Strategic Study Guide: IGCSE Chemistry, Chapter 11 - Acids & Bases
Section 1: The Blueprint - Foundational Knowledge & Core Principles
The terminology in this chapter is precise and hierarchical. Using the wrong term (e.g., alkali
instead of base) will be penalized.
Term/Principle Exam-Perfect Definition Critical Nuance / Context
(Examiner's Focus)
Acid A substance that produces The presence of H⁺(aq) ions
hydrogen ions (H⁺) when gives acids their
dissolved in water. It is a characteristic properties
proton donor. (sour taste, pH < 7, turns
litmus red).
Base A substance that reacts with This category includes metal
an acid to form a salt and oxides, metal hydroxides,
water only. It is a proton and metal carbonates.
acceptor.
Alkali A soluble base. It produces All alkalis are bases, but
hydroxide ions (OH⁻) when not all bases are alkalis.
dissolved in water. Copper(II) oxide is a base
but not an alkali because it's
insoluble. Sodium hydroxide
is a base and an alkali. This
is a critical distinction.
Neutralisation The reaction between an The fundamental ionic
acid and a base to form a equation is: H⁺(aq) +
salt and water. OH⁻(aq) → H₂O(l). The
spectator ions are left in the
solution.
pH Scale A measure of the pH < 7 is acidic. pH = 7 is
concentration of H⁺ ions in a neutral. pH > 7 is alkaline.
solution. It ranges from 0 to A change of 1 pH unit
14. represents a 10-fold change
in H⁺ concentration.
Indicator A substance that shows a Examples: Litmus (red in
distinct colour change in acid, blue in alkali), Methyl
acidic and alkaline solutions. orange (red in acid, yellow
in alkali), Phenolphthalein
(colourless in acid, pink in
alkali).
Strong Acid An acid that completely Example: HCl(aq) → H⁺(aq)
ionises (or dissociates) in + Cl⁻(aq). It will have a very
water to release all of its H⁺ low pH, and high
ions. conductivity.
Weak Acid An acid that only partially Example: CH₃COOH(aq) ⇌
ionises in water. The H⁺(aq) + CH₃COO⁻(aq). It
reaction is reversible, and will have a higher pH (e.g.,
only a small proportion of H⁺ 3-6) and lower conductivity
ions are released. than a strong acid of the
same concentration.
Salt An ionic compound formed Example: Hydrochloric acid
when the hydrogen ion in an (HCl) forms chlorides.
acid is replaced by a metal Sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) forms
ion or an ammonium ion. sulfates.
Titration A laboratory technique used A standard solution (of
to determine the exact known concentration) is
volume of one solution used to find the unknown
required to react completely concentration of the other.
with a known volume of The endpoint is shown by
another solution. an indicator.
Section 2: The Nexus - Concept & Topic Interconnections
This mind map shows the relationships between different types of oxides and the core
acid/base reactions. Understanding this framework is key to predicting reaction outcomes.
Section 3: The Grey Areas - Common Misconceptions & Student Pitfalls
Examiners set traps based on these common errors. Avoid them to secure top marks.
Common Misconception Correct Concept & Expert Clarification
"A strong acid is a concentrated acid." FATAL ERROR. Strength and
Concentration are different concepts.
Strength refers to the degree of ionisation
(how many molecules break apart).
Concentration refers to the amount of acid
dissolved per unit volume. You can have a
concentrated weak acid (lots of CH₃COOH
dissolved) or a dilute strong acid (a little HCl
dissolved).
"All metal oxides are basic." Mostly true, but incomplete. While most
metal oxides are basic, some are
amphoteric, meaning they can react with
both acids and bases. The key examples
you must know are aluminium oxide
(Al₂O₃) and zinc oxide (ZnO). Some metal
oxides are even acidic (e.g., high-oxidation
state transition metal oxides, beyond
IGCSE).
"Neutralisation is any reaction that makes a False. Neutralisation specifically refers to a
salt." reaction that produces a salt and water.
Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen is a redox
reaction, not a neutralisation. The key
product to identify neutralisation is water.
"For precipitation, I can just mix any two Careless. The starting materials for
solutions containing the ions I need." precipitation must themselves be soluble.
To make insoluble lead(II) sulfate, you
cannot start with lead(II) carbonate
(insoluble). You must start with two soluble
salts, such as lead(II) nitrate and sodium
sulfate.
Section 4: The Examiner's Gauntlet - Unmasking 'Malicious' Questions
These questions are designed to test your depth of understanding beyond simple recall.
1. The Amphoteric Oxide Trap:
○ Trap Question: "Aluminium oxide is an amphoteric oxide. Write two balanced
chemical equations to show this property, one with an acid and one with an
alkali."
○ The Trap: Students can often write the acid reaction but struggle with the
alkali reaction.
○ How to Disarm: Memorise both standard reactions.
1. With Acid: Al₂O₃(s) + 6HCl(aq) → 2AlCl₃(aq) + 3H₂O(l) (Acting as a
base)
2. With Alkali: Al₂O₃(s) + 2NaOH(aq) → 2NaAlO₂(aq) + H₂O(l) (Acting as
an acid) Note: The aluminate formula can vary; this is a common
representation.
○
2.
3. The Titration Calculation with Ratio Trap:
○ Trap Question: "In a titration, 25.0 cm³ of 0.100 mol/dm³ sodium carbonate
(Na₂CO₃) solution was exactly neutralised by 20.0 cm³ of sulfuric acid.
Calculate the concentration of the sulfuric acid."
○ The Trap: Assuming a 1:1 molar ratio.
○ How to Disarm: Always start by writing the balanced chemical equation to
find the true ratio.
1. Equation: Na₂CO₃(aq) + H₂SO₄(aq) → Na₂SO₄(aq) + H₂O(l) + CO₂(g)
2. Ratio: The mole ratio is 1 : 1. (This time it is 1:1, but the trap was to
assume, not prove it. If the acid was HCl, the ratio would be 2:1).
3. Moles of Na₂CO₃: (25.0/1000) dm³ × 0.100 mol/dm³ = 0.0025 mol
4. Moles of H₂SO₄: Since ratio is 1:1, moles of H₂SO₄ is also 0.0025 mol.
5. Concentration of H₂SO₄: Moles / Volume (dm³) = 0.0025 mol /
(20.0/1000) dm³ = **0.125 mol/dm³**.
○
4.
5. The Insoluble Salt Preparation Trap:
○ Trap Question: "Describe a method to prepare a pure, dry sample of
insoluble lead(II) sulfate."
○ The Trap: Starting with an insoluble reactant or trying to use a method like
evaporation.
○ How to Disarm: The method must be precipitation.
1. Reactants: "Choose two soluble starting salts, such as lead(II) nitrate
solution and sodium sulfate solution."
2. Procedure: "Mix the two solutions together in a beaker. A white
precipitate of lead(II) sulfate will form instantly."
3. Separation: "Separate the precipitate from the solution by filtration."
4. Purification: "Wash the residