04 EE423 Lecture 4
04 EE423 Lecture 4
Lecture 4
Protective Relays
1
Protective Relays
▪ Protective relay is an electrical device connected
between the main circuit and the circuit breaker that
detects the fault and initiates the operation of the
circuit breaker to isolate the defective section from the
rest of the system.
▪ Electrical quantities which may change under fault
conditions include voltage, current, frequency, power,
impedance and phase angle. Relay continuously
measures the quantities.
▪ The changes in one or more of measured quantities,
gives the sign to the protective relay on the presence of
fault.
▪ When fault is detected the relay operates the trip circuit
to opening of the circuit breaker.
Fundamental requirements of
protective relaying
1. Selectivity: Ability of the protective system to
select correctly that part of the system in trouble
and disconnect the faulty part without disturbing
the rest of the system
• This can be facilitated by dividing the system in
the following protective zones:
– Generators
– Low voltage switchgear
– Transformers
– High voltage switchgear
– Transmission lines
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Fundamental requirements of
protective relaying
2. Speed: The relay system should disconnect
the faulty section as fast as possible for the
following reasons:
– Electrical apparatus may be damaged if they carry
the fault current for a long time
– A failure on the system leads to a great reduction
in the system voltage
– It reduces the possibility of the fault to develop to
more severe type
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Fundamental requirements of
protective relaying
3. Sensitivity: Ability of the relay system to
operate with low value of actuating quantity
4. Reliability: ability of the relay system to
operate under the pre-determined conditions
5. Simplicity: The relaying system should be
simple so that it can be easily maintained
6. Economy: As a rule of thumb the protective
gear should not cost more than 5% of total
cost of the component to be protected
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Example of protective relays (ABB)
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Example of protective relays (Siemens)
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Example of connection of overcurrent relay
Relay Circuit
Parts of the circuit
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Terminal designations for CTs
▪ Terminals for current transformers in the circuit should be
properly marked for primary and the corresponding
secondary terminals.
▪ Example
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Relay Timing
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Relay Timing
• Definite time lag relay
• In this type of relay, there is a definite time
elapse between the instant of pickup and the
closing of relay contacts.
This particular time setting is independent of
the amount of current through the relay coil;
being the same for all values of current in excess
of the pickup value.
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Other important terms
• Pickup current: Is the minimum current in the
relay coil at which the relay starts to operate
• Current setting: Is the current value which is
adjusted in the relay for picking-up operation
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Other important terms
• Plug setting multiplier (P.S.M.): It is the ratio
of fault current in relay coil to the pickup
current
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Other important terms
• Time Setting Multiplier: A relay is provided with
control to adjust the time of operation. This
adjustment is known as time-setting multiplier
• Time/P.S.M. Curve: Curve showing time of
operation and plug setting multiplier of a typical
relay.
The horizontal scale is marked in terms of plug-
setting multiplier and represents the number of
times the relay current is in excess of the current
setting. The vertical scale is marked in terms of the
time required for relay operation
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Current setting
To relay
operating
coil
Relay actual
operating time
= Time from
curve
(Time/P.S.M.) X
Time setting
multiplier
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Example
• For example, suppose that an over current
relay having current setting of 125% is
connected to a supply circuit through a CT of
400/5. The rated secondary current of CT is
5A. Therefore the pick-up value will be 25%
more than 5A, i.e. 5X1.25 = 6.25A. It means
that with above current setting, the relay will
actually operate for a relay coil current equal
to or greater than 6.25A
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Other important terms
Relay actual
operating time
= Time from
curve
(Time/P.S.M.) X
Time setting
multiplier
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Calculation exercise
• Determine the time of operation of a 5A, 3s
over current relay having a current setting of
125% and a time setting multiplier of 0.6
connected to supply circuit through a 400/5
current transformer when the circuit carries a
fault of 4000A. Use the curve shown above.
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Calculation exercise
• Determine the following;
o Current setting. … 6.25A
o Fault current level. … 50A
o P.S.M. … 8
o Time / PSM curve. …. 3.5s
o Time setting. …. 2.1s
(Operating time=3.5 sec )
(Actual Op time=2.1 Sec)
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Example
Solution:
Pick-up current= 5X1.5 =7.5 A.
Fault current in the relay coil=2400 x5/400= 30 A.
P.S.M =30/7.5
=4
Percentage Plug setting and Current Plug setting
Time/P.S.M curve
Time/P.S.M curve
Time/P.S.M curve
Time/P.S.M curve
Time/P.S.M curve
Example
Example 2: Calculate the time
multiplier setting for an IDMT relay
on the following network so that it
will trip in 2.0 s for a plug setting of
6A (200%). Use the time/P.S.M
curve below.
Example …
Solution:
Fault current = 960A
CT ratio = 100/5
Expected current into relay under fault condition is
= 960 A x 5/100
= 48A
Current into relay as a multiple of plug setting during fault:
= 48/6
= 8 times
We require the relay to operate after 2.0 s as soon as this
much current starts flowing in the circuit. Using
time/P.S.M curve, the time multiplier setting where 8
times plug setting current and 2.0 s cross,
the T.M.S= 0.6.
Example
Tutorial exercises!
Burden
▪ Burden is the normal continuous load imposed on the
current transformers by the relay, normally expressed in
VA or some times in ohms.
▪ R=VA/I2
▪ Burden is the load on CT. Taking a burden of 5 VA on a 1
A CT would give impedance of 5 Ω. For burden of the
same value of VA on a 5 A CT would give impedance
of 0.2 Ω.
▪ The CTs are usually specified in terms of rated
burden,accuracy class and accuracy limit. For example
15 VA, class 5P10.
15 is rated burden, 5P is accuracy class,10 is accuracy
limit factor(ALF). ALF is the upper limit beyond which the
accuracy is not guaranteed.
The P indicates CT for protection.
Example
▪ Example 3: Given a 5A electromechanical relay
with a burden of 3VA nominal. Fill the following
table for the burden in Ω for different tap setting of
the current transformer(CT).
Plug
taps
setting 200% 125% 70% 40% 25% 10%
Burden
(Ω)
Example …
Solution:
▪ At : 200%, I=10A,and burden=3VA/10A*10A=0.03 Ω,
▪ 125%, I=6.25A,burden=3VA/6.25A*6.25A=0.0768 Ω,
▪ 70%, I=3.5A,burden=3VA/3.5A*3.5A=0.245 Ω,
▪ 40%, I=2A,burden=3VA/2A*2A=0.75 Ω,
▪ 25%,I=1.25A,burden=3VA/1.25A*1.25A=1.92 Ω,
▪ 10%, I=0.5A,burden=3VA/0.5A*0.5A=12 Ω
Plug
taps
setting 200% 125% 70% 40% 25% 10%
Burden
(Ω) 0.03 0.0768 0.245 0.75 1.92 12
▪ The lower the plug taps setting the higher the burden
ANSI standards
▪ American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is one of
the organizations that publish standards that are of
importance to industry. The standards published by
these organizations such as ANSI and IEEE are for the
use of the manufacturing industries, as well as power
consumers, and in some cases the general public.
These standards are subject to review periodically;
therefore, industrial users should keep up to date by
obtaining the revisions.
▪ Standards are developed by incorporating the input
from manufacturers, consumers, government agencies,
and scientific, technical, and professional
organizations.
▪ There are relays nomenclature in ANSI standards.
ANSI nomenclature for relays
2 Time delay relay
3 Checking or Interlocking relay
21 Distance relay
25 Check synchronizing relay
27 Under voltage relay
30 Annunciator relay
32 Directional power (Reverse power) relay
37 Low forward power relay
40 Field failure (loss of excitation)
ANSI nomenclature for relays
46 Negative phase sequence relay
49 Machine or Transformer Thermal relay
50 Instantaneous Over current relay
51 A.C IDMT Over-current relay
52 Circuit breaker
52a Circuit breaker Auxiliary switch “Normally open” (‘a’
contact)
52b Circuit breaker Auxiliary switch “Normally closed” (‘b’
contact)
55 Power Factor relay
56 Field Application relay
59 Overvoltage relay
ANSI nomenclature for relays
64 Earth fault relay
67 Directional relay
68 Locking relay
74 Alarm relay
76 D.C Over current relay
78 Phase angle measuring or out of step relay
79 AC Auto reclose relay
80 Monitoring loss of DC supply
81 Frequency relay
81U Under frequency relay
81O Over frequency relay
ANSI nomenclature for relays
83 Automatic selective control or transfer relay
85 Carrier or pilot wire receive relay
86 Tripping Relay
87 Differential relay
87G Generator differential relay
87GT Overall differential relay
87U UAT differential relay
87NT Restricted earth fault relay
95 Trip circuit supervision relay
99 Over flux relay
186A Auto reclose lockout relay
186B Auto reclose lockout relay
Example
▪ Example of use of relay device numbers
Evolution of relays
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Evolution of relays
▪ The evolution of protective relays from the
perspective of construction and application can
be described by four generations of relay designs.
a) Electromechanical and induction relays -first
generation;
b) Static relays with transistors, diodes, etc-second
generation;
c) Solid-state/static relays with integrated circuits -
third generation;
d) Microprocessor/numerical relays(static relays
with microcontrollers) - fourth generation.
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Classifications of protection relays
▪ Protection relays can be classified in accordance with
their construction, the incoming signal and function.
a) Classification according to construction:
Electromechanical, static, solid state,
microprocessor/numeric.
b) Classification according to incoming signal:
current, voltage, power, frequency, temperature,
pressure, speed.
c) Classification according to function:
over-current, directional over-current, distance,
overvoltage, differential, reverse power.
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Functional Relay Types
• Regardless of the principle involved, relays are
generally classified according to the function
they are called upon to perform in the
protection of electric power circuits.
– Distance relays
– Overcurrent relays
– Differential relays
– Overvoltage relays
– Reverse power relays
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Basic Relays (Electromechanical)
• Most of relays in service on electric power
system were of electro-mechanical type
• They work on the following two main
operating principles:
– Electromagnetic attraction
– Electromagnetic induction
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A) Electromagnetic Attraction Relays
• Operate by virtue of an armature being
attracted to the poles of an
electromagnetic or a plunger being drawn
into a solenoid. Such relays may be
actuated by either d.c. or a.c. quantities
• Important types are:
a. Attracted armature type relay
b. Solenoid type relay
c. Balanced beam type relay
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(a) Attracted armature type relay
✓Under normal condition the current
through the relay coil C is such that
counterweight holds the armature in
the position shown.
✓When a short circuit occurs, the
current through the coil increases
and armature is attracted upwards to
energize the trip contact and opens
the circuit breaker and therefore
disconnection of the faulty circuit.
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Principle of Operation
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Principle of Operation
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Principle of Operation
• The greater the phase angle α between the
fluxes, the greater is the net force applied to
the disc
• The net force is the same at every instant
• The direction of the net force and hence
direction of motion of the disc depends upon
which flux is leading
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Application
• Shaded pole structure
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Application
• Watt-hour-meter or double winding structure
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Application
• Induction cup structure
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Static relays
▪ Static relays are those in which the designed
response is developed by electronic circuits.
▪ The designation ‘static relay’ covers the electronic
relays of both the analog and digital designs.
▪ The analog relays refer to electronic circuits with
discrete devices like transistors, diodes, etc.
▪ The digital designs incorporate integrated chips,
microprocessors, etc.
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Digital relays
▪ Include microprocessor or numerical relays.
▪ Digital relays are built using a microprocessor, an
AC signal data acquisition system, memory
components containing the relay algorithms,
contact inputs to control the relay, and contact
outputs to control other equipment.
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Sub-systems of numerical relay
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Typical block diagram of numerical relay
From
C.T,P.T Ref 7 10 9 Trip
1 2 3 4 5 6 8
RXTX
12
11 13 14 15 IRF
Power
input
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Numerical Relay …
▪ 1-Isolating transformer
▪ 2-Voltage limiter
▪ 3-Multiplexer
▪ 4-Programmable attenuator
▪ 5- Analog-to-digital-converter
▪ 6-Microcontroller
▪ 7-Display and keypad
▪ 8-Power buffer amplifier
▪ 9-Trip signal on output card
▪ 10-Trip current checking circuit
▪ 11-Power supply module
▪ 12-Watchdog,
▪ 13-voltage limit detector
▪ 14- time delay
▪ 15-Output relay circuit 76
Functions of numerical relay components
▪ Isolating transformer and Voltage limiter-cut
the voltages entering the relay at a safe level,
should there be an extremely high-current or
voltage input. The reasons for this limiting are only
to protect the internal circuits of the relay from
being destroyed by too high an input voltage.
Together with the limiting circuit, a filter can also
often be implemented. In this case, the reason is
that the harmonics contents of the energizing
signal is not wanted and is filtered out.
▪ Multiplexer-selects the signals that are to be
measured. A sample of each signal is measured
once per ms. Finally, the multiplexer also selects a
reference channel once per second to have a
condition check for the input circuits.
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Functions of numerical relay components …
▪ Analog-to-Digital-converter(A/D)- Measures the
level of the samples and transforms the analog
values into a numerical form.
▪ For 8 bits A/D converter the resolution represents
numerical values 0–255 (20 –1 to 28 – 1).When the
dynamic range of the signal levels to be measured
is high, the 8-bit conversion is as such not enough to
give a good accuracy over the whole current or
voltage span. Therefore, a programmable
attenuator (4) is needed between the multiplexer
and the A/D converter.
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Functions of numerical relay components …
▪ Programmable attenuator - is needed between the
multiplexer and the A/D converter to enable an
accurate handling for both low and high current or
voltage levels.
▪ When the signal is too high to be handled directly
by the 8 bits A/D converter an attenuation is used.
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Functions of numerical relay components …
▪ Microcontroller and Memory- In the entire signal
handling stages, the microcontroller takes part as
every operation is controlled by this component.
Furthermore, all protective decisions are made
here, the operating time is counted for every stage.
▪ Memory section includes:
a) The random access memory (RAM), which is used
as a scratchpad for measuring and calculating
results, storing values, etc.
b) The read-only memory (ROM), which contains the
program firmware for the module.
c) The electrically erasable programmable read-only
memory (EEPROM), which is being used as
parameter storage memory, e.g. for all the setting
values.
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Functions of numerical relay components …
▪ Power buffer amplifier- Links the between the
microcontroller and the output part of trip signals.
▪ To avoid false commands from the microcontroller
for the output command before any output relay
can be activated the design can incorporate other
signals such as the enable signal that is sent
together with the command.
▪ Trip current checking circuit-monitors the current
flow in the trip circuit output.
▪ When a fault occurs, the output buffer amplifier (8)
is immediately blocked to ensure that no false
signals are carried out due to the fault condition.
▪ Watchdog-Checks for various parameters such as;
power supply failure, clock frequency. It also resets
the microcontroller after fault.
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Functions of numerical relay components …
▪ Communication ports-In numerical relaying, relay
and power system information can be retrieved
from a remote location through communication
ports. Panel communication ports can be
connected to computers, terminals, serial printers,
modems, and logic intermediate
communication/control interfaces such as RS-232.
Most numerical relay communication protocols
support American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII) and binary data transmissions.
ASCII data can be used to send and receive
human readable data and commands.
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Vendors in numerical relays’ technology
▪ Vendors-Are companies that design and
manufacture equipments and devices. Example of
vendors in numerical relays are GE, ABB, ALSTOM,
SCHNEIDER, TOSHIBA, SIEMENS.
▪ Vendors manufacture equipments which meet
international standards. Vendors deals with both
hardware and software.
▪ Examples of software with vendors in parenthesis:
a) ENERVISTA UR and ENERVISTA MII (GE)
b) MICOM S1 Studio (ALSTOM)
c) IED Manager PCM 600 (ABB)
d) CAP 505 Relay Product Engineering Tool (ABB)
e) RELTOOLS(ABB)
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Example of ABB numerical relay: Type NI 40/41
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Protection features for the ABB relay above
▪ Three-phase over current protection low-set stage
(IDMT or DT); [ANSI Code 51]
▪ Three-phase over current protection, high -set
stage (DT); [ANSI Code 50]
▪ Earth fault protection, low-set stage (IDMT or DT);
[ANSI Code 51N]
▪ Earth fault protection, high-set stage (DT); [ANSI
Code 50N]
▪ Facility of site selection of IDMT curves for low set
stage;
▪ Four standard IDMT curves (NI, VI, EI, LI) as per IEC
standard;
▪ Wide and accurate numerical settings with perfect
long time stability.
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Communication system
▪ A communication system consists of a transmitter, a
receiver and communication channels.
Communication channels for relays can be
implemented by the use of pilot wire, micro wave,
power line communication and fiber optic.
