ) directions [see Fig. 13(a)] is given by [255]
𝜏𝜔C
𝐽𝑟S = |𝑱𝐒|, (17)
1 + (𝜏𝜔C)2

(𝜏𝜔C)2
𝐽𝜙S = |𝑱𝐒|, (18)
1 + (𝜏𝜔C)2

where  is the relaxation time due to the impurity scattering. With an experimental condition
reported recently [256],  C is expected to be ~ 10-3 for Pt, and the radial component will
dominate over the azimuthal element.

Fig. 13 (a) Magneto-optical measurement set-up. The magnified diagram in (b) shows the
distribution of the generated spin current.

– 38 –
 As schematically shown in Fig. 13(b), accumulated spins with opposite signs at both ends
of the samples can be detected as an in-plane “magnetic moment” using a magneto-optical
Kerr effect (MOKE) set-up [256]. This is due to small misalignment of the incident and
reflection beam from the plane normal of the sample, confirming the sensitivity of the set-up.
The MOKE measurement report that small magnetic fields below |H| = ± 4 kOe only induce
the Barnett effect for the foil attached on a rotational plate with the radius of 0.10 m due to
the Barnett effect [253] as observed earlier [257]. On the other hand, the fields above ± 4
kOe were found to generate the spin current discussed above. Such a spin current proves
that the spin-polarised carrier can be generated by mechanical rotation, which is analogous
to the spin Hall effect. Kobayashi et al. [258] have also detected spin currents generated by
using Rayleigh-type surface acoustic wave (SAW) in Ni0.81Fe0.19/Cu bilayer system. By
measuring microwave absorption at SAW excitation frequency at 1.5 GHz, a large spin-
rotation coupling effect was observed.
The kinetic energy of fluid has been demonstrated to be converted into a spin current [259].
Here, the spin–orbit interaction in Hg liquid plays a key role for the spin conversion, which
has been detected via the inverse spin Hall effect. Such magnetohydrodynamic spin
generation can also be categorised in spin mechatronics.

10. Spintronic Materials

10.1. Half-metallic ferromagnets
For further improvement in the MR junctions to meet the requirements for the set goals of
10 Gbit MRAM and 2 Tbit/in2 HDD as shown in Fig. 14, HMF needs to be developed to
achieve 100% spin polarisation at EF at RT [260],[261] leading to an infinite MR ratio using
Eq. (3). The half-metallicity is induced by the formation of a bandgap 𝛿 only in one of the
electron-spin bands in density of states (DOS). There are four major types of HMFs
theoretically proposed and experimentally demonstrated to date; (i) oxide compounds (e.g.,
rutile CrO2 [262] and spinel Fe3O4 [263]); (ii) perovskites (e.g., (La,Sr)MnO3 [264]); (iii)
magnetic semiconductors, including Zinc-blende compounds (e.g., EuO and EuS [265],
(Ga,Mn)As [22] and CrAs [266]) and (iv) Heusler alloys (e.g., NiMnSb [267]). Low-
temperature Andreev reflection measurements have confirmed that both rutile CrO2 and
perovskite La0.7Sr0.3MnO3 compounds possess almost 100% spin polarisation [268],
however, no experimental report has been proved the half-metallicity at RT to date. Among
these HMFs, magnetic semiconductors have been reported to show 100% spin polarisation
in a film form due to their Zeeman splitting in two spin bands. However, their TC are still below

– 39 –
RT [269]. The Heusler alloys exhibit the half-metallicity at RT in a bulk form but not in a film
form to date [269],[271],[272]. Even so, the Heusler alloy films can be the most promising
candidate for the RT half-metallicity due to their lattice constant matching with major
substrates, high TC and large 𝛿 at EF in general. The largest GMR ratio of 82% has been
achieved at RT by sandwiching a Ag spacer with NiAl to improve the interfacial lattice
matching as Co2Fe(Ga0.5Ge0.5)/NiAl/Ag/NiAl/Co2Fe(Ga0.5Ge0.5) [273].

Fig. 14 Relationship between a MR ratio and RA of MTJs with CoFeB/MgO/CoFeB (blue

triangles), nano-oxide layers (NOL, green squares) and Heusler alloys (red circles) with in-
plane (open symbols) and perpendicular magnetic anisotropy (closed symbols) together with
that of GMR junctions with Heusler alloys (orange rhombus). The target requirements for 2
Tbit/in2 HDD read heads as well as 1 and 10 Gbit MRAM applications are shown as purple
and yellow shaded regions, respectively. After Ref. [274].

10.2. Low damping materials

For faster magnetisation reversal in a data bit of MRAM, a low damping constant is
required, resulting in smaller switching current density for reversal. To date, Ni0.8Fe0.2 has
been used as a low damping material, while Heusler alloys have been investigated as shown
in Fig. 15 for further reduction in their Gilbert damping constant α. Theoretically, α is known
to be proportional to DOS at EF [275], ensuring the half-metallic ferromagnets to exhibit a
small α (< 0.01). Here, the magnetisation damping frequency G is determined as γαMs, where
γ and Ms are gyromagnetic ratio and saturation magnetisation, respectively. α has been
typically been measured by FMR [276] and time-resolved (TR)-MOKE [277].

– 40 –
Fig. 15 Relationship between the magnetic anisotropy constant Kueff and the Gilbert
damping constant . Single films, multilayers with heavy metals and half-metallic Heusler
alloy films are shown in green open, blue closed and red open symbols. Heusler alloys with
MgO and heavy metals are also shown in half-closed symbols. After Refs. [278],[279],[280]
and [281].

10.3. Perpendicularly anisotropic materials

A CoFeB/MgO/CoFeB system has been widely used to induce perpendicular anisotropy
[282],[103]. When the size of spintronic devices is reduced, the magnetic anisotropy energy
which ensures the thermal stability of its various magnetic components decreases. For very
small devices (typically sub-50nm in dimensions), it is therefore preferable to use
perpendicularly isotropic materials since large perpendicular anisotropy can be obtained from
bulk sources such as crystalline structure or strain, or from interfaces. In addition, some
layers can have a high Gilbert damping (such as the reference layer of magnetic tunnel
junctions), while others must exhibit a low Gilbert damping (for instance the storage layer of
STT-MRAM or the free layer of spin-torque oscillators to minimise the required excitation
current).
High perpendicular anisotropy materials with large damping can be generally realized by
using materials with large spin orbit constant, typically Pt, Ir and Au. Such materials are in
the upper right corner of Fig.15, typically [Co/Pt] or [Co/Pd] multilayers or alloys, FePt L10
ordered alloys. They are often used in the hard layer of MTJs.

– 41 –
 Finding low damping material with large perpendicular anisotropy was less obvious since
anisotropy and damping both originate from spin orbit coupling. Fortunately, some materials
or material combinations do exhibit both properties. In particular, it was discovered that large
perpendicular anisotropy exists at the interface between magnetic transition metals (Fe, Co,
Ni and their alloys) and oxides (AlOx, MgO, TaOx etc,) [103],[104][282],[283],[284],[285].
This magnetic metal/oxide interface is a quite general phenomenon resulting from interfacial
hybridisation between the electronic orbitals of the transition metal and those of the oxygen
in the adjacent oxide layer. It turned out to be particularly useful for the realisation of
CoFeB/MgO/CoFeB-based out-of-plane magnetised tunnel junctions for STT-MRAM cells
[104]. The interfacial anisotropy at Fe or FeCoB rich alloy/MgO interface is significantly larger
than at Co/MgO interface [104] and remarkably, as large as at (Co/Pt) interface (i.e., of the
order of 1.4 mJ/m²). MgO based MTJ are always annealed after deposition to improve the
crystallinity of the MgO barrier and provoke the crystallisation of the FeCoB amorphous layer
into a bcc crystalline layer. In this process, the B must migrate out-of the FeCoB alloy towards
a B-getter layer located at the interface of the FeCoB layer opposite to the MgO interface.
This B-getter layer is often made of Ta, W or Mo [104].
In STT-MRAM cells, to further increase the magnetic stability of the storage layer, it was
proposed to sandwich the layer between two MgO layers [285],[286]. This allows to benefit
from two MgO/magnetic metal interaces. The storage layer then has a typical composition of
the form MgO/FeCoB (1.4)/Mo (0.2)/FeCoB (1)/MgO (thickness in nm). More rencently, it
was proposed to further increase the anisotropy by inserting a thin MgO layer in the middle
of the storage layer thus benefiting from four MgO/magnetic metal interfaces [284],[287].
Intense research on Heusler alloys for MRAM cells is ongoing. Form their bulk properties,
they can realize the combination of high anisotropy, low damping and high spin polarisation
thanks to their half-metallic nature. For instance, a MTJ consisting of Co2FeAl (1.2)/MgO
(1.8)/Fe (0.1)/CoFeB (1.3) (thickness in nm) has been reported to show TMR = 132% and
RA = 1×106 Ω·µm2 at RT [288]. A perpendicularly magnetised seed layer can also be used
to pull out-of-plane the magnetisation of an Heusler-alloy films thanks to interfacial exchange
interactions. For example, MTJ stack with L10-CoPt/Co2MnSi/MgO/FePt has been
demonstrated [289]. A W(110) seed layer has also been reported to induce perpendicular
magnetic anisotropy in a Co2FeAl0.5Si0.5 Heusler alloy layer [290].

10.4. Antiferromagnetic materials

AF metals, e.g., IrMn3, have been traditionally used to pin the magnetisation of the
neighbouring FM layer via the interfacial exchange bias in a MR junction [291]. Due to recent
progress in AF spintronics as described in Section 3.3.2 and the criticality issues of Ir as a

– 42 –
platinum group metal, intensive investigation on AF materials have been performed.
However, the majority of the AF materials have their Néel temperature TN near or below RT.
Some oxides (e.g., NiO) and sulphides (e.g., CuFeS2) have TN > RT but they have very poor
corrosion resistance and hence cannot be used in a device. Manganese alloys (e.g., NiMn3
and PtMn3) and nitrides (e.g., MnSiN2) also have TN > RT but NiMn3 has poor corrosion
resistance and PtMn3 has very high crystallisation temperature, indicating that they cannot
be used in a device either. Therefore, there is strong demand for a new AF Heusler alloy to
be developed.
One potential candidate is an AF Heusler alloy, which are categorised into two types: (i)
full- and (ii) half-Heusler alloys. These alloys crystallise in (i) L21 phase with X2YZ
composition and (ii) C1b phase with XYZ composition [292]. The half-Heusler alloys have an
X-vacancy in the unit cell, making them susceptible to atomic displacement. Even for the full-
Heusler alloys, the perfectly-ordered L21 phase can be deformed into the B2 phase by
atomically displacing Y-Z elements, the D03 phase by X-Y displacements and the A2 phase
by randomly exchanging X-Y-Z elements. For the AF Heusler alloys, Ru2YZ, Ni2YZ and
Mn2YZ have recently been reported to exhibit AF behaviour in their L21, B2 and A2 crystalline
ordering phases. By attaching a FM Fe layer to these AF layers, Hex of up to 600 Oe at
100K, 90 Oe at 100K and 30 Oe at 100K for Ru2MnGe, Ni2MnAl and Mn2VAl, respectively,
have been found. Mn2VAl is found to maintain its AF properties at RT. These differences are
found to be induced by the AF alignment of spin moments at the Y site in unique ordered
phases. In the ordered L21 type Ru2MnZ (Z = Si, Ge, Sn or Sb), the complex AF ordering
(2nd type) is a consequence of the frustrated exchange interaction between the Mn atoms.
It is concluded that Néel temperature (TN) sharply depends on the Z element and that TN in
Ru2MnGe can be increased by avoiding the disorder in the Mn-Z sub-lattice. For Ni2MnAl,
the (checkerboard-like) AF order only exists in the chemically disordered B2 phase due to
the large AF nearest neighbour Mn-Mn interaction. Decreasing the atomic disorder in the
Mn-Al sublattice leads to non-zero total magnetisation (ferrimagnet). The excess of Mn or Ni
does not improve the quality of the AF state. From the device application point of view, Mn-
based AF Heusler alloys are ideal due to their robustness against atomic disordering,
especially at the interfaces to neighbouring layers.
For the Mn-based Heusler alloys, off-stoichiometric compositions have also been
investigated, which maintain AF spin alignment even with some degrees of atomic disorder
in the alloys. For example, by mixing two ferrimagnetic Heusler alloys, Mn3Ga and Mn2PtGa,
Mn2.4Pt0.6Ga has been demonstrated to show compensated ferrimagnetism supported by
calculations [293]. By substituting Y elements with Mn, binary Mn-based Heusler alloys can
be formed. One example is hexagonal Mn3Ge [294]. Hex of up to 1.5 kOe is measured at the

– 43 –
bilayer of epitaxial Mn3Ga (10 nm)/Co0.9Fe0.1 (2.5 nm) at RT. Magnetic anisotropy energy
and <TB> are estimated to be 3×106 erg/cm3 and ~ 400K, respectively. Recently, Hex of 430
Oe has also be reported in polycrystalline Mn3Ga/Co0.6Fe0.4 bilayers at 120K [295],[296].
By expanding the definition of the Heusler alloys to nitrides, MnN has been investigated
extensively. MnN films are grown using ultrahigh vacuum sputtering in N2 atmosphere to
achieve Mn:N=1:1. A MnN/Fe bilayer has been reported to show Hex of 1.4 kOe at RT with
<TB> = 388K [297]. To date, the minimum thickness of MnN to induce the AF behaviour is
20 nm, which needs to be almost halved to be competitive against the 6-nm-thick Ir-Mn layer
used in the latest spintronic devices.

10.5. Topological insulators and semi-metals

Topological insulators (TI) are materials that are insulating in their interior but they are
conducting on their surface. The chemical doping of TI with transition metal elements, e.g.,
Mn-doped in Bi2Ti3 [298] and in BiTeSe [299], has been reported to induce an intrinsic
magnetisation. As a new principle of spin current generation to replace the conventional
methods, e.g., the spin hall effect, Rashba-Edelstein effect [300] is key effect in an interfacial
two-dimensional electron system with spin splitting, which enables efficient charge-to-spin
conversion (see Table 1 [18]). This is a phenomenon in which spin accumulation with the
polarisation along the direction perpendicular to the current occurs as similar to the spin Hall
effect. At the surface state of TI, the spin accumulation is caused by the formation of a special
electronic state called spin-momentum locking.
Interfacial spin accumulation in TI of Bi2Se3 has been observed by applying the charge
current [301], and a strong spin ransfer torque has been generated at the interface of Bi2Se3
by applying the charge current [302]. A spin-electricity conversion has been reported in
Bi1.5Sb0.5Te1.7Se1.3, where an interface conduction is more dominant [303]. The
magnetisation reversal by spin torque using an epitaxial (Bi0.5Sb0.5)2Te3/Cr-doped
(Bi0.5Sb0.5)2Te3 bilayer films has also been reported [304].

11. Spintronic Devices

Figure 16 shows a summary of spintronic devices, which can be categorised into two, Mott-
and Dirac-types based on electron/hole spins as well as spin waves and spin/orbit moments.
For the Mott-type devices, GMR and TMR are the key phenomena used, while the spin-orbit
interactions are the fundamental phenomena used in Dirac-type devices. These devices can
also be grouped into three generations. The first generation is based on spin transport, which
utilises electrical spin generation as described in Section 2. The second generation is based

– 44 –
on spin dynamics employing spin-orbit effects, electric field and electromagnetic wave
applications in Sections 3, 4 and 5, respectively. The latest development has been entered
into the third generation employing three-dimensional structures and quantum engineering,
including the applications for quantum computation.

Fig. 16 List of spintronic devices. After Refs. [9] and [305].

11.1. Hard disk drive read head

HDD was introduced by IBM in 1956 to store 4.4 MB on 50 discs (2 kbit/in2). In 1997, a
GMR spin-valve HDD read head has been introduced by IBM. In 2005, a TMR head was
introduced by Seagate. The MgO-based TMR technology is still used in current HDD, at areal
density of > 600 Gbit/in2 [306]. However, the RA product of the MTJ tunnel barrier has to
decrease as the storage areal density keeps on increasing. Indeed, the size of the MTJ
reader decreases as the areal density increases which imposes to reduce its RA product
since the sensor impedance must remain of the order of a few tens of Ohms to match the
pre-amp impedance. For above 2 Tbit/in2 HDD applications, it becomes increasingly difficult
to use MgO-based MTJ since the barrier thickness becomes ultra low (below 1 nm) which
impacts its reliability and reduces its TMR [307]. It has been proposed by Toshiba to use
spin-valves embedding a nano-oxide spacer layer (NOL) formed of an oxide AlOx layer
comprising metallic Cu pinholes. These pinholes are intended to locally restrict the current

– 45 –
path perpendicular to the GMR stack. This NOL layer is formed by oxidising an Al1-xCux alloy
[x = (2 ~ 3)%] spacer layer [308]. A Co0.5Fe0.5 (2.5)/NOL/Co0.5Fe0.5 (2.5) (thickness in nm)
junction has demonstrated RA = (0.5 ~ 1.5) Ω·µm2 and MR = (7~10)% at RT. These values
are below the requirement for the 2 Tbit/in2 HDD and the reliability of these devices is very
uncertain due to the extremely high current density flowing through the pinholes. Therefore,
further improvement in these junctions are crucial.
Intense research is ongoing on spin-valves based on Heusler alloys and Ag spacer layer
[274] (see Fig.14) which could constitute an alternative. However, the growth of these
materials often require high temperature deposition or anneal not compatible with head
fabrication process. Besides, the total thickness of the reader in HDD must be as low as
possible below 20 nm since it determines the reader shield to shield spacing and therefore
the linear downtrack resolution. This adds another constrain in the design of the reader MR
stack.
For the further improvement in the HDD areal density, a trilemma has to be overcome
between areal density (grain size), thermal stability and writability [309]. To improve the
writability, possible solutions consist in assisting the magnetisation switching during write by
transferring additional energy to the local magnetisation through heat transfer or microwave.
Heat-assisted magnetic recording (HAMR) was proposed [310],[311]. A laser beam is
employed to locally transfer heat to the media. This is achieved through a plasmonic antenna
which allows to create a thermal gradient as large as 10 K/nm. The resulting local heating of
the media reduces the thermal stability of the data bit to be written which eases the switching
of its magnetisation. A successful demonstration has been reported [312]. In 2012, TDK
demonstrated a new HAMR head with the areal density of 1.5 Tbit/in2 and bit-error rate of
10-2. Seagate also demonstrated a new HAMR drive in 2012. A problem which had to be
solved is the reliability of head and particularly of the plasmonic antenna which reaches quite
elevated temperatures. Head lifetime above 1000 hours was demonstrated [313].
Microwave-assisted magnetic recording (MAMR) was also proposed by Zhu et al. as
another energy assisted recording approach [314]. The MAMR utilises microwaves produced
by a spin transfer oscillator patterned in the write gap of the write head to reduce the switching
field by an order of magnitude [315]. Great progress has been made lately on this technology.
In 2017, Western Digital announced the commercialisation of MAMR based hard disk drives.

11.2. Magnetic sensors

Current magnetic sensors have been used to detect position, angle, rotation and magnetic
fields, based on three key types of technologies: Hall, AMR and GMR effects. Hall sensors
are made by patterning Silicon into a cross-bar, where sensitivity can be increased by

– 46 –
replacing Si with compound semiconductors such as InAs and GaAs. However, these
sensors suffer from large temperature dependence of their output in a finite magnetic field
and have limitations in their working temperature range (typically between 230 and 390K) as
well as their detectable field range (between 102 and 103 kOe).
For the magnetic sensors, the presence of European companies is very large. As shown
in Table 2, the magnetic sensor market is dominated by the top 10 suppliers who have 90%
of the worldwide market [316]. Japan and USA are the leading players in magnetic sensors,
holding 28% and 24% shares, respectively. The EU has 5 suppliers of magnetic sensors,
who produce by value $575m with 38% market share, most of which are produced by SMEs.
Even though over 70% of magnetic sensors are based on Hall devices, only a few suppliers
have been developing GMR and TMR sensors intensively. Currently, almost 20% of sensors
are based on GMR (and TMR) techniques, leading to 7.6% of the current world market. The
EU-based suppliers produced almost 2.5bn sensors in 2013 [317], out of which 0.1bn units
are based on GMR (and TMR) technologies. The pro-duction of sensor units is anticipated
to grow monotonically and to reach 9.6bn units with revenues of $2.9bn in 2020. Hence, the
development of a new highly-sensitive magnetic sensor is timely and holds large impact in
our society.
Such a highly sensitive magnetic sensor holds a key for the magnetoencephalography,
which can detect a small magnetic field at the resolution of ~ 5 mm in space and ~ 1 ms in
time [318]. The magnetic field is generated by activated synapse voltages as an electric
dipole moment, which can either be measured as a voltage, i.e., brain wave, or a magnetic
field induced by a current due to the synapse voltage, i.e., magnetoencephalography. Since
the brain is covered by a scalp and crania, which have high electrical resistance, as well as
cerebrospinal fluid with low resistance, brain wave measurements cannot precisely
determine the position of the activated synapse in the brain. However, these elements are
transparent to a magnetic field, allowing accurate determination of the activated synapse for
the case of magnetoencephalography. However, the directions of the electric dipole
moments can be freely generated depending on the shape of cerebral cortex. This means a
magnetic sensor for the magnetoencephalography can be very sensitive to the dipole parallel
to the scalp which generates a magnetic field perpendicular to the scalp, while it can be
hardly sensitive to that perpendicular to the scalp which generates a field parallel to the scalp.
Currently both a superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) and an optically
pumped atomic magnetometer have been used to achieve fT/Hz1/2 resolution. However,
SQUID requires cryogenic temperature for the operation and the atomic magnetometer is
not suitable for minaturisation due to the minimum size of ~ 1 cm3 to maintain its sensitivity.
Hence, it is crucial to develop new magnetic sensors with higher spatial and time resolution,

– 47 –
so that they can be used in an array form with different tilted angles to avoid such
insensitiveness.

Table 2 Supplies of magnetic sensors by revenue (in $m) [316].

Suppliers Countries 2010 2011 Shares Key sensors
Asahi Kasei Microsystems Japan 300 372 25% Hall
Allegro MicroSystems USA 264 302 20% Hall
Infineon Technologies Germany 142 188 13% Hall, GMR
Micronas Germany 143 150 10% Hall, (TMR)
Melexis Microelectronic
Belgium 107 112 7% Hall, (TMR)
Systems
Netherlan
NXP 92 96 6% AMR, (TMR)
ds
Aichi Steel Japan 18 40 3% Amorphous
Austria Microsystems Austria 21 29 2% (TMR)
MEMSIC USA 2 29 2% AMR
Diodes USA 22 24 2% Hall
Honeywell USA AMR
NVE USA GMR, TMR
Hitachi Japan GMR
Sinfulus Germany GMR, TMR
Total 1225 1499

Using a MTJ, consisting of Si/SiO2//Ta (5)/Ru (10)/Ni0.8Fe0.2 (70)/Ru (0.9)/Co0.4Fe0.4B0.2

(3)/MgO (1.6)Co0.4Fe0.4B0.2 (3)/Ru (0.9)/Co0.75Fe0.25 (5)/Ir0.22Mn0.78 (10)/Ta (5)/Ru (30)
(thickness in nm), the noise density of 14 pT/Hz1/2 has recently been reported at a single
frequency of 10 Hz [319]. Further improvement in sensitivity is necessary for broader usages,
especially biomedical applications.

11.3. Magnetic random access memory

The concept of MRAM was first proposed by Schwee in 1972 [320]. The functionality of
MRAM was demonstrated with an Fe-Ni-Co alloy-based GMR cell [321]. In 1996, the first
MTJ cell was implemented in an MRAM demonstration [322]. IBM and Motorola have
independently developed 1-kbit and 512-kbit MRAM, respectively, in 1999 [323],[324].
Motorola then developed a 1-Mbit, 2-Mbit and 4-Mbit MRAM [325],[326]. NEC-Toshiba also
demonstrated 1-Mbit and 16-Mbit MRAM in 2003 and 2006, respectively [327]. Fast random
access has been demonstrated at a speed of ~ 5 ns for read and write [328]. In 2007,
Freescale Semiconductor, which was spun off from Motorola in 2004, commercialised a 4-
Mbit MRAM with a working temperature between – 40°C and 105°C, for e.g., automobile
applications. In 2010, EverSpin Technologies, which was spun off from Freescale in 2008,
started to ship a 16-Mbit Toggle MRAM. This MRAM is field written. It is operated at a bias
voltage of 3.3 V and a current of 60 mA (110 mA) for read-out (write-in) at the speed of 35

