FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL IMMUNOLOGY

2024, VOL. 35, NO. 1, 2384420

https://doi.org/10.1080/09540105.2024.2384420

REVIEW ARTICLE

Dietary fiber: an unmatched food component for sustainable

health
Anjana Suresha, Shobnaa, Mani Salariaa, Sonia Moryab, Waseem Khalidc,d,
Farukh Adeem Afzale, Ammar Ahmad Khand, Saira Safdarf, Muhammad Zubair Khalidf
and Emery Lenge Mukonzo Kasongog
a
Department of Horticulture, School of Agriculture, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, India;
b
Department of Food Technology & Nutrition, School of Agriculture, Lovely Professional University,
Phagwara, India; cDepartment of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemical Sciences and Technologies,
University of Castilla La Mancha, Ciudad Real, Spain; dUniversity Institute of Food Science and Technology,
The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan; eDepartment of Food Science and Technology, Government
College Women University, Faisalabad, Pakistan; fDepartment of Food Science, Government College
University Faisalabad, Faisalabad, Pakistan; gLand Evaluation and Agro-metrology Research Unit,
Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture Research, University of Lubumbashi, Lubumbashi,
Democratic Republic of the Congo

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Dietary fibre from plant-based sources provides essential nutrients Received 25 April 2024
and antioxidants that promote overall health and protect against Accepted 20 July 2024
various chronic conditions. The objective of this study was to review
KEYWORDS
the industrial applications and future aspects of different types of Dietary fibres; non-
dietary fibre. This review explored the multifaceted nature of dietary digestible; antioxidants;
fibres, emphasising their impact on digestive health, heart health, chronic; microbiome; zero
weight management, blood sugar control, and their role in hunger
preventing chronic diseases. Additionally, it delves into the
sustainable aspects of dietary fibre and the promising future
prospects they hold in personalised nutrition, gut health, and
sustainable food production.

CONTACT Mani Salaria [email protected] Department of Horticulture, School of Agriculture, Lovely

Professional University, Phagwara 144411, India; Sonia Morya [email protected] Department of Food
Technology & Nutrition, School of Agriculture, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara 144411, India; Emery Lenge Mukonzo
Kasongo [email protected] Land Evaluation and Agro-metrology Research Unit, Department of Soil Science,
Faculty of Agriculture Research, University of Lubumbashi, Lubumbashi, BP 1825, Democratic Republic of the Congo
© 2024 The Author(s). Published with license by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any
medium, provided the original work is properly cited, and is not altered, transformed, or built upon in any way. The terms on which
this article has been published allow the posting of the Accepted Manuscript in a repository by the author(s) or with their consent.
2 A. SURESH ET AL.

1. Introduction
Dietary fibre, often referred to simply as fibre, is a carbohydrate found in plant-based foods
(Bulsiewicz, 2023). Unlike other carbohydrates such as sugars and starches, dietary fibre
cannot be digested by the human digestive system. Dietary fibre is also considered a macro­
nutrient, similar to proteins, fats, and carbohydrates (Saini & Morya, 2021). There are two
types of fibres: soluble and insoluble. Soluble fibres are found in oat bran, seeds, barley,
lentils, nuts, beans, peas, and some fruits and vegetables. They are slow to digest and in
contact with water, they convert to gel-like structures. Insoluble fibres are found in foods,
such as whole grain like wheat bran, whole grain flour, vegetables like celery, cucumber,
nuts and seeds like almonds, peanuts and fruits like apple grapes kiwi. The World Health
Organization, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and European Food Safety Auth­
ority (EFSA) recommend a dietary fibre intake of 25 g/day for adults, based on the amount
needed for healthy laxation. Recommendations for the prevention of type 2 diabetes, cardi­
ovascular disease, colorectal cancer, overweight, and obesity are higher (25–38 g/day)
(Stephen et al., 2017). EFSA suggests an intake of 2 g/MJ of dietary fibre in children from
the age of 1 year. There are no guidelines for fibre intake below one year of age (Stephen
et al., 2017). In 2009, the Codex Alimentarius Commission defined dietary fibre as an
edible carbohydrate polymer with ten or more monomeric units (Ye et al., 2022). It aids in
the quick passage of food through the stomach and intestines (Evans, 2020). Therefore, it
reduces the incidence of diarrhea and increases the water-holding capacity (Chen et al.,
2022). It is essential to maintain good health through Regular Bowel Movements, add bulk
to stool, soften it, and promote regular bowel movements. This can help prevent constipation
and alleviate related discomfort (Mirmiran et al., 2005). Weight management helps reduce
overall calorie intake by promoting feelings of fullness. Soluble fibre, found in foods such
as oats bran, oat meal, root vegetables like turnip and potatoes, fruits like orange, banana,
berries like strawberry and blue berry, nuts and seeds like flax seed, chia seeds can slow the
absorption of sugar, helping stabilise blood glucose levels. This is particularly beneficial for
individuals with diabetes (Michel & Backus, 2023). Soluble fibre can help reduce the levels
of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, often referred to as “bad” cholesterol. This
can reduce the risk of heart diseases. Some studies have suggested that a diet rich in fibre
may help lower blood pressure and hypertension, further reducing the risk of cardiovascular
problems (Tejani et al., 2023). It also acts as a prebiotic, providing nourishment to beneficial
gut bacteria. These bacteria play a crucial role in the maintenance of a healthy gut microbiome.
A balanced gut microbiome is associated with reduced inflammation, which is associated with
various chronic diseases (Inguglia et al., 2023). Adequate fibre intake is associated with a lower
risk of colon cancer. Instead, it passes through the body and is largely intact (McClements &
Grossmann, 2021). This review paper deals with the types of dietary fibre, their importance in
daily life, industrial applications, and future aspects. To reap the health benefits of fibre, it is
essential to consume a balanced diet that includes a variety of fibre-rich foods.

2. Types of dietary fibers

2.1. Water-soluble dietary fibers
They are a type of dietary fibre (Figure 1, Tables 1 and 2) that dissolve in water and
form a gel-like substance in the digestive tract (Popoola-Akinola et al., 2022). These
 FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL IMMUNOLOGY 3

Figure 1. Types of dietary fibres present in food products.

fibres play a crucial role in maintaining overall health and are known for their various
benefits (Snauwaert et al., 2023). Food containing soluble dietary fibres is shown in
Figure 1. Some common sources and health benefits of water-soluble dietary fibres
are as follows.

Table 1. Types of Dietary fibres sources and functions.

Types Chemical composition Source Functions References
Soluble Pectin’s, gums Monosaccharide Apple, pear, Lower total blood Hu et al. (2023),
dietary and mucilage, composition, with orange, banana, cholesterol . (2022), Wang
fibres which are found xylose, arabinose, strawberry, levels by et al. (2022),
mainly in plant mannose, glucose, blueberry, reducing the Zheng et al.
cells. galactose, and artichoke, carrot, density of (2022)
uronic acids cauliflower, lipoprotein, or
brussel sprout, by reducing
spinach. “bad,”
Barley, Oats, seed cholesterol
husk, flaxseed, levels.
psyllium. Soy milk
and soy products,
Legumes-dried
beans, lentils,
peas
Insoluble Cellulose, Arabinoxylan, Kiwi, prunes, Add bulk to the Wang et al.
dietary hemicelluloses fructans, and oranges, pear, stool’s food (2022), Sang
fibres and lignin viscous β-glucan, grapes, oranges, passes more et al. (2022),
linear celery, green quickly through Baky et al.
polysaccharide that beans, stomach and (2024),
consists only of β-d- cauliflower, bell intestines Wróblewska
glucopyranosyl pepper, brussel et al. (2022)
sprout, tomatoes.
Wheat bran, corn
bran, rice bran,
dried beans,
almonds,
walnuts,
hazelnuts and
wholegrain
foods.
 4

Table 2. Types of Soluble and Insoluble dietary fibres sources and functions.
Types Solubility Sources Chemical Composition Functions References
Cellulose, Insoluble Almonds, walnuts, whole wheat, whole grains, Hemicelluloses consist of shorter chains Nature’s laxative: Reduces constipation, Ge et al. (2023), Zhu and Zhong
hemicellulose bran, lentils, chickpea, soya bean, green 500–3,000 sugar units. cellulose weight loss lowers risk of diverticulitis (small (2020), Biswal et al. (2023), Ji
beans, seeds, edible brown rice. comprises 7,000–15,000 glucose bulging pouches in the digestive tract). et al. (2020)
molecules. Cellulose is un branched and
A. SURESH ET AL.

hemicellulose is branched
Lignin Insoluble Found naturally in flax, rye, soya bean, barley, Composed of three monolignols, namely Good for heart health and possibly immune Agustiany et al. (2022), Shu et al.
oats, millets, broccoli, carrot, kale, p-coumaryl alcohol, coniferyl alcohol, function. Antioxidant activity and (2021), Verdini et al. (2022),
cauliflower. and sinapyl alcohol protection against oxidative stress. Huang et al. (2022), Morya et al.
(2016)
Pectin soluble Pears, apples, guavas, quince, plums, Composed of 150–500 α-D-galacturonic Slows the passage of food through the Millan-Linares et al. (2021),
gooseberries, and oranges and other citrus acid groups linked through 1→4- intestinal GI tract, and binds the food in Blanco-Pérez et al. (2021),
fruits contain large amounts of pectin, while glycosidic bonds intestine therefore it bulks the stools and Elshahed et al. (2021), Roy et al.
soft fruits, like cherries, grapes, and also helps lower blood cholesterol. (2023), Ropartz and Ralet
strawberries, contain small amounts of (2020)
pectin.
Inulin Soluble Onions, Garlic, wheat, Banana beets, chicory Fructose 2–60 units linked via β-(2, 1) Stimulate the growth of good bifido bacteria Wan et al. (2020), El-Kholy et al.
oligofructose root and Jerusalem artichoke. glycosidic bonds with a terminal glucose. in the gut and enhance immune function. (2020), Krupa-Kozak et al.
(2020), Jackson et al. (2023),
Brzezowska et al. (2023)
Mucilage, beta- Soluble Mucilage-Flaxseeds, chia seeds, Aloe Vera, Linear chains of glucose with β-(1 → 3) Helps lower bad LDL cholesterol, reduces risk Morales (2023), Reji and Mathew
glucans okra and figs. and β-(1 → 4) linkages of coronary heart disease and type 2 (2023), Waghmare et al. (2022),
Beta-glucans-Barley and oats diabetes. Goksen et al. (2023), Lante et al.
(2023)
Polydextrosepolyols Soluble Added to processed foods as a bulking agent Randomly cross-linked glucose units with Adds bulk to stools, helps prevent Ferreira et al. (2023), Farias et al.
and sugar substitute. Made from dextrose, all types of glycosidic bonding (1–6 constipation. May cause bloating or gas. It is (2023), Wong et al. (2022),
sorbitol, and citric acid. bonds predominate) containing minor used as a prebiotic. It cannot be digested by Ansari et al. (2022), Ünal and
amounts of sorbitol and citric acid. the human body. Instead, it’s digested by Arslan (2022), Rodriguez-Huezo
good bacteria found in the colon. et al. (2022)
Psyllium Soluble Breakfast cereals. Ice cream. Protein drinks. Arabinose (22%), xylose (57%) and uronic Bulk forming laxative. Helps lower cholesterol Noguerol et al. (2022), Martellet
Bread, husks of Plantago ovata plant. acids (10–15%) (w/w) with small and prevent constipation et al. (2022), Noguerol et al.
amounts of galactose, rhamnose, (2022), Chen et al. (2022),
glucose and mannose. Bretin et al. (2023), Harris et al.
(2023)
Resistant starch Soluble Raw potato starch, unripen bananas, Cooked High-molecular carbohydrate composed of Boosting overall gut health helps control Li et al. (2023), Liu et al. (2023),
and cooled rice, potatoes oatmeal, and linear (amylose) and branched blood sugars. It increases insulin sensitivity Jung and Park (2023), Guo et al.
legumes. (amylopectin) chains of glucose residues. and may reduce the risk of diabetes. (2023)
Wheat dextrin Soluble Wheat starch, it is used as food thickener in Glucose molecule bound together using Helps lower cholesterol (LDL and total Peerkhan and Nair (2021), Chong
packaged soups, sauces, sweets, baby food alpha 1,4 and alpha 1,6 glycoside links. cholesterol), and may lower blood sugar et al. (2019), Yu et al. (2022),
and reduce risk for heart disease. McRorie et al. (2021),
Seyedzade Hashemi et al.
(2022)
 FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL IMMUNOLOGY 5

Table 3. Dietary Fibres present in food (g/100 g edible portion).

Source Dietary fibres in (g/100 g edible portion) References
Cereals
Oatmeal 11–13 Roy (2021)
Brown rice 1.8–3 Thennakoon and Ekanayake (2022)
Quinoa 5–7 Ferreira et al. (2023)
Whole wheat pasta 7–10 Kaur et al. (2021)
Whole grain bread (1 slice) 2–3 Kaur et al. (2021)
Bran Cereals 12–15 Cetiner et al. (2022)
Whole Grain 2–5 Joye (2020)
Fibre-Fortified 5–14 Khorasaniha et al. (2023)
Rice Cereals 0.5–1.5 Kundalia et al. (2023)
Fruits
Apple 2.4−4 Bhardwaj et al. (2022)
Banana 2.6–3 Magdy et al. (2023)
Grapes 2–4
Guava 5–8
Orange 2.4–3 Suri et al. (2022)
Jack fruit 10–13 Soumya (2022)
Avocado 10–16 Tew (2020)
Passion fruit 20–25 Nath et al. (2016)
Cranberry 2–4 Ahmad et al. (2015)
Raspberry 5–8 Li et al. (2022)
Blackberry 5–8 Li et al. (2022)
Pear 2–4.3 Jiménez-Aguilar et al. (2015)
Kiwi 1–2 )Wang et al. (2021)
Vegetables
Broccoli 1–2.6 Agagunduz et al. (2022)
Carrots 1–2.8 Duval (2020)
Spinach 1–2.2 Al-Subhi (2020)
Sweet potato 2–3 Hanifah et al. (2022)
Lentils 6–8 Hassan (2020)
Black beans 12–15 Priyadarshini and Beatrice (2022)
Peas 3–5 Yoshimoto et al. (2020)
Nuts and seeds
Almonds 2–3.5 Arslan et al. (2020)
Cashew nut 2–3.3 Sanchez et al. (2024)
Chia seeds 30–34 Kamel and Fouda (2023)
Flaxseeds 24–27 Kaur et al. (2021)
Sunflower seeds 8–9 Ivanova et al. (2022)
Flaxseeds 27.3 Gupta and Morya (2022)
Other sources
Popcorn 12–13 Uthman-Akinhanmi et al. (2020)
Psyllium husk 4⍰⍰⍰5 Ivanova et al. (2022)

2.2. Sources of water-soluble dietary fibers

2.2.1. Oats
Oats are a good source of water-soluble dietary fibres, primarily in the form of beta-
glucans. β -glucans are soluble fibres found in the cell walls of oats and are known for
their various health benefits. The amount of dietary fibre present in oats was 1.7–3, as
shown in Table 3. β-Glucans are the primary water-soluble dietary fibres found in oats
(Maheshwari et al., 2019). They are a type of polysaccharide with a gel-like structure
that forms when they come in contact with water. β-Glucans are known for their choles­
terol-lowering properties and their ability to stabilise blood sugar levels. Consuming foods
high in beta-glucans, such as oatmeal, helps to reduce low-density lipoprotein (LDL)
cholesterol levels in the blood (Amerizadeh et al., 2023). This is beneficial for heart
health because high levels of LDL cholesterol are associated with an increased risk of
6 A. SURESH ET AL.

Table 4. Effects of dietary fibre on animal health.

Scientific
Fibre used Animal name Effects of fibre References
Resistant Maltodextrin (RM) and Mice Mus Prevention of liver fibrosis, Reduction Trithavisup
Wheat fibre musculus of Pro inflammatory factors, Increase (2020)
in Anti-inflammatory factors
Reduction in T lymphocyte
infiltration, Regulation of intestinal
flora
Dietary fibre Pigs Sus scrofa Provide energy to colonic epithelial Han et al. (2023)
domesticus cells, Promotes the production of
intestinal mucosa, Improves
glycemic and lipid responses
Neutral detergent fibre Cow Bos Taurus Linear decrease in dry matter intake Rane et al. (2023)
(DMI), NDF, average time spent
eating and ruminating, as well as the
time spent eating and ruminating
per kilogram of dry matter (DM).
Cereal fibre and fruit fibre Dog Canis lupus No significant changes were observed Montserrat-
familiaris in general biochemistry and Malagarriga
complete blood cell analysis. et al. (2024)
The BRA diet increased alpha diversity
of the micro biota and promoted the
growth of beneficial genera such as
Lachnospira, Bifidobacterium, and
Faecal bacterium.
The micro biota associated with the
BRA diet showed an overabundance
of genes related to carbohydrate and
amino acid metabolism
Oat beta glucan along with short Cat Felis catus Increases in sarcosine and numerical Ephraim and
chain fructooligosaccharides increases in methionine. Jewell (2023)
(scFOS). Reduction collagen breakdown and
fibrosis
Feeding flaxseed and sea Hen Gallus Increased the egg yolk content of α- Vlaicu et al.
buckthorn meals domesticus linolenic acid. Increased the total (2021)
polyphenol content and antioxidant
capacity.

cardiovascular disease (Rong et al., 2022). Beta-glucans can slow down the absorption of
glucose in the small intestine, helping regulate blood sugar levels (Ciecierska et al.,
2019). This is particularly important for individuals with diabetes or those at risk of devel­
oping diabetes. Oats are often considered a filling and satisfying breakfast option because of
their high soluble fibre content. This can help to control appetite and reduce overeating,
which is beneficial for weight management. Soluble fibre in oats can add bulk to stool
and promote regular bowel movements, aiding digestive health, and preventing consti­
pation (Khalid et al., 2022). The combination of cholesterol reduction, blood sugar
control, and potential weight management benefits contributes to the overall heart health.

2.2.2. Barley
Barley is another excellent source of water-soluble dietary fibre, primarily in the form of
beta-glucans. Water-soluble dietary fibres in barley offer health benefits similar to those
of oats (Din et al., 2018). Beta-glucans are the primary type of water-soluble fibre found
in barley. These are soluble polysaccharides with a gel-like structure that form when they
come into contact with water (Chiozzi et al., 2021). The amount of dietary fibre present in
oats is shown in Table 4. Beta-glucans in barley contribute to its health benefits. Similar
 FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL IMMUNOLOGY 7

to oats, barley is known for its ability to lower LDL (bad) cholesterol levels in the blood
(Hughes & Grafenauer, 2021). Beta-glucans in barley can bind to cholesterol molecules,
preventing their absorption in the intestine and ultimately reducing cholesterol levels.
This is advantageous for improving heart health. The soluble fibre content of barley
can slow down the absorption of glucose in the digestive tract, helping to stabilise
blood sugar levels (Raj et al., 2023). This is beneficial for individuals with diabetes or
for those looking to manage their blood sugar levels. The fibre in barley contributes to
the feeling of fullness and satiety, which can help with appetite control and weight man­
agement. Including barley in one’s diet can make one feel less hungry and reduce the like­
lihood of overeating (Akhlaghi, 2022). The soluble fibre content of barley can help
regulate bowel movements and prevent constipation. It adds bulk to the stool and pro­
motes regularity (Rane et al., 2023). The combined effects of lowering cholesterol, stabi­
lising blood sugar, and supporting weight management make barley a healthy food
choice.

2.2.3. Legumes
Legumes such as beans, lentils, and peas are rich sources of dietary fibre, including both
soluble and insoluble fibre. Water-soluble dietary fibre in legumes provides various
health benefits. The water-soluble dietary fibres found in legumes are Pectin and Galac­
tans. Pectin is a water-soluble fibre found in legumes (Bai et al., 2022). It is the same fibre
found in many fruits, which gives them a gel-like consistency. Pectin can dissolve in
water, form a viscous gel, and offer several health benefits (Chandel et al., 2022). Galac­
tans are a class of complex carbohydrates found in legumes including beans. They are a
type of soluble fibre that can cause gas production when consumed, but they also con­
tribute to the health benefits of legumes (Guillon & Champ, 2002). Soluble fibre in
legumes, including pectin and galactans, can help lower LDL (bad) cholesterol levels.
Lowering cholesterol levels is beneficial for heart health and can reduce the risk of car­
diovascular disease. Soluble fibre in legumes can slow down the absorption of glucose,
helping regulate blood sugar levels (Malekipoor et al., 2022). This is particularly impor­
tant for people with diabetes or for those aiming to manage their blood sugar levels.
Legumes are known for their satiety and appetite-controlling properties owing to their
fibre content. Including legumes in one’s diet can help one feel full, reducing the likeli­
hood of overeating. Some studies have suggested that a diet rich in legumes and their
soluble fibres may help reduce the risk of colon cancer. Soluble fibres in legumes act
as prebiotics, feeding on beneficial gut bacteria. A healthy gut microbiome is associated
with an improved overall health and immunity.

2.2.4. Fruits
Fruits, including both water-soluble and insoluble fibres, are rich sources of dietary fibre.
Water-soluble dietary fibre in fruits offers various health benefits. Water-soluble dietary
fibres found in fruits include pectin, gum, and mucilage (Zhou et al., 2022). Pectin is one
of the most common types of water-soluble dietary fibres found in fruits. It gives fruits a
gel-like texture when cooked or processed (Zioga et al., 2022). Pectin dissolves in water
and has several health benefits. Apples, pears, citrus fruits (such as oranges and grape­
fruits), and berries (such as strawberries and blueberries) are particularly good sources
of pectin and other soluble fibres (Wallace et al., 2020). Some fruits contain other
8 A. SURESH ET AL.

water-soluble fibres, such as gums and mucilage. These fibres also dissolved in water and
formed a gel-like substance. Soluble fibres in fruits act as prebiotics, promoting the
growth of beneficial gut bacteria, which can have a positive impact on overall gut
health and immunity (Guan et al., 2021). The combination of cholesterol reduction,
blood sugar control, and weight management contributes to the overall heart health.

2.2.5. Vegetables
Water-soluble dietary fibres are also present in various vegetables and contribute to their
health benefits. These fibres dissolve in water and form a gel-like consistency in the diges­
tive tract. Water-soluble dietary fibres commonly found in vegetables include Pectin,
Inulin and Mucilage. Pectin is a water-soluble fibre found in the cell walls of many veg­
etables, particularly in root vegetables, such as carrots and potatoes. It is also present in
the fruits. Pectin forms a gel when combined with water, and is known for its various
health benefits. Inulin is a soluble fibre found in certain vegetables, such as chicory, arti­
chokes, and garlic (Mudannayake et al., 2022). It acts as a prebiotic and promotes the
growth of beneficial gut bacteria. Mucilage is another type of soluble fibre found in veg­
etables such as okra and flaxseeds. It has a gel-like consistency when mixed with water
and aids digestive health (Hamdani et al., 2019). Health benefits associated with water-
soluble dietary fibres in vegetables: Water-soluble fibres in vegetables can help soften
stool, add bulk to bowel movements, and promote regularity, preventing constipation.
These fibres can slow down the absorption of sugar, helping to regulate blood sugar
levels, which is important for people with diabetes or for those looking to manage
their blood sugar. Water-soluble fibre content in vegetables can contribute to a feeling
of fullness, helping with appetite control and weight management (Giuntini et al.,
2022). In particular, inulin acts as a prebiotic and promotes the growth of beneficial
gut bacteria. This supports the overall gut health and immunity. Maintaining healthy
weight, regulating blood sugar, and promoting regular digestion are all factors that
can positively impact heart health. Some vegetables that are high in soluble fibre
include carrots, potatoes, sweet potatoes, okra, and artichokes.

2.2.6. Psyllium husk

Psyllium husks are an excellent source of water-soluble dietary fibre and are known for
their various health benefits. The primary type of soluble fibre found in psyllium husks is
called mucilage. Mucilage is a thick, gel-like substance that forms when psyllium husks
come into contact with water. It is composed of various soluble fibres, including arabi­
noxylan and xyloglucan (Noguerol et al., 2022). This mucilage gives psyllium husk its
unique property of rapidly absorbing water and forming a viscous gel, as well as
health benefits associated with the water-soluble dietary fibre in psyllium husk. Psyllium
husk is perhaps the most well-known for its digestive benefits. Mucilage helps add bulk to
stool, soften it, and promote regular bowel movements, making it effective in preventing
and relieving constipation (Bellini et al., 2021). Psyllium husks can also be helpful in
managing diarrhea. The soluble fibre in psyllium can absorb excess water in the intestine,
leading to firmer stools. Psyllium husks can slow down the absorption of sugar in the
digestive tract, helping to stabilise blood sugar levels (McRorie et al., 2021). This
makes it beneficial for individuals with diabetes or for those looking to manage their
blood sugar levels. Regular consumption of psyllium husks has been shown to lower
 FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL IMMUNOLOGY 9

LDL cholesterol levels in the blood, thereby reducing the risk of heart disease (Jovanovski
et al., 2018). Psyllium husks can contribute to a feeling of fullness and satiety because of
their ability to form a gel in the stomach. This can help with appetite control and weight
management. Lowering cholesterol, regulating blood sugar, and managing weight con­
tribute to overall heart health.

2.3. Water insoluble dietary fibers

Water-insoluble dietary fibres, referred to as “insoluble fibers,” do not dissolve in water
(Table 2). Instead, they retain their structure and can add bulk to the contents of the
digestive tract (Timm et al., 2023) Examples of insoluble dietary fibres are shown in
Figure 1. These fibres play several important roles in promoting digestive health and
overall wellbeing. Some common sources of water-insoluble dietary fibres include the
following.

2.3.1. Whole grains

Whole grains are a significant source of water-insoluble dietary fibres, particularly cellu­
lose and hemicellulose. These fibres contribute to the structural components of the grains
and their bran layers (Khan et al., 2022). Water-insoluble dietary fibres in whole-grain
Cellulose and Hemicellulose. Cellulose is a major type of water-insoluble dietary fibre
found in whole grains. It is a complex carbohydrate that provides rigidity to the plant
cell walls. It is mainly found in the bran portion (Saini et al., 2023). Hemicellulose is
another type of water-insoluble fibre found in whole grains. It is a complex polysacchar­
ide that forms the matrix of cell walls in plants. Hemicellulose contributes to the fibrous
and bulk-forming qualities of whole grains (Díaz-Montes & Castro-Muñoz, 2021).
Whole wheat, bran, brown rice, wheat, brown rice, quinoa, and bulgur are rich in inso­
luble fibre. Water-insoluble dietary fibres in whole grains have several important func­
tions and health benefits. Cellulose and hemicellulose add bulk to the stool, which
promotes regular bowel movements and helps prevent constipation. These fibres contrib­
ute to a healthy and efficient digestive system (Khalid et al., 2022). Whole grains, which
are rich in insoluble fibres, tend to fill more. They can help increase satiety, contribute
to appetite control, and potentially aid weight management. Adequate intake of
water-insoluble fibre from whole grains can help reduce the risk of conditions, such as
diverticulosis, which is characterised by the formation of small pouches in the colon
wall (Arowosola et al., 2022). Insoluble fibres can help prevent complications associated
with diverticulosis. While water-insoluble fibre does not directly affect blood sugar levels,
the presence of these fibres in meals can slow the absorption of sugars from other foods,
contributing to more stable blood sugar levels (Miehle et al., 2022). Whole grains, with
their water-insoluble fibre content, are associated with a reduced risk of heart disease
because of their ability to promote healthy digestion and overall well-being.

2.3.2. Vegetables
Water-insoluble dietary fibres are present in many vegetables and contribute to their
texture and structure. These fibres are important for promoting digestive health,
adding bulk to stool, and supporting regular bowel movements. Some examples of
water-insoluble dietary fibres commonly found in vegetables are cellulose, hemicellulose,
10 A. SURESH ET AL.

and lignin. Cellulose is one of the most common types of water-insoluble dietary fibre in
vegetables. It is a complex carbohydrate that comprises the cell walls of plants. Vegetables
with a noticeable fibrous texture, such as celery and broccoli, tend to be rich in cellulose
(Pham-Huy & Huy, 2022). Hemicellulose is another type of water-insoluble fibre found
in vegetables. It is a complex polysaccharide that contributes to the structural integrity of
the plant cell walls. Vegetables with tougher or thicker textures, such as carrots and corn,
often contain hemicellulose (Kocira et al., 2021). Lignin is a less common but important
type of water-insoluble fibre found in vegetables. It is a complex polymer that provides
rigidity to plant cell walls. Woody or fibrous vegetables, such as asparagus and kale,
contain lignin (Wang et al., 2021). Health benefits associated with water-insoluble
dietary fibre intake from vegetables. Water-insoluble fibres in vegetables add bulk to
stool and promote regular bowel movements, aiding in the prevention of constipation
and supporting the overall digestive health. The fibrous nature of some vegetables con­
tributes to a feeling of fullness and satiety, which can help appetite control and weight
management. Adequate intake of water-insoluble fibre from vegetables can help
reduce the risk of conditions, such as diverticulosis, which is characterised by the for­
mation of small pouches in the colon wall. Insoluble fibres can help prevent compli­
cations associated with diverticulosis. By promoting healthy digestion and supporting
overall well-being, vegetables with water-insoluble fibres can contribute to a reduced
risk of heart disease.

2.3.3. Fruits
The fruits are generally known for their content of water-soluble dietary fibres, such as
pectin; they also contain some amount of water-insoluble dietary fibres, although in
smaller quantities (Timm et al., 2023). Water-insoluble dietary fibre in fruits contributes
to their structural integrity and texture. Examples of these fibres include Cellulose, Hemi­
cellulose and Lignin. Cellulose is a water-insoluble fibre found in the cell walls of many
fruits, such as apples and pears (Bahmid et al., 2024). It provides rigidity and contributes
to the structural properties of the fruits. Hemicellulose is another water-insoluble fibre
present in fruits such as grapes and the skins of various berries. This helps to maintain
the texture of the fruit. Lignin is a less common but significant water-insoluble fibre
found in some fruits. This added rigidity to the cell walls. The skins of fruits, such as
grapes and kiwi, may contain lignin (Roy et al., 2023). Water-insoluble dietary fibres
in fruits have functions and benefits. These fibres provide bulk to the fruit and can
have a mild laxative effect, supporting regular bowel movements and preventing consti­
pation (Tian et al., 2024). Fruits with a notable fibrous texture can contribute to a feeling
of fullness and satiety, which can help appetite control and weight management. Chewing
fibrous fruit can stimulate saliva production and contribute to oral health. Fruits such as
apples, pears, and berries are good examples of fruits containing water-insoluble fibres
(Patova et al., 2023).

2.3.4. Nuts and seeds

Water-insoluble dietary fibres can also be found in some fruits and nuts, although their
content is typically lower than that in vegetables and whole grains. These fibres contrib­
ute to the structural integrity of these foods. Water-insoluble dietary fibres in fruits
include Apples, Pears, Grapes and Nuts such as Almonds and Walnuts. Apple skin
 FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL IMMUNOLOGY 11

contains cellulose, a type of water-insoluble fibre that provides structural support to the
fruit and adds to its texture (Hussain et al., 2020). Flaxseed is known for its outstanding
profile of fatty acids and dietary fibre (Morya et al., 2019). Pears, particularly their skin,
also contain cellulose, which contributes to their fibrous texture. Grape skins are another
source of cellulose that gives grapes their characteristic texture (Bhardwaj et al., 2022).
Almonds have a relatively small amount of water-insoluble dietary fibre, primarily in
the form of cellulose. This fibre contributes to the firmness of the almonds. Walnuts
also contain cellulose, which adds a structure to the nut. These water-insoluble dietary
fibres in fruits and nuts provide digestive health benefits, including promoting regular
bowel movements and preventing constipation (Jha et al., 2017). While the content of
these fibres is generally lower than that of other food groups such as vegetables, fruits,
and nuts, they are still important components of a balanced diet, providing essential
nutrients and other dietary fibres. High content of healthy fats, vitamins, minerals,
and antioxidants, in addition to their fibre content.

3. Health benefits of dietary fibers

3.1. Normalises bowel movement and maintain the bowel health
Dietary fibres help in the bulking and softening of stools, and they solidify the stool
because they absorb water and add bulk to the stools; therefore, they stimulate the
muscles in the intestine to easily pass through and promote regular bowel movement
and avoid constipation (Jha et al., 2017). High fibre diet lowers the risk of develop­
ing hemorrhoids and small pouches in the colon (diverticular diseases), and lowers
the risk of colorectal cancer (Hojsak et al., 2022). Certain types of fibres, called pre­
biotics, can promote the growth of beneficial gut bacteria. These bacteria play a role
in digestive health and may indirectly support regular bowel movements (So et al.,
2022). It is important to drink plenty of water when increasing fibre intake to avoid
potential digestive discomfort. Dietary fibre has many health benefits, as shown in
Figure 2.

Figure 2. Health benefits and industrial applications of dietary fibres.

12 A. SURESH ET AL.

3.2. Lowers cholesterol level

Soluble fibres, such as beta-glucans in oats and psyllium husks, can bind to cholesterol
molecules in the digestive tract, preventing them from being absorbed into the blood­
stream. Instead, these bound cholesterol molecules are excreted from the body.
Soluble fibre, in particular, can lower the levels of LDL (low-density lipoprotein)
cholesterol, often referred to as “bad” cholesterol. By reducing the absorption of LDL
cholesterol, fibre helps to maintain healthier cholesterol levels (Islam et al., 2021). A
high-fibre diet can lead to a reduction in total cholesterol levels, which include both
LDL and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol. However, it primarily affects the
LDL cholesterol levels (Reynolds et al., 2022). Fibre-rich foods can help regulate the
blood sugar levels. Improved blood sugar control can indirectly improve heart health
and reduce the risk of cholesterol-related problems (Nie & Luo, 2021). Certain fibres
are fermented by beneficial gut bacteria that produce short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs).
SCFAs can have a positive impact on cholesterol metabolism and overall
cardiovascular health.

3.3. Control blood sugar levels

Soluble fibre, found in foods such as oats, beans, and some fruits, forms a gel-like sub­
stance when mixed with water in the digestive tract. This gel can slow down the digestion
and absorption of carbohydrates, leading to a gradual rise in blood sugar levels after a
meal rather than a rapid spike (Kumari, 2020). Consuming a diet rich in fibre has
been associated with increased insulin sensitivity. This means that the body can use
insulin more effectively to regulate blood sugar levels, reducing the risk of insulin resist­
ance and type 2 diabetes (Myhrstad et al., 2020). Foods with a high glycemic index (GI)
can cause rapid spikes in the blood sugar levels. Fibre-rich foods, by their nature, often
have a lower GI because they slow the digestion of carbohydrates. This can help maintain
stable blood sugar levels stable (Joye, 2020). High-fibre foods tend to be filled and can
help you feel full for longer periods of time. This can prevent overeating and snacking
of sugary or high-carbohydrate foods, which can lead to blood sugar spikes (Naidoo,
2020). Certain types of fibres, known as prebiotics, promote the growth of beneficial
gut bacteria. A healthy gut microbiome plays a role in blood sugar regulation and
overall metabolic health.

3.4. Achieving healthy weight

Foods rich in fibre tend to be more filling and satisfying. Consuming fibre-rich meals and
snacks can help feel full for longer periods, reducing the likelihood of overeating or
snacking unhealthy foods between meals (Cronin et al., 2021). Many high-fibre foods
such as fruits, vegetables, and legumes are low in calories compared to their volume.
Larger portions of these foods do not consume excess calories, making it easier to
manage their weight (Naous et al., 2023). Foods with high fibre content often have a
lower energy density and provide fewer calories per gram. This encourages the consump­
tion of larger portions of these foods while still controlling the calorie intake. A healthy
gut microbiome is associated with a reduced risk of obesity and metabolic disorders.
 FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL IMMUNOLOGY 13

3.5. Cardiovascular health

Fibre found in foods such as oats, beans, and some fruits can help reduce the levels of
LDL (low-density lipoprotein) cholesterol, often referred to as “bad” cholesterol
(Nweze et al., 2021). By binding to cholesterol in the digestive tract and preventing its
absorption, soluble fibre can lower the risk of atherosclerosis (the buildup of cholesterol
in arteries) and reduce the risk of heart disease. This can contribute to better overall car­
diovascular health and reduce the risk of hypertension-related heart disease. Chronic
inflammation plays a role in the development of cardiovascular disease (Xie et al.,
2023). Fibre-rich foods such as fruits and vegetables are packed with antioxidants and
anti-inflammatory compounds that can help reduce inflammation in the body
(Bhavani et al., 2023). Flax seeds are one of the richest plant-based sources of alpha-lino­
lenic acid (ALA), an omega-3 fatty acid. ALA helps reduce inflammation and can help
lower the risk of heart disease. Flax seeds are high in both soluble and insoluble fibre
(Parikh et al., 2018; Shahada et al., 2024). Soluble fibre helps lower cholesterol levels
by binding to bile acids and removing them from the body. Lower cholesterol levels
reduce the risk of atherosclerosis and heart disease. Insoluble fibre aids in digestive
health, which indirectly supports cardiovascular health (Mandaliya et al., 2018). They
are also an excellent source of lignans, which have antioxidant and estrogen-like proper­
ties. Lignans can help reduce cholesterol levels, improve blood vessel health, and lower
blood pressure (Rodríguez-García et al., 2019). These effects collectively contribute to
a reduced risk of heart disease. Some studies suggest that flax seeds can help lower
blood pressure, which is a major risk factor for heart disease. The combined effects of
omega-3 fatty acids, fibre, and lignans contribute to this benefit. Regular consumption
of flax seeds has been shown to reduce levels of LDL (bad) cholesterol and total choles­
terol while increasing HDL (good) cholesterol. This lipid profile improvement supports
cardiovascular health (Gupta & Morya, 2022; Parikh et al., 2018).
Regular consumption supports overall heart health and reduces the risk of cardiovas­
cular events. As mentioned earlier, dietary fibre can promote feelings of fullness and
assist in weight management. Maintaining healthy weight is a key factor in reducing
the risk of heart disease. A balanced and diverse gut microbiome has been linked to a
reduced risk of cardiovascular diseases (Rippe & Angelopoulos, 2019). It is important
to incorporate a variety of fibre-rich foods into the diet to maximise cardiovascular
benefits. These include whole grains, fruits, vegetables, legumes, and nuts.

4. Industrial applications
4.1. Food processing
Dietary fibre can be added to processed foods to improve their texture, moisture reten­
tion, and stability. They are often used in products, such as baked goods, dairy products,
and meat substitutes. Dietary fibres have several applications in the food processing
industry owing to their unique properties. These applications are important for enhan­
cing the nutritional value, texture, and shelf-life of various food products. Some common
industrial applications of dietary fibre in food processing include dietary fibres such as
wheat bran or oat bran, which are often used in the production of bread, muffins, and
other baked goods (Maina et al., 2021). They can enhance the texture and structure of
14 A. SURESH ET AL.

baked products, improve moisture retention, and extend the shelf life (Raji et al., 2023).
Dietary fibre is added to cereal products and snack bars to increase their fibre content and
make them more nutritious. Fibre sources, such as inulin, chicory root, and psyllium
husk, are used to fortify these products. Fibres, particularly soluble fibres, such as carra­
geenan and xanthan gum, are used in meat processing to improve texture, moisture
retention, and binding properties. It can replace some of the fat in sausages and meat pro­
ducts, making them healthier (Rivas et al., 2021). They help to maintain moisture, giving
sausages a juicy texture even with reduced fat content. These fibres are used to bind
restructured meat products, ensuring a firm and cohesive texture (Qi et al., 2020).
They also help in maintaining moisture during slicing and storage. In poultry products
like chicken nuggets and patties, soluble fibres help to bind the meat pieces together and
improve the product’s juiciness and tenderness (Balestra et al., 2019). For consumers
looking for healthier options, soluble fibres allow the production of low-fat meat pro­
ducts without compromising on texture and taste. This makes these products more
appealing while providing the health benefits of reduced fat intake (Younis et al., 2022).
Dietary fibres such as pectin, guar gum, and cellulose are used in beverage manu­
facturing to stabilise products, control viscosity, and enhance the mouthfeel of fruit
juices, smoothies, and other drinks (Raman et al., 2019). During dairy processing,
fibre can be used to improve the texture and mouthfeel of yogurt, ice cream, and
other dairy products. It can also serve as a fat substitute for low-fat or reduced-
calorie dairy items (Genovese et al., 2022). Yogurt itself does not naturally contain
dietary fibre. However, it can be enhanced with dietary fibre by adding ingredients
such as fruit purees, fresh or dried fruits, oats, bran, or granola, chia seeds,
flaxseeds, and other seeds are rich in fibre can be mixed into yogurt (Olson &
Aryana, 2022). Adding fibre to yogurt can enhance its nutritional profile and
provide several health benefits. Improves digestive health fibre adds bulk to stool,
making it easier to pass and reducing the likelihood of constipation (Rao & Quartar­
one, 2019). This helps maintain a healthy digestive system. Some types of fibre, such
as prebiotics, serve as food for beneficial gut bacteria. This can enhance the diversity
and activity of gut microbiota, which is crucial for overall health (Rezende et al.,
2021). Aids in weight management, fibre slows the absorption of sugars, preventing
spikes in blood sugar levels and reducing hunger cravings. Fibre slows the rate at
which sugar is absorbed into the bloodstream, which can help stabilise blood sugar
levels. This is particularly beneficial for individuals with diabetes or those at risk of
developing diabetes (Goff et al., 2018). A healthy gut microbiome supported by
fibre can improve the gut lining’s integrity, enhancing the absorption of essential
nutrients.
In the production of gluten-free foods, dietary fibres like psyllium husk, tapioca
starch, or rice bran are used to improve texture and moisture retention in bread,
pasta, and other gluten-free products (Cappelli et al., 2020). Extruded snacks, such
as puffed cereals or chips, often contain fibre-rich ingredients that increase their nutri­
tional value and provide a healthier snacking option. Many functional foods and
dietary supplements incorporate dietary fibres, including prebiotics, such as insulin
and oligofructose, for their digestive health benefits. Fibres can be used to replace
some sugar, fat, or other high-calorie ingredients in various food products while
maintaining texture and taste.
 FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL IMMUNOLOGY 15

4.2. Thickening and gelling agent

Dietary fibres are used as thickening and gelling agents in the food processing industry
because of their ability to absorb and retain water, form gels, and provide texture to a
wide range of food products. Some common industrial applications of dietary fibre
include thickening and gelling agents. Dietary fibres, such as pectin, guar gum, and
xanthan gum, are used to thicken and stabilise sauces and gravies. These fibres
provide a consistent texture and prevent the separation of ingredients (Rashidinejad
et al., 2021). In salad dressings and mayonnaise, soluble dietary fibres, such as guar
gum and xanthan gum, can be used to control viscosity and improve stability, preventing
the separation of oil and water. Pectin, a natural fibre found in fruits, is commonly used
in the production of jams and jellies (Perumal et al., 2022). It helps create a characteristic
gel-like texture and enhances the spread ability of these products. Dietary fibres such as
agar and carrageenan are used to thicken gel desserts, such as puddings, custards, and
gelatin-free gummy candies (Choi et al., 2020). Gelling agents, such as pectin and
modified starches, are used in yogurt and dairy products to control texture, prevent
syneresis (whey separation), and enhance creaminess. Dietary fibres, such as guar gum
and xanthan gum, are added to gluten-free and low-fat baked goods to improve
texture, moisture retention, and dough stability (Gupta & Morya, 2022). In the pro­
duction of gummies, fruit chews, and other confectionery products, pectin, agar-agar,
and carrageenan are used to create gels and control the texture and chewiness of
candies (Zhang et al., 2020). Soluble dietary fibres such as pectin and carrageenan are
used in the beverage industry to stabilise and thicken fruit juices, milkshakes, and
dairy alternatives. In canned soups, stews, and ready-made meals, dietary fibres may
be used to achieve the desired consistency and bind ingredients together (Ptichkina &
Nepovinnykh, 2020). Dietary fibres are used in gluten-free products, such as bread,
pizza dough, and pasta, to improve texture, dough handling, and moisture retention.
In low-fat or reduced-calorie products, such as salad dressings and ice cream, dietary
fibres can serve as fat replacers, providing texture and mouthfeel (Apovian et al.,
2018). In plant-based and reduced meat products, dietary fibres can act as binders and
texture enhancers, improving the structure and mouthfeel of burgers, sausages, and
meatballs. Dietary fibres offer an excellent solution for producing healthier, texture-
modified, and allergen-free food products, while enhancing their nutritional profile.
The choice of a specific dietary fibre and its concentration depends on the desired
product texture and application. Manufacturers often conduct extensive research and
development to optimise the use of dietary fibre in their formulations.

4.3. Fat replacement

Dietary fibres are used in the food industry for fat replacement purposes, primarily in the
development of low-fat or reduced-calorie food products (Khanpit et al., 2021). They can
mimic some of the functional and sensory properties of fat without high caloric content
(Pop et al., 2021). Some common industrial applications of dietary fibre as a fat replace­
ment include baker products, dressings and sauces, dairy products, processed meat, con­
fectionery, nut butters, soup and gravy mixes, dough and batters, spreads and
margarines, and gluten-free products. The use of dietary fibre for fat replacement
16 A. SURESH ET AL.

offers the benefit of reducing the caloric content of food products, making them more
health-conscious while retaining desirable sensory characteristics (Asyrul-Izhar et al.,
2023). Careful formulation and selection of the appropriate dietary fibre are essential
to achieve the desired results without compromising taste and quality.

4.4. Stabilisers and emulsifiers

Dietary fibres are employed as stabilisers and emulsifiers in the food industry to enhance
the texture, stability, and quality of various food products (Singh et al., 2018). These
fibres help create uniform mixtures, prevent the separation of ingredients, and
improve the overall sensory experience. Some common industrial applications of
dietary fibre as a stabiliser and emulsifier include beverages, dressings and sauces,
dairy products, confectionery, bakery products, meat products, plant-based meat alterna­
tives, gluten-free products, soup and gravy mixes, and low-fat and reduced-calorie pro­
ducts (Williams & Phillips, 2021). The addition of dietary fibre as a stabiliser and
emulsifier in food products helps maintain product quality, extend shelf life, and
improve consumer satisfaction. The specific fibre used and its concentration depend
on the desired product characteristics and application (Soleimanian et al., 2022).

4.5. Pharmaceuticals
Dietary fibres are primarily used in the food industry because of their functional and
nutritional properties. However, in recent years, there has been increasing interest in
the use of dietary fibres in pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals owing to their potential
health benefits (Maurya et al., 2021). Some industrial applications of dietary fibre in phar­
maceuticals include bulk laxatives, cholesterol-lowering agents, gastrointestinal health,
weight management, blood sugar control (Gil-Chávez et al., 2021). Dietary fibres, both
soluble and insoluble, are used in dietary supplements to provide fibre intake to individ­
uals who may not consume enough fibre through their regular diet. These supplements
may be used for various health purposes, including digestive health, cholesterol manage­
ment, and weight control. In pharmaceutical formulations, dietary fibres can be used as
bulking agents to create the size and shape of tablets and capsules (Ranaivo et al., 2022).
They help with the manufacturing and dosing of pharmaceuticals. It’s important to note
that the use of dietary fibres in pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals is specific to certain
applications, and their use must be supported by scientific research and regulatory
approvals to ensure safety and efficacy. The concentration and type of fibre used may
vary depending on the intended therapeutic effect or health benefits.

4.6. Cosmetics
Some cosmetic facial and body scrubs may contain small, finely ground dietary fibre par­
ticles, such as oat bran or rice bran, as exfoliants. These natural exfoliants help remove
dead skin cells and promote a smoother and more radiant complex (Polat et al., 2023).
They are considered more eco-friendly alternatives to microplastic beads. Certain
dietary fibres, such as aloe vera gel, contain mucilage, which has moisturising and sooth­
ing properties. Cosmetic products, especially those formulated for sensitive or dry skin,
 FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL IMMUNOLOGY 17

may incorporate these fibres to provide hydration and relief to the skin (Goyal et al.,
2022). It can be used as a texturising agent to provide products with specific consistency
or texture. For example, they may be used to thicken cream, lotion, or other emulsions.
Some haircare products, such as shampoos and conditioners, may contain dietary fibres,
such as psyllium husk or oat bran, to add volume to hair, create a thicker texture, and
improve overall hair health (Nagappa & Kanoujia, 2022). It is also used in colour cos­
metics, such as eye shadows or blushes, to improve the adhesion of pigments to the
skin, enhance product longevity, and create a smoother application.

4.7. Biodegradable packaging

In the quest for more sustainable packaging options, biodegradable materials made from
dietary fibres are being explored as eco-friendly alternatives to traditional packaging
materials (Cheng et al., 2021). They provide a natural and non-toxic option for packaging
food products, while reducing plastic waste. Packaging for cosmetics and personal care
products such as soaps, lotions, and shampoos can be made from dietary fibres. These
materials can also incorporate other biodegradable components such as cornstarch to
create sturdy and eco-friendly packaging. Biodegradable disposable cutlery, plates, and
utensils can replace plastic options for events, takeout’s, and picnics, reducing the
environmental impact of single-use plastics (Bomhard, 2019). Dietary fibre-based
materials can be used as alternatives to the traditional paper and cardboard packaging.
These include cardboard boxes, envelopes, and paper bags. Flexible packaging materials
made from dietary fibres can be used as wraps and pouches in various products. These
materials can be composted or broken down in natural environments to reduce plastic
pollution (Niaounakis, 2019). Packaging made from dietary fibre can also be used in
the agricultural industry to store and transport produce, grains, and other crops.
These materials can be composted or reused in the field (Koul et al., 2022). In the
fashion industry, dietary fibre-based packaging is used for clothing and textile products.
They offer sustainable options for garment bags and other packaging needs.

5. Future prospects of dietary fibres

Health and Wellness: As the importance of a healthy diet has become increasingly recog­
nised, dietary fibres will continue to be a central component of health and wellness strat­
egies (Teferra, 2021). They play a crucial role in preventing and managing chronic
diseases such as heart disease, diabetes, and obesity (Blanco-Pérez et al., 2021). Advances
in personalised nutrition will lead to tailored dietary recommendations, and dietary fibre
will be a part of these customised plans, taking into account individual genetics, micro­
biome composition, and health goals (Escalante-Aburto et al., 2021). The Gut Health
Focus is a growing awareness of the gut-brain connection, and the role of the gut micro­
biome in overall health will drive greater interest in dietary fibres as prebiotics (Fang
et al., 2023). Fibre-rich foods and supplements will be designed to support gut health
and their impact on mental and physical well-being (Puhlmann & de Vos, 2022). The
shift towards plant-based diets for health, environmental, and ethical reasons will
elevate the importance of dietary fibres from plant sources (Hoehnel et al., 2022).
These fibres will be recognised not only for their health benefits, but also for their
18 A. SURESH ET AL.

contribution to sustainable eating patterns (Soni et al., 2022). Innovative Fiber Sources
are new and unconventional sources of dietary fibre, such as seaweed, algae, and agricul­
tural byproducts, to diversify fibre options and reduce food waste. The increasing consu­
mer demand for clean labels and natural foods will drive the use of dietary fibres as
natural texturizers, stabilisers, and ingredients that enhance the nutritional profile of pro­
cessed foods (Boukid & Gagaoua, 2022). Sustainable, biodegradable, and edible packa­
ging materials made from dietary fibres will gain traction as part of sustainability
efforts in the food industry (Liu et al., 2023). Health claims and regulation agencies
may establish more specific health claims and guidelines related to dietary fibres and
their health benefits, leading to clearer labelling and greater consumer awareness.
Fibre Supplementation with busy lifestyles and dietary preferences, fibre supplements,
and functional foods fortified with fibre will become more popular as a convenient
way to meet daily fibre requirements. Ongoing research into the various types of
dietary fibres, their unique health benefits, and mechanisms of action will drive inno­
vation in the development of new fibre-rich products and applications (Galanakis,
2022). Global Efforts based on government organisations worldwide may implement
initiatives to increase fibre intake in populations to address public health concerns
related to diet and lifestyles.

6. Conclusion
Dietary fibre is an essential component of a healthy diet and has numerous benefits for
human health and well-being. They are non-digestible carbohydrates found in various
plant-based foods and exist in soluble and insoluble forms, each offering unique advan­
tages. Dietary fibres promote regular bowel movements, prevent constipation, and
reduce the risk of digestive disorders, such as diverticulitis and hemorrhoids. Help
lower LDL cholesterol levels and reduce the risk of heart disease. They also contribute
to blood pressure regulation and improved blood sugar control. Additionally, soluble
fibres can help manage diarrhea by absorbing excess water. They are often part of
weight loss and management plans. Dietary fibres hold promising prospects for person­
alised nutrition, gut health research, plant-based diets, innovative fibre sources, and sus­
tainable food production. They will continue to play a central role in the promotion of
health and well-being. Incorporating a variety of fibre-rich foods into the diet is essential
to reap these benefits. A balanced diet that includes a variety of these foods can help meet
fibre needs. It is essential to pay attention to fibre intake and to make dietary choices that
support health goals.
This review goes beyond merely summarising existing literature by digging into the
multifaceted nature of dietary fibres. It highlights their significant impact on diverse
aspects of health including digestive health, heart health, weight management and
blood sugar control. Furthermore, it underscores the pivotal role of dietary fibres in
the prevention of chronic diseases. Moreover, this review uniquely focuses on the sus­
tainable aspects of dietary fibre acknowledging their potential to contribute to environ­
mentally friendly food production practices. Overall, this review paper provides a
comprehensive and forward-looking analysis of dietary fibre, encompassing not only
its health benefits but also its sustainability and future applications in improving
human well-being.
 FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL IMMUNOLOGY 19

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

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