EE 423 Switchgear and Protection Engineering

Lecture 4

Protective Relays

1
 Protective Relays
▪ Protective relay is an electrical device connected
between the main circuit and the circuit breaker that
detects the fault and initiates the operation of the
circuit breaker to isolate the defective section from the
rest of the system.
▪ Electrical quantities which may change under fault
conditions include voltage, current, frequency, power,
impedance and phase angle. Relay continuously
measures the quantities.
▪ The changes in one or more of measured quantities,
gives the sign to the protective relay on the presence of
fault.
▪ When fault is detected the relay operates the trip circuit
to opening of the circuit breaker.
 Fundamental requirements of
protective relaying
1. Selectivity: Ability of the protective system to
select correctly that part of the system in trouble
and disconnect the faulty part without disturbing
the rest of the system
• This can be facilitated by dividing the system in
the following protective zones:
– Generators
– Low voltage switchgear
– Transformers
– High voltage switchgear
– Transmission lines

4/24/2023 3
 Fundamental requirements of
protective relaying
2. Speed: The relay system should disconnect
the faulty section as fast as possible for the
following reasons:
– Electrical apparatus may be damaged if they carry
the fault current for a long time
– A failure on the system leads to a great reduction
in the system voltage
– It reduces the possibility of the fault to develop to
more severe type

4/24/2023 4
 Fundamental requirements of
protective relaying
3. Sensitivity: Ability of the relay system to
operate with low value of actuating quantity
4. Reliability: ability of the relay system to
operate under the pre-determined conditions
5. Simplicity: The relaying system should be
simple so that it can be easily maintained
6. Economy: As a rule of thumb the protective
gear should not cost more than 5% of total
cost of the component to be protected
4/24/2023 5
Example of protective relays (ABB)

4/24/2023 6
Example of protective relays (Siemens)

4/24/2023 7
Example of connection of overcurrent relay
 Relay Circuit
Parts of the circuit

✓Primary winding of the

CT which is connected
in series with the line to
be protected
✓Secondary winding of
the CT and the relay
operating coil
✓Tripping circuit which
may be either AC or DC

4/24/2023 9
 Terminal designations for CTs
▪ Terminals for current transformers in the circuit should be
properly marked for primary and the corresponding
secondary terminals.
▪ Example

▪ Polarity in a CT is similar to the identification of +ve and –ve terminals

of a battery. Polarity is very important when connecting relays, as
this will determine correct operation or not depending on the types
of relays. The terminals of CT are marked by P1 and P2 on the
primary, and S1 and S2 on the secondary.
 Open Circuits of CT
▪ Current transformers generally work at a low flux density.
Core is then made of very good metal to give small
magnetizing current. On open-circuit, secondary
impedance now becomes infinite and the core
saturates. This induces a very high voltage in the primary
up to approximately system volts and the corresponding
volts in the secondary will depend on the number of
turns, multiplying up by the ratio (i.e. volts/turn × no. of
turns).
▪ Since CT normally has much more turns in secondary
compared to the primary, the voltage generated on
the open-circuited CT will be much more than the
system volts.
▪ HENCE AS A SAFETY PRECAUTION, NEVER OPEN-CIRCUIT
A CURRENT TRANSFORMER ON LOAD!!!
 Tripping Batteries
▪ The relay/circuit breaker combination depends
entirely on the tripping battery for successful
operation. In many designs, without tripping
batteries relays and hence circuit breakers can fail
to operate.
▪ It is therefore necessary to ensure that batteries
and chargers are regularly inspected and
maintained at the highest possible level of
efficiency at all times to enable correct operation
of relays at the correct time.
 Battery charger
▪ In a protection system, it is necessary that the
control DC voltage shall remain constant for as
much time as possible, so that the system works
without interruption. Hence, the batteries are
normally kept on charge continuously by a battery
charger. The charger is a rectifier, which produces
a slightly higher voltage compared to the nominal
cell voltage of a battery. The main power source is
derived from the normally available AC source,
which is rectified by the charger.
 Time delay
▪ Protective relays compare the electrical variables of
networks such as current, voltage, frequency, power,
and impedances with predetermined values, and then
automatically give orders for action to open a circuit-
breaker or give off an alarm when the monitored value
goes above the threshold.
▪ Orders from relay for action to open a circuit-breaker
can be time delayed and in this case will only be
activated if the current monitored rises above the
setting threshold for a period of time at least equal to
the set time delay. Time delay should allow for
information transmission time and information
processing time.
▪ Delay can be either definite time delay or inverse time
delay.
 Definite time operation

Is=operating current threshold.

T=operating time delay
 Inverse time operation

Is=operating current threshold corresponding to the

vertical asymptote of the curve.
T=operating time delay for 10xIs
Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) relay
Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) relay
▪ IDMT relay is one of the most popular relays used on
medium- and low-voltage systems for many years, and
modern digital relays’ characteristics are still mainly
based on the torque characteristic of this type of relay.
▪ The current I1 from the line CTs, sets up a magnetic flux
A and also induces a current I2 in the secondary
winding which in turn sets up a flux in B. Fluxes A and B
are out of phase thus producing a torque in the disk
causing it to rotate.
▪ Speed is proportional to braking torque, and is
proportional to driving torque. Therefore, speed is
proportional I2.
▪ Operating time is inversely proportional to the
magnitude of the actuating quantity.
 Relay Timing
• Time of operation of relay is the length of
time from the instant when the actuating
element is energized to the instant when the
relay contacts are closed
• Instantaneous relay is one in which no
intentional time delay is provided.
Relay contacts are closed immediately after
current in the relay coil exceeds the minimum
calibrated value

4/24/2023 19
 Relay Timing

▪ Plug setting multiplier (P.S.M)

P.S.M = (Fault current in relay coil)/(pick-up current)
▪ P.S.M is used for electromechanical relays, static relays
may use DIP switches and numerical relays may use
software. Parameter setting depends on technology.

▪ Pick-up current is the minimum value of current at

which the relay starts to operate.

▪ Time setting multiplier is the value used to adjust the

operating time and is calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps of
0.05 s.
 Relay Timing
• Inverse-time relay:
Is one in which the
operating time is
approximately inverse
proportional to the
magnitude of the
actuating quantity

4/24/2023 21
 Relay Timing
• Definite time lag relay
• In this type of relay, there is a definite time
elapse between the instant of pickup and the
closing of relay contacts.
This particular time setting is independent of
the amount of current through the relay coil;
being the same for all values of current in excess
of the pickup value.

4/24/2023 22
 Other important terms
• Pickup current: Is the minimum current in the
relay coil at which the relay starts to operate
• Current setting: Is the current value which is
adjusted in the relay for picking-up operation

4/24/2023 23
 Other important terms
• Plug setting multiplier (P.S.M.): It is the ratio
of fault current in relay coil to the pickup
current

4/24/2023 24
 Other important terms
• Time Setting Multiplier: A relay is provided with
control to adjust the time of operation. This
adjustment is known as time-setting multiplier
• Time/P.S.M. Curve: Curve showing time of
operation and plug setting multiplier of a typical
relay.
The horizontal scale is marked in terms of plug-
setting multiplier and represents the number of
times the relay current is in excess of the current
setting. The vertical scale is marked in terms of the
time required for relay operation

4/24/2023 25
 Current setting

▪ Adjustment of pick-up current is achieved by the use of

tapings on the relay operating coil.

50 75 100 125 150 175 200

To relay
operating
coil

▪ Taps are connected to plug bridge to give possibility to

alter the number of turns on the relay coil.
 Current setting
▪ The change of number of turns on the relay coil
changes the torque on the disc and hence changes
operating time of relay.
▪ The steps and ranges for percentage plug setting of
current for over-current relays are different from earth
fault relays.
▪ Suppose that an over-current relay having current plug
setting of 125 % is connected to a supply circuit through
a CT of 400/5. The rated secondary current of CT=5 A.
The pick-up value will be 5x1.25A=6.25 A.

Therefore the relay will operate for a relay coil current

equal to or greater than 6.25 A.
 Other important terms

Relay actual
operating time
= Time from
curve
(Time/P.S.M.) X
Time setting
multiplier

4/24/2023 28
 Example
• For example, suppose that an over current
relay having current setting of 125% is
connected to a supply circuit through a CT of
400/5. The rated secondary current of CT is
5A. Therefore the pick-up value will be 25%
more than 5A, i.e. 5X1.25 = 6.25A. It means
that with above current setting, the relay will
actually operate for a relay coil current equal
to or greater than 6.25A
4/24/2023 29
 Other important terms

Relay actual
operating time
= Time from
curve
(Time/P.S.M.) X
Time setting
multiplier

4/24/2023 31
 Calculation exercise
• Determine the time of operation of a 5A, 3s
over current relay having a current setting of
125% and a time setting multiplier of 0.6
connected to supply circuit through a 400/5
current transformer when the circuit carries a
fault of 4000A. Use the curve shown above.

4/24/2023 32
 Calculation exercise
• Determine the following;
o Current setting. … 6.25A
o Fault current level. … 50A
o P.S.M. … 8
o Time / PSM curve. …. 3.5s
o Time setting. …. 2.1s
(Operating time=3.5 sec )
(Actual Op time=2.1 Sec)

4/24/2023 33
 Example

Example 1: Suppose that a relay is connected to a

400/5 CT and is set at 150 % plug setting. Calculate
the P.S.M for a primary fault current of 2400 A.
 Example

Example 1: Suppose that a relay is connected to a

400/5 CT and is set at 150 % plug setting. Calculate
the P.S.M for a primary fault current of 2400 A.

Solution:
Pick-up current= 5X1.5 =7.5 A.
Fault current in the relay coil=2400 x5/400= 30 A.
P.S.M =30/7.5
=4
Percentage Plug setting and Current Plug setting
Time/P.S.M curve
Time/P.S.M curve
Time/P.S.M curve
Time/P.S.M curve
Time/P.S.M curve
 Example
Example 2: Calculate the time
multiplier setting for an IDMT relay
on the following network so that it
will trip in 2.0 s for a plug setting of
6A (200%). Use the time/P.S.M
curve below.
 Example …
Solution:
Fault current = 960A
CT ratio = 100/5
Expected current into relay under fault condition is
= 960 A x 5/100
= 48A
Current into relay as a multiple of plug setting during fault:
= 48/6
= 8 times
We require the relay to operate after 2.0 s as soon as this
much current starts flowing in the circuit. Using
time/P.S.M curve, the time multiplier setting where 8
times plug setting current and 2.0 s cross,
the T.M.S= 0.6.
 Example

Tutorial exercises!
 Burden
▪ Burden is the normal continuous load imposed on the
current transformers by the relay, normally expressed in
VA or some times in ohms.
▪ R=VA/I2
▪ Burden is the load on CT. Taking a burden of 5 VA on a 1
A CT would give impedance of 5 Ω. For burden of the
same value of VA on a 5 A CT would give impedance
of 0.2 Ω.
▪ The CTs are usually specified in terms of rated
burden,accuracy class and accuracy limit. For example
15 VA, class 5P10.
15 is rated burden, 5P is accuracy class,10 is accuracy
limit factor(ALF). ALF is the upper limit beyond which the
accuracy is not guaranteed.
The P indicates CT for protection.
 Example
▪ Example 3: Given a 5A electromechanical relay
with a burden of 3VA nominal. Fill the following
table for the burden in Ω for different tap setting of
the current transformer(CT).

Plug
taps
setting 200% 125% 70% 40% 25% 10%
Burden
(Ω)
 Example …
Solution:
▪ At : 200%, I=10A,and burden=3VA/10A*10A=0.03 Ω,
▪ 125%, I=6.25A,burden=3VA/6.25A*6.25A=0.0768 Ω,
▪ 70%, I=3.5A,burden=3VA/3.5A*3.5A=0.245 Ω,
▪ 40%, I=2A,burden=3VA/2A*2A=0.75 Ω,
▪ 25%,I=1.25A,burden=3VA/1.25A*1.25A=1.92 Ω,
▪ 10%, I=0.5A,burden=3VA/0.5A*0.5A=12 Ω

Plug
taps
setting 200% 125% 70% 40% 25% 10%
Burden
(Ω) 0.03 0.0768 0.245 0.75 1.92 12

▪ The lower the plug taps setting the higher the burden
 ANSI standards
▪ American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is one of
the organizations that publish standards that are of
importance to industry. The standards published by
these organizations such as ANSI and IEEE are for the
use of the manufacturing industries, as well as power
consumers, and in some cases the general public.
These standards are subject to review periodically;
therefore, industrial users should keep up to date by
obtaining the revisions.
▪ Standards are developed by incorporating the input
from manufacturers, consumers, government agencies,
and scientific, technical, and professional
organizations.
▪ There are relays nomenclature in ANSI standards.
 ANSI nomenclature for relays
2 Time delay relay
3 Checking or Interlocking relay
21 Distance relay
25 Check synchronizing relay
27 Under voltage relay
30 Annunciator relay
32 Directional power (Reverse power) relay
37 Low forward power relay
40 Field failure (loss of excitation)
 ANSI nomenclature for relays
46 Negative phase sequence relay
49 Machine or Transformer Thermal relay
50 Instantaneous Over current relay
51 A.C IDMT Over-current relay
52 Circuit breaker
52a Circuit breaker Auxiliary switch “Normally open” (‘a’
contact)
52b Circuit breaker Auxiliary switch “Normally closed” (‘b’
contact)
55 Power Factor relay
56 Field Application relay
59 Overvoltage relay
 ANSI nomenclature for relays
64 Earth fault relay
67 Directional relay
68 Locking relay
74 Alarm relay
76 D.C Over current relay
78 Phase angle measuring or out of step relay
79 AC Auto reclose relay
80 Monitoring loss of DC supply
81 Frequency relay
81U Under frequency relay
81O Over frequency relay
 ANSI nomenclature for relays
83 Automatic selective control or transfer relay
85 Carrier or pilot wire receive relay
86 Tripping Relay
87 Differential relay
87G Generator differential relay
87GT Overall differential relay
87U UAT differential relay
87NT Restricted earth fault relay
95 Trip circuit supervision relay
99 Over flux relay
186A Auto reclose lockout relay
186B Auto reclose lockout relay
 Example
▪ Example of use of relay device numbers
 Evolution of relays

4/24/2023 54
 Evolution of relays
▪ The evolution of protective relays from the
perspective of construction and application can
be described by four generations of relay designs.
a) Electromechanical and induction relays -first
generation;
b) Static relays with transistors, diodes, etc-second
generation;
c) Solid-state/static relays with integrated circuits -
third generation;
d) Microprocessor/numerical relays(static relays
with microcontrollers) - fourth generation.

55
 Classifications of protection relays
▪ Protection relays can be classified in accordance with
their construction, the incoming signal and function.
a) Classification according to construction:
Electromechanical, static, solid state,
microprocessor/numeric.
b) Classification according to incoming signal:
current, voltage, power, frequency, temperature,
pressure, speed.
c) Classification according to function:
over-current, directional over-current, distance,
overvoltage, differential, reverse power.

56
 Functional Relay Types
• Regardless of the principle involved, relays are
generally classified according to the function
they are called upon to perform in the
protection of electric power circuits.
– Distance relays
– Overcurrent relays
– Differential relays
– Overvoltage relays
– Reverse power relays

4/24/2023 57
 Basic Relays (Electromechanical)
• Most of relays in service on electric power
system were of electro-mechanical type
• They work on the following two main
operating principles:
– Electromagnetic attraction
– Electromagnetic induction

4/24/2023 58
 A) Electromagnetic Attraction Relays
• Operate by virtue of an armature being
attracted to the poles of an
electromagnetic or a plunger being drawn
into a solenoid. Such relays may be
actuated by either d.c. or a.c. quantities
• Important types are:
a. Attracted armature type relay
b. Solenoid type relay
c. Balanced beam type relay

4/24/2023 59
 (a) Attracted armature type relay
✓Under normal condition the current
through the relay coil C is such that
counterweight holds the armature in
the position shown.
✓When a short circuit occurs, the
current through the coil increases
and armature is attracted upwards to
energize the trip contact and opens
the circuit breaker and therefore
disconnection of the faulty circuit.