– 48 –
ns. This Toggle MRAM suffers from the large current required to write which limits its
downsize scalability due to electromigration in the field lines.
Later, Grandis and Sony proposed the Spin Transfer Torque RAM, which utilises CIMS for
writing rather than an Ampère field as for Toggle MRAM. Sony demonstrated a 4-kbit
functional STT-MRAM chip [329]. They have achieved a resistance area product RA of 20
m2 and a TMR ratio of 160% with a minimum writing current of 200 µA. In 2007, Hitachi-
Tohoku University have demonstrated a 2-Mbit STT-MRAM with a cell size of 1.6  1.6 µm2
(16 F2, F: fabrication rule), a TMR ratio of 100% and a writing current of 200 µA.
For a 1 Gbit STT-MRAM, the junction cell diameter (F) should be < 65 nm with a resistance
area product (RA) < 30 Ω·µm2 and a MR ratio > 100% [330]. For a 10 Gbit MRAM, the cell
diameter should be reduced to be < 20 nm with RA < 3.5 Ω·µm2 and a MR ratio >100%.
Here, low RA is required to satisfy the selection transistor impedance matching [331] and low
power consumption (< 100 fJ/bit). A standard MRAM architecture commercially employed is
one MRAM cell connected in series with a selection transistor, where a large MR ratio (>
150%) is essential to allow for fast read-out with sufficiently low read error rate. In order to
achieve these requirements, intensive investigation has been carried out on the
CoFeB/MgO/CoFeB junctions. In-plane CoFeB/MgO/CoFeB MTJs have successfully
satisfied the requirement for the 10 Gbit MRAM by in terms of RA = 0.9 Ω·µm2 and TMR =
102% at RT [332] (as shown as open triangles with a blue fit in Fig. 14) but not in terms of
thermal stability and therefore of memory retention. Driven by scalability, and taking
advantage of the perpendicular magnetic anisotropy at the CoFeB/MgO interface, industrial
efforts focus on perpendicularly magnetised STT-MRAM as it offers large retention and small
cell footprint. Leading semiconductor industries and tool suppliers have aggressively
launched their development program for STT-MRAM for either eFlash or SRAM replacement.
Perpendicularly-magnetised MTJ (p-MTJ) has been investigated to achieve the requirement
for the 1 Gbit MRAM with RA = 18 Ω·µm2 and TMR = 124% at RT [333]. Further improvement
is required to satisfy the 10 Gbit MRAM target. These MTJs under development are expected
to replace the current-generation 256 Mbit MRAM with perpendicular magnetic anisotropy
produced by Everspin [334]. Samsung shipped their new MRAM with a 28-nm fabrication
rule for embedded-memory evaluation in March 2019 [335].
For the next-generation STT-MRAM, the following issues need to be solved: reduction of
the switching critical current density (i.e., reduction of power consumption) and reduction of
dot-to-dot variability. Based on the scalability of the MRAM bits, CIMS must be used as
discussed above. For the reduction of power consumption, the tradeoff between thermal
stability of the free layer and its writability has to be optimised. A synthetic FM, such as
CoFeB/Ru/CoFeB, has been implemented as the free layer, resulting in five times more

– 49 –
thermal stability with only 80% increase in the critical current density meaning a four-fold
improvement in the figure of merit /Ic. This configuration can achieve a 10-Gbit MRAM
device. The remaining issue to realise a high-density STT-MRAM is the reduction of the dot
to dot variability which goes through process optimisation in particular concerning the etching
of the magnetic stack.
In order to promote MRAM as a viable solution for high desnity memory arrays [e.g.,
dynamic random access memory (DRAM)], several solutions for the patterning of MTJ at
very narrow pitch have been proposed, either by improved etching chemistries or by
unconventional strategies, such as depositing the MTJ on prepatterned pillars. A new
concept to increase the downsizing, called perpendicular shape anisotropy (PSA)-STT-
MRAM [101],[102] has been introduced, which consists in significantly increasing the
thickness of the storage layer so as to induce a perpendicular shape anisotropy that
reinforces the interfacial anisotropy. Hence, large thermal stability factors can be achieved
down to sub-10 nm diameters.
A new class of magnetic memory called spin-orbit-torque (SOT)-MRAM [336] offers cache-
compatible high speed and improved endurance, at the cost of larger writing currents and
footprint. In order to reduce the writing current and therefore the size of the selection
transistor, charge-spin conversion materials with low resistivity and large SOT efficiency
must be developed. To be operated in stand-alone mode, these devices require applying a
static magnetic field bias, for which several embedded solutions have been recently
proposed, some demonstrated on large scale wafer [337].
Since most of the power dissipation is due to Ohmic conduction, electric field control of
magnetism has been suggested as a new MRAM writing mechanism, enabling significant
reduction of the energy consumption [173],[338]. As no current is needed to operate the
device except during the read operation, the power consumption is reduced to the
charging/discharging energy through the MTJ, which results in a very low switching energy
compared with that of STT switching. Although significant results have been achieved in
voltage-controlled MRAM, there are still some issues for practical use. First, VCMA with
reasonable applied voltage (~ 1V) is so far too weak to be able to induce magnetisation
switching while insuring sufficient magnetic thermal stability in standby. Second, the writing
time window is small and size dependent, resulting in reliability issues.
Besides, like SOT, voltage control also requires an in-plane field. A promising perspective
to mitigate these issues is offered by hybrid VCMA-STT combinations in 2-terminal devices
or by VCMA-SOT combinations in 3-terminal MTJ devices, which enable write speed
acceleration, lower current thresholds, as well as selective SOT switching of several MTJs
sharing a single write line [339].

– 50 –
11.4. Spin-torque oscillator
By extending FMR as discussed in Section 5.2.2, microwave generation has been reported
in a Co/Cu/Co GMR nanopillar under the application of STT by Kiselev et al. [340]. By
applying a dc current into a MR nanopillar, the magnetisation in the free layer tries to switch
by CIMS. However, by applying an additional magnetic field to compensate STT, the
magnetisation can precess consistently, spin-torque oscillation. Here, the magnitude of the
oscillation is proportional to the MR ratio [341]. Accordingly, a MgO-based MTJ has been
used to demonstrate 140 nW oscillation [342].
Another critical parameter of the spin-torque oscillator (STO) is the Q-factor, which
depends on the MR ratio, junction resistance, bias voltage and oscillation angle. The above
MgO-based MTJ shows the Q-factor of ~ 5, indicating multiple oscillation may be induced in
the nanopillar. GMR nanocontacts, on the other hand, can handle a large bias voltage,
leading to the Q-factor of up to 18,000 at the oscillation frequency of 34 GHz [343]. However,
the oscillation power is only 1 nW. By using a perpendicularly-magntised free layer, the Q-
factor of MTJ has been reported to be 135 with maintaining 550 nW oscillation [344].
For a device application, the Q-factor and oscillation power needs to be over 100 and 1
µW, respectively. Recently, a sombrero-shaped STO has been used for the spin-torque
oscillation with achieving the maximum Q-factor of 3,200 and 2.4 µW [345]. STO is hence
almost ready to be implemented in a device.