▪ Pilot wires-Separate electrical circuits operating at
certain frequencies;
▪ Power line carrier-The transmission line itself is used
as the communication circuit;
▪ Microwave communication-Use ultra high
frequency radio channel between the ends of the
line;
▪ Fiber optics communication-Signals transmitted by
light modulation through electrically
nonconducting cable.
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Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
▪ OSI model has seven layers. A layer is a collection
of similar functions that provide services to the layer
above it and receives services from the one below.
▪ Layer 1:Physical layer-Determines electrical,
mechanical, functional and procedural properties
of the physical medium.
▪ Layer 2:Data link layer-provides functions like error
detection, resending etc.;
▪ Layer 3:Network layer- Controls the routing and
addressing of the packages between the networks
and conveys the packet through the shortest and
fastest route in the network;
▪ Layer 4:Transport layer-Manages the packet to the
destination and divides a larger amount of data
into smaller packages;
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Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) …
▪ Layer 5:Session layer- Establishes a dialogue and
logical connection with the end user and provides
functions like fault handling and crash recovery;
▪ Layer 6:Presentation layer-works on format of data
and the encryption used;
▪ Layer 7:Application layer- Offers direct interaction
of user with the software application.
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OSI Profile
▪ A-Profile includes the application, presentation,
and session layers which provide the
Manufacturing Message Specification (MMS)
functions. These layers decide how the information
is to be packaged and in what form it will be sent.
▪ T-Profile specifies the transport layer and the
network layer. The transport layer is responsible for
ensuring reliable message transfer across the
network. The network layer is responsible for
providing addressing and routing functions.
▪ L-Profile is the data-link and physical layers. The
data-link layer is responsible for controlling access
to the network media. The physical layer specifies
the actual physical media on which the data will
be carried i.e., copper wire, fiber optic, etc.
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Communication protocols
▪ Communications protocols are sets of rules by
which communication over a network is achieved.
Communications protocols are responsible for
enabling and controlling network communication.
Protocols set the rules for the representation of
data, the signals used in communications, the
detection of errors, and the authentication of
computing devices on the network.
▪ IEC 61850- Communication networks and systems in
substations.
▪ Various communication protocols for relays have
been designed to meet international standards
such as IEC 61850.
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Communication protocols
▪ Communications protocols are needed in order to
implement relay to relay communication.
▪ Examples of relay communication protocols include:
a) UCA2-Utility Communication Architecture 2;
b) LON- Local Operating Network;
c) DNP3.0- Distributed Network Protocol 3.0;
d) ModBus;
e) IEC 61850.
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Communication protocols …
▪ The ModBus is a three-layer protocol that
communicates using a “master-slave” technique in
which only one device (the master) can initiate
transactions (called queries). The other devices
(slaves) respond by supplying the requested data
to the master, or by taking the action requested in
the query.
▪ The Local Operating Network (LON) protocol
equates all seven layers of the OSI Model. In OSI
model,3 layers are for message transfer and the 4
layers are for data process function. LON is
capable of establishing network communications
not only for power system applications, but also for
factory automation, process control, building
networks, vehicle networks etc.
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Communication protocols …
▪ DNP3.0 is a protocol developed to achieve
interoperability standard between substation
computers. This DNP 3.0 protocol can be modified to
achieve the Enhanced Performance Architecture
(EPA) model. It is primarily used for communications
between master stations in Supervisory Control and
Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems, Remote Terminal
Units (RTUs), and Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs)
such as relays for the electric utility industry.
▪ Utility Communication Architecture (UCA)-An
architecture that incorporates communication
protocols to meet the requirements of the utility
environments.
▪ IEC 61850- A protocol that provides interoperability
for different vendor’s equipments.
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Pilot relaying
▪ When the protected equipment is at one
geographical location CTs and relays can be
directly interconnected by wires to achieve
differential protection. However, differential
protection of transmission lines requires pilot
relaying because the terminals are widely
separated by many kilometers.
▪ Pilot relaying can be implemented by the use of:-
a) Pilot wire;
b) Power line carrier;
c) Microwave;
d) Fiber optic.
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Pilot relaying
▪ The pilot relaying provides the communication
channel for conveying the information relative to
conditions at the one end of the line to protective
relays at the other end of the line and vice versa by
comparing currents entering and leaving the
protected line between two terminals.
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Thank you
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