The minimum current at which the

relay armature is attracted to close
the trip circuit is called Pickup
current
4/24/2023 60
 (b)Solenoid type relay
✓Under normal conditions, the
current through the relay coil C is
such that it holds the plunger by
gravity or spring in the position.
✓On fault occurrence, the current
through the relay coil becomes
more than a pickup value causing
the plunger to be attracted to the
solenoid.
✓The upward movement of the
plunger closes the trip circuit thus
opening circuit breaker and
4/24/2023 61
disconnecting the faulty circuit.
 (c) Balanced beam type relay

When the relay coil current is greater than

the pick up current the beam is attracted to
perform the protection
4/24/2023 62
B) Electromagnetic Induction Relays
• Use operating principle of induction motor
• Used for AC systems only

4/24/2023 63
 Principle of Operation

4/24/2023 64
 Principle of Operation

4/24/2023 65
 Principle of Operation
• The greater the phase angle α between the
fluxes, the greater is the net force applied to
the disc
• The net force is the same at every instant
• The direction of the net force and hence
direction of motion of the disc depends upon
which flux is leading

4/24/2023 66
 Application
• Shaded pole structure

4/24/2023 67
 Application
• Watt-hour-meter or double winding structure

4/24/2023 68
 Application
• Induction cup structure

4/24/2023 69
 Static relays
▪ Static relays are those in which the designed
response is developed by electronic circuits.
▪ The designation ‘static relay’ covers the electronic
relays of both the analog and digital designs.
▪ The analog relays refer to electronic circuits with
discrete devices like transistors, diodes, etc.
▪ The digital designs incorporate integrated chips,
microprocessors, etc.

70
 Digital relays
▪ Include microprocessor or numerical relays.
▪ Digital relays are built using a microprocessor, an
AC signal data acquisition system, memory
components containing the relay algorithms,
contact inputs to control the relay, and contact
outputs to control other equipment.

A simplified block diagram of digital relay

71
 Digital relays …
▪ The analog signals are filtered using a low-pass
filter to remove high-frequency components and
to prevent aliasing in the digital filtering process.
The signals are then converted to digital values
through an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter and
multi-channel multiplexer.
▪ The output of the data acquisition block is mapped
to memory areas. The data are stored for later use
and are also passed to the processing block.
▪ The processing block reads and writes data to the
memory block. The data include internal relay
element status, digital input status, and digital
output status.
▪ The processing unit also monitors the human
machine interface (HMI). 72
 Microprocessor/numerical relays
▪ Microprocessor relay is a digital electronic relay,
which derives its characteristics by means of a pre-
programed series of instructions and calculations
(algorithms), based on the selected settings and
the measured current and/or voltage signals.
▪ The measurement principle is based on sampling of
the energized currents or voltages, analog to
digital conversion and numerical handling, where
all settings are made in direct numerical form in a
non-volatile memory.

73
Sub-systems of numerical relay

74
Typical block diagram of numerical relay

From
C.T,P.T Ref 7 10 9 Trip

1 2 3 4 5 6 8
RXTX

12

11 13 14 15 IRF

Power
input

75
 Numerical Relay …
▪ 1-Isolating transformer
▪ 2-Voltage limiter
▪ 3-Multiplexer
▪ 4-Programmable attenuator
▪ 5- Analog-to-digital-converter
▪ 6-Microcontroller
▪ 7-Display and keypad
▪ 8-Power buffer amplifier
▪ 9-Trip signal on output card
▪ 10-Trip current checking circuit
▪ 11-Power supply module
▪ 12-Watchdog,
▪ 13-voltage limit detector
▪ 14- time delay
▪ 15-Output relay circuit 76
Functions of numerical relay components
▪ Isolating transformer and Voltage limiter-cut
the voltages entering the relay at a safe level,
should there be an extremely high-current or
voltage input. The reasons for this limiting are only
to protect the internal circuits of the relay from
being destroyed by too high an input voltage.
Together with the limiting circuit, a filter can also
often be implemented. In this case, the reason is
that the harmonics contents of the energizing
signal is not wanted and is filtered out.
▪ Multiplexer-selects the signals that are to be
measured. A sample of each signal is measured
once per ms. Finally, the multiplexer also selects a
reference channel once per second to have a
condition check for the input circuits.
77
Functions of numerical relay components …
▪ Analog-to-Digital-converter(A/D)- Measures the
level of the samples and transforms the analog
values into a numerical form.
▪ For 8 bits A/D converter the resolution represents
numerical values 0–255 (20 –1 to 28 – 1).When the
dynamic range of the signal levels to be measured
is high, the 8-bit conversion is as such not enough to
give a good accuracy over the whole current or
voltage span. Therefore, a programmable
attenuator (4) is needed between the multiplexer
and the A/D converter.