11.5. Neuromorphic logic

Nanoelectronic devices, namely silicon chips, have been following Moore’s law by
increasing the number of transistors on a chip over the last decades. However, most of recent
workloads run on a chip cannot use the entire transistors and their clusters, i.e., cores,
causing a problem called “dark silicon”. In order to solve such inefficiency, beyond von-
Neumann-type chip architecture has been sought. One of the solutions is neuromorphic
computing to mimic a brain, where a neuron only sends a signal when a spike input to the
neuron exceeds a threshold. The neuron can also change its form to record the input
patterns. Since the pioneering work on neuromorphic computing by Mead of the California
Institute of Technology in 1980, many researchers in the USA and EU have been
investigating new architectures and scaling up the number of their artificial synapses (see
Table 3).

Table 3 List of major neuromorphic computing projects.

Projects Neurogrid TrueNorth Loihi BrainScaleS SpiNNaker Biocomp
Institutes Stanford IBM Intel Heidelberg Manchester CNRS

– 51 –
 Years 2009 2014 2017 2015 2015 2017
reported
Technologies CMOS 14 nm 0.5m ARM MTJ
CMOS processors
Neurons 65,536 130k 4m 100m/rack
Synapses 286m 130m 1bn
Energy 1/10,000 1/1,000
References [346] [347] [348] [349] [350] [351]

IBM and Intel independently demonstrated neuromorphic operation of over 130 million (m)
synapses. TrueNorth uses resistive random access memory (ReRAM) at 20 Hz operation,
while Loihi uses static random access memory (SRAM) with over 1 GHz operation. They also
achieved over three orders of magnitude reduction in their energy consumption as compared
to the current CMOS technology. In parallel, the European Union (EU) initiated the Human
Brain Project by funding the BrainScaleS [349] and SpiNNaker [350] projects. The
BrainScaleS system is based in Heidelberg employing silicon-based analogue electronics to
model four million neurons and one billion (bn) synapses. The system runs 10,000 times
faster than its biological archetype. The SpiNNaker system, on the other hand, is based in
Manchester using parallel computing. It planned to use one million ARM processors. These
artificial synapses are all based on the current Si-based CMOS technology, which is
advantageous from the viewpoints of their fabrication and implementation but with less
robustness under extreme conditions, e.g., high temperature use and radiation exposure, as
compared with metal-based chips.
On contrary, another European project, Biocomp [351], utilises voltage-tuneable nano-
resistance in a metallic MTJ, which has also been studied by Tohoku University in Japan
[352]. Their concept is to utilise resistance changes in a current-induced magnetisation
reversal process and to control them by taking a “minor” loop in the process. Here, the data
is stored as a magnetisation direction in one of the ferromagnetic layers in a MTJ, which can
be reversed by applying a current. Phase-synchronisation of a vortex-type STO array has
also been demonstrated [353]. Up to eight STOs are used to demonstrate long-term stability
of the phase difference better than 1.6 ms and the noise power spectral density of phase
difference of – 80 dBc/Hz at 1 kHz offset frequency
Recently, probabilistic magnetisation reversal has also been used for stochastic
computation [354]. An array of MTJ consisting of CoFeB/MgO/CoFeB has been employed to
demonstrate the factorisation of integers up to 945. Similar chaotic behaviour has been
reported in a vortex oscillator with a nano-contact up to 1.5 GHz [355]. Such a computational
method can bridge between the conventional and quantum computations with low energy
consumption.

– 52 –
11.6. Racetrack memory
Following Slonczewski [43] and Berger [88], STT concept has also been applied to
displace DW by flowing an electrical current through DW. DW displacement as discussed in
Section 3.1.4 can also be used to produce a racetrack memory as a high density shift register
memory as shown in Fig. 17 [356],[357]. This racetrack memory, originally proposed by
Parkin, potentially extends a device structure into a 3D configuration. In a racetrack memory,
information is stored in the form of DWs along magnetic racetracks on a wafer. DWs are
caused to move in synchronism around the racetracks by applying spin-polarised current
pulses. Information is written by a domain injection pad and read by a spin tunnel junction at
the end of the wire. This technology accommodates multiple magnetic DWs per racetrack,
and the spacing between consecutive magnetic DWs that defines the bit length is controlled
by pinning sites formed from notches along the racetrack [358].
Experimentally, DWs need to be pinned at precise positions following the wall motion is
induced by a current. A FM micro-wire has been prepared with DW, giving a current density
between 107 and 108 A/cm2 for the wall motion [359],[360]. The velocity of the wall motion
has also been estimated to be (2 ~ 6) m/s [108]. A similar experiment has also been
performed in a DMS wire [361],[362]. Since a vortex-like component in the wall can induce
random movement of the wall after the current injection, a step-like motion is required for
memory applications. Wall motion at a speed of 100 m/s under a current density of 2  108
A/cm2 has been achieved [363],[364]. This type of DW motion has been implemented into an
MRAM device to switch the magnetisation in the free layer of a bit, which has been
demonstrated by NEC with a wall separation of 45 to 60 nm [365]. Recently, much faster
speed up to 750 m/s were achieved in synthetic antiferromagnetic wires with perpendicular
anisotropy [366].
In order to achieve fast read/write operation, the DW motion dependent upon the current-
pulse width has been studied [367],[368]. Thomas et al. have observed amplification of the
DW oscillation even after the pulsed current injection. By carefully matching the time
constants of these phenomena, they have reported a possibility of reducing the critical
current density for DW motion using numerical calculations. During the DW motion, complex
oscillatory motions can occur depending on the shape of the vortex components of DW [369].
By tuning the current pulse, coherent and reproducibly smooth motion of DW has been
achieved.
In order to realise the racetrack memory, micro- or nanometre wide FM wire needs to be
fabricated either with very smooth edge, which ensures uniform DW displacement, or with
periodical DW traps at the edge. To extend the racetrack concept to 3D, it would be important

– 53 –
to fabricate these wires in the shape of “U” figure as shown in Fig. 17. These requirements
are very severe to the current nanofabrication techniques.
The remaining key issues for memory application is to fabricate reproducible DW pinning
with uniform pinning strength and reasonable density. Initial RM concept uses a series of
notches for pinning, which suffers from the broad distributions in their shapes by
nanofabrication, resulting in the broad distributions in their pinning strength and the
corresponding critical current densities for their displacement. Comb-shapes have then been
used as an alternative but they cannot provide uniform pinning fields either [370]. For RM
using a DMS wire, thickness steps can act as pinning sites but with a limited number [361].
Exchange bias has been demonstrated to be employed as DW pinning by simply depositing
additional AF nanowires across the FM nanowire [371]. The exchange bias fields, which
directly determine the pinning strendth, can be controlled by the setting conditions at the
AF/FM interfaces. Such interfaces can be fabricated using photolithography. Similar
configuration can be achieved by metal diffusion at the desired location of the DW pinning
centres [372].

Fig. 17 Schematic diagram of a racetrack memory concept in (A) vertical and (B)
horizontal configurations. (C) Reading and (D) writing operation can be carried out
electrically. (E) 3D-array concept [368].

– 54 –
 Instead of DW as a memory bit, a magnetic skyrmion, which is a topologically stable entity
in FM via DMI, can be used for RM. The comparison between these two quasi-particles are
shown in Table 4, showing the advantages of skyrmions [373]. However, they also have
disadvantages, including easy pinning outside pinning positions, unstability at RT
(collapsing) and sideway motion. The dynamics of a skyrmion can be determined by the
competition of adiabatic and non-adiabatic STT terms [374]. Figure 18 shows a simulater
result of a skyrmion moving at the speed of 20 m/s with the adiabatic and non-adiabatic terms
to be  = 0.1 and  = 0.1.

Table 4 Comparison between skyrmions and DWs.

Skyrmions DWs
Size [nm] 10 ~ 50 20 ~ 50
Speed [m/s] ~ 100 ~ 500 ~ 750
Critical current [A/cm] 102 ~ 107

The skyrmion motion has been demonstrated in a multilayer of Ta/CoFeB/Ta-O at the

speed of ~ 10 m/s at RT [375]. Further increase in the speed > 100 m/s has then be achieved
in Pt/CoFeB/MgO [376] and magnetically symmetric structures [377]. Using such current-
induced skyrmion motion, skyrmion logic has been proposed and demonstrated [378]. Using
a “Y”-shaped wire, both AND and OR operation has been demonstrated. In addition, the size
of the skyrmions can be controlled by applied magnetic field [154]. These devices use one
of the characteristics of the skyrmion, polarity. However, skyrmion has another property,
chirality. Nakatani et al. have reported the skyrmion logic using the chirality [379]. It was
shown that the chirality of the skyrmion can be controlled by a pulse heat spot by simulation.

Fig. 18 Simulated Boloch-type skyrmion motion by an electrical current (animation).

11.7. Spin-polarised field effect transistor

In order to realise a spin-FET, the modulation of spin-polarised electrons accumulated in
the semiconductor material needs to be achieved. The spin-orbit interaction Hamiltonian can
be derived from the Dirac equations [380]:
𝑞ℏ2
𝐻SO = 4𝑚2𝑐2(𝝈 ∙ [𝑬 × 𝒑]), (19)

– 55 –
where q, ℏ , m, c, 𝝈 , 𝑬 and 𝒑 are the electron charge, Planck constant, electron mass,
speed of light, Pauli matrices, electric field and electron momentum, respectively. By
comparison with the Rashba Hamiltonian 𝐻R = 𝜂SO(𝝈 × 𝒌) ∙ 𝒗 (𝒌: wave vector and 𝒗: unit
vector perpendicular to plane),
𝑞ℏ2 𝑞ℏ2 𝑉G
𝐻R = 4𝑚2𝑐2(𝝈 ∙ [𝑬 × 𝒑]) = 4𝑚2𝑐2 𝑑 (𝝈 × 𝒌) ∙ 𝒗. (20)

(i) Electric field operation

Therefore, the spin-orbit interaction constant 𝜂SO can be obtained by using a gate voltage
VG and distance between an electron path and a gate length d:
𝑞ℏ2 𝑉G
𝜂SO = 4𝑚2𝑐2 𝑑 . (21)

For commonly-used InGaAs 2DEG, a 180º phase shift can be achieved for a separation
between an injector and a detector: 𝑙 = Δ𝜃ℏ 2𝑚 ∗ 𝜂SO ≈ 3 µm, and gate length: 𝑤 =
2

ℏ2 2𝑚 ∗ 𝜂SO ≈ 1 µm. The corresponding electric field required is estimated to be 𝑉G 𝑑 =

4𝑚 ∗ 𝑐2𝜂SO 𝑞ℏ2 ≈ 4.3  1010 V/m, where m* is the electron effective mass. This provides d ~
2

1 nm and VG ~ 43 V, which are very difficult to realise with present nano-fabrication

techniques and requires a further improvement of the spin-orbit interaction constant 𝜂SO to
achieve a realistic spin transistor. Experimentally, electrical field operation has been
demonstrated in a InAs QW with achieving a spin rotation over a distrance of 0.54 µm [381],
which is not suitable for device-level miniaturisation.

(ii) Magnetic field operation

Instead of an electric field, a magnetic field can be used as an electromagnetic gate. As a
demonstration, a lateral spin-valve structure has been fabricated using a non-magnetic Cu
nano-ring in order to split the diffusive spin-current path for operation [382]. By providing
Larmor precession independently onto each spin path with respect to the distance from a dc
current path, the dc current introduces a perpendicular Ampère field and acts as a gate in a
three-terminal device. Successful spin-current modulation is demonstrated in a non-local
signal, which is 30% more effective than that expected from the conventional simple Larmor
precession, i.e., the Hanle effect. This is predominantly due to the shorter oscillation period
observed as a result of arithmetic operation of the spin currents. The same modulation can
also be applied to a SC nano-ring for magnetic-field operation. It is therefore important to
minimise the device dimensions to operate a spin-polarised electron current effectively.