78
Functions of numerical relay components …
▪ Programmable attenuator - is needed between the
multiplexer and the A/D converter to enable an
accurate handling for both low and high current or
voltage levels.
▪ When the signal is too high to be handled directly
by the 8 bits A/D converter an attenuation is used.

Example 1: A current of 300 A is to be measured by a

numerical relay. The A/D converter is an 8-bits system.
Calculate:-
a) Attenuation factor of the programmable
attenuator;
b) Measuring range of the numerical relay.

79
Functions of numerical relay components …
▪ Microcontroller and Memory- In the entire signal
handling stages, the microcontroller takes part as
every operation is controlled by this component.
Furthermore, all protective decisions are made
here, the operating time is counted for every stage.
▪ Memory section includes:
a) The random access memory (RAM), which is used
as a scratchpad for measuring and calculating
results, storing values, etc.
b) The read-only memory (ROM), which contains the
program firmware for the module.
c) The electrically erasable programmable read-only
memory (EEPROM), which is being used as
parameter storage memory, e.g. for all the setting
values.
80
Functions of numerical relay components …
▪ Power buffer amplifier- Links the between the
microcontroller and the output part of trip signals.
▪ To avoid false commands from the microcontroller
for the output command before any output relay
can be activated the design can incorporate other
signals such as the enable signal that is sent
together with the command.
▪ Trip current checking circuit-monitors the current
flow in the trip circuit output.
▪ When a fault occurs, the output buffer amplifier (8)
is immediately blocked to ensure that no false
signals are carried out due to the fault condition.
▪ Watchdog-Checks for various parameters such as;
power supply failure, clock frequency. It also resets
the microcontroller after fault.
81
Functions of numerical relay components …
▪ Communication ports-In numerical relaying, relay
and power system information can be retrieved
from a remote location through communication
ports. Panel communication ports can be
connected to computers, terminals, serial printers,
modems, and logic intermediate
communication/control interfaces such as RS-232.
Most numerical relay communication protocols
support American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII) and binary data transmissions.
ASCII data can be used to send and receive
human readable data and commands.

82
Vendors in numerical relays’ technology
▪ Vendors-Are companies that design and
manufacture equipments and devices. Example of
vendors in numerical relays are GE, ABB, ALSTOM,
SCHNEIDER, TOSHIBA, SIEMENS.
▪ Vendors manufacture equipments which meet
international standards. Vendors deals with both
hardware and software.
▪ Examples of software with vendors in parenthesis:
a) ENERVISTA UR and ENERVISTA MII (GE)
b) MICOM S1 Studio (ALSTOM)
c) IED Manager PCM 600 (ABB)
d) CAP 505 Relay Product Engineering Tool (ABB)
e) RELTOOLS(ABB)

83
Example of ABB numerical relay: Type NI 40/41

84
Protection features for the ABB relay above
▪ Three-phase over current protection low-set stage
(IDMT or DT); [ANSI Code 51]
▪ Three-phase over current protection, high -set
stage (DT); [ANSI Code 50]
▪ Earth fault protection, low-set stage (IDMT or DT);
[ANSI Code 51N]
▪ Earth fault protection, high-set stage (DT); [ANSI
Code 50N]
▪ Facility of site selection of IDMT curves for low set
stage;
▪ Four standard IDMT curves (NI, VI, EI, LI) as per IEC
standard;
▪ Wide and accurate numerical settings with perfect
long time stability.
85
 Communication system
▪ A communication system consists of a transmitter, a
receiver and communication channels.
Communication channels for relays can be
implemented by the use of pilot wire, micro wave,
power line communication and fiber optic.
▪ Pilot wires-Separate electrical circuits operating at
certain frequencies;
▪ Power line carrier-The transmission line itself is used
as the communication circuit;
▪ Microwave communication-Use ultra high
frequency radio channel between the ends of the
line;
▪ Fiber optics communication-Signals transmitted by
light modulation through electrically
nonconducting cable.
86
 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
▪ OSI model has seven layers. A layer is a collection
of similar functions that provide services to the layer
above it and receives services from the one below.
▪ Layer 1:Physical layer-Determines electrical,
mechanical, functional and procedural properties
of the physical medium.
▪ Layer 2:Data link layer-provides functions like error
detection, resending etc.;
▪ Layer 3:Network layer- Controls the routing and
addressing of the packages between the networks
and conveys the packet through the shortest and
fastest route in the network;
▪ Layer 4:Transport layer-Manages the packet to the
destination and divides a larger amount of data
into smaller packages;
87
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) …
▪ Layer 5:Session layer- Establishes a dialogue and
logical connection with the end user and provides
functions like fault handling and crash recovery;
▪ Layer 6:Presentation layer-works on format of data
and the encryption used;
▪ Layer 7:Application layer- Offers direct interaction
of user with the software application.

88
 OSI Profile
▪ A-Profile includes the application, presentation,
and session layers which provide the
Manufacturing Message Specification (MMS)
functions. These layers decide how the information
is to be packaged and in what form it will be sent.
▪ T-Profile specifies the transport layer and the
network layer. The transport layer is responsible for
ensuring reliable message transfer across the
network. The network layer is responsible for
providing addressing and routing functions.
▪ L-Profile is the data-link and physical layers. The
data-link layer is responsible for controlling access
to the network media. The physical layer specifies
the actual physical media on which the data will
be carried i.e., copper wire, fiber optic, etc.
89
 Communication protocols
▪ Communications protocols are sets of rules by
which communication over a network is achieved.
Communications protocols are responsible for
enabling and controlling network communication.
Protocols set the rules for the representation of
data, the signals used in communications, the
detection of errors, and the authentication of
computing devices on the network.
▪ IEC 61850- Communication networks and systems in
substations.
▪ Various communication protocols for relays have
been designed to meet international standards
such as IEC 61850.

90
 Communication protocols
▪ Communications protocols are needed in order to
implement relay to relay communication.
▪ Examples of relay communication protocols include:
a) UCA2-Utility Communication Architecture 2;
b) LON- Local Operating Network;
c) DNP3.0- Distributed Network Protocol 3.0;
d) ModBus;
e) IEC 61850.

91
 Communication protocols …
▪ The ModBus is a three-layer protocol that
communicates using a “master-slave” technique in
which only one device (the master) can initiate
transactions (called queries). The other devices
(slaves) respond by supplying the requested data
to the master, or by taking the action requested in
the query.
▪ The Local Operating Network (LON) protocol
equates all seven layers of the OSI Model. In OSI
model,3 layers are for message transfer and the 4
layers are for data process function. LON is
capable of establishing network communications
not only for power system applications, but also for
factory automation, process control, building
networks, vehicle networks etc.
92
 Communication protocols …
▪ DNP3.0 is a protocol developed to achieve
interoperability standard between substation
computers. This DNP 3.0 protocol can be modified to
achieve the Enhanced Performance Architecture
(EPA) model. It is primarily used for communications
between master stations in Supervisory Control and
Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems, Remote Terminal
Units (RTUs), and Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs)
such as relays for the electric utility industry.
▪ Utility Communication Architecture (UCA)-An
architecture that incorporates communication
protocols to meet the requirements of the utility
environments.
▪ IEC 61850- A protocol that provides interoperability
for different vendor’s equipments.
93
 Pilot relaying
▪ When the protected equipment is at one
geographical location CTs and relays can be
directly interconnected by wires to achieve
differential protection. However, differential
protection of transmission lines requires pilot
relaying because the terminals are widely
separated by many kilometers.
▪ Pilot relaying can be implemented by the use of:-
a) Pilot wire;
b) Power line carrier;
c) Microwave;
d) Fiber optic.

94
 Pilot relaying
▪ The pilot relaying provides the communication
channel for conveying the information relative to
conditions at the one end of the line to protective
relays at the other end of the line and vice versa by
comparing currents entering and leaving the
protected line between two terminals.

95
 Thank you

4/24/2023 96