(iii) Optical operation

– 56 –
 Circularly polarised light can also be used as a gate for a nano-spin motor [383]. A variable
wavelength continuous-wave laser with a photo-elastic modulator was used to introduce a
circularly polarised beam to a non-local Fe/n-GaAs device. Time-resolved Kerr rotation
technique was employed to obtain the n-GaAs excitation wavelength (822 nm), the spin
dephasing time (2.9 ns), and the electron g-factor (– 0.43). In order to test the feasibility of
optical gating, the circularly polarised beam has been illuminated to the region of pure spin
current between the injector and the detector ferromagnets, while observing the changes in
the non-local voltage so that the spin-FET-type operation can be verified. The linear increase
of the non-local voltage with the laser power is observed, which can be accounted to both
heating and photoexcitation. However, there are no significant changes between the
circularly polarised and the unpolarised lights, which suggests that the observed increase
can be solely from the magnetic circular dichroism. The optical gating technique is expected
to have significant advantages over conventional electric and magnetic field operation due
to a lower power consumption of at least 25%.

11.8. Spin-polarised light emitting diode and laser

Circularly polarised light emission was initially studied in a InGaAs QW structure (QW)
[384]. A vertical cavity surface emitting laser (VCSEL) was fabricated with circular
polarisation in Voigt geometry, showing 35 mW power under a magnetic field of 20 kOe. The
VCSEL operation was then demonstrated both by optical and electrical injection [385]. By
optimising the structure to reduce spin–orbit coupling, just a 4% spin polarisation of injected
carriers led to a nearly complete (96%) polarisation of emitted light reported with a QW-
VCSEL, demonstrating that such lasers can be highly efficient spin filters and spin amplifiers,
as predicted theoretically [386]. The behaviour of the spin lasers was analysed by the bucket
model [387]. The model offers a way to design a desirable spin laser for both QW and QD
configurations. Spin-injection modulation was also demonstrated to be able to eliminate
parasitic frequency modulation (chirp) and to enhance the modulation bandwidth [388],
improving the two key parameters in lasers. The operation frequency can be over 11 GHz,
which is highly advantageous for future spintronic communications via circularly polarised
light at RT [389]. The mechanism of VCSEL can also be described using a spin-flip model
[390]. Elliptically polarised fields are investigated and the spin polarisation is determined by
the initial pump power.
These spin-polarised lasers are limited by their constituent materials. Recently, Fe3O4
nanoparticles dispersed on GaN nanorods have been reported to emit spin-polarised laser
with spin polarisation up to 28.2% at RT under a low magnetic field of 3.5 kOe [391]. This
emission is induced by the selective charge transfer of electrons with opposite spins at the

– 57 –
Fe3O4/GaN interfaces. Similar laser emission may be realised using a wide range of
materials.

12. Future Perspectives

Spin-electronics is at the verge of becoming a mainstream technology in microelectronics.
The launch of magnetic memory production in 2018 at major microelectronic foundries marks
the adoption of spintronics by microelectronics industry. This decisive step has now been
passed and lot of further developments should yield to new applications of spintronic
phenomena and devices.
In particular, the following items should be considered for further improvements or new
directions in spintronic device applications:
(i) Development of low-power electronics by taking an advantage of non-volatility of
magnetic based devices and electric field writing. This requires the development of materials
with larger VCMA coefficient, the develomment of RT multiferroic material integrable in MTJ
with large TMR and CMOS compatible or of the other materials sensitive to an electric field
such as magnetic semiconductors which could operate at RT.
(ii) Low power read-out using spin-orbit phenomena rather than tunnel magnetoresistance.
(iii) Innovative circuits architecture taking full advantage of spintronic phenomena,
materials and devices (e.g., in memory computing, normally-off/instant-on architecture).
(iv) Unconventional computing using spintronic devices (e.g., stochastic computing).
(v) Innovative magnetic field sensors with increased sensitivity, reduced temperature
dependence, or broader field dynamics for all kinds of applications from position encoders to
medical diagnosis or HDD read-heads.
(vi) Coupling of photonics and nanomagnetism/spintronics in relation with the development
of optical interconnects in electronics and all optical writing in storage technology.
(vii) 3D spintronic embodiments for high-density memory and storage devices.
(viii) Energy harvesting from thermal gradients via spincaloritronics or electromagnetic
radiations using spin-diodes.
(ix) Development of artificial neurones and synpases for artificial intelligence based on
spintronic devices.
(x) Spintronic devices optimised for low-temperature operation for quantum engineering or
large scale computers.

Acknowledgements

– 58 –
The authors would like to thank the financial support by JST-EC DG RTD Coordinated
research project (FP7-NMP3-SL-2013-604398), EPSRC-JSPS Core-to-Core programme
(EP/M02458X/1) and JST CREST (JPMJCR17J5). The UK team has been supported by
EPSRC grants (EP/I000933/1 and EP/K03278X/1), Royal Society research grant and
International Collaboration Center of the Institute for Materials Research at Tohoku
University. B.D. acknowledges support from ERCEA via ERC MAGICAL 669204. B.H.
acknowledges financial support by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (SFB/TRR 173
“Spin + X”, Project B01).

– 59 –
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ATSUFUMI HIROHATA, PHD

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

HESLINGTON

YORK YO10 5DD

UNITED KINGDOM
PHONE: +44 (0)1904 32 3245

FAX: +44 (0)1904 32 2335

EMAIL: [email protected]

Professor Marcelo Knobel

Editor-in-Chief
Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials
State University of Campinas Institute of Physics
Gleb Wataghin, Rua Sérgio Buarque de Holanda 777
13.083-859 SP, Campinas, Brazil

27 January 2020

Dear Editors,
We wish to submit the original research article, “Review on Spintronics: Principles and Device
Applications“ for your consideration for the publication in Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic
Materials. We confirm that the work is original and has not been published, nor is under review, for
publication elsewhere. We have no conflicts of interest to disclose for the submission of this article.
Yours sincerely,

Atsufumi Hirohata
Professor in Nanoelectronics
[392]

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- Broad overview on eight major methods for spin generation is given with their physical
principles.
- Corresponding device applications are discussed based on their recent development.
- Future perspectives on the spintronic devices are provided at the end of this review.

[393]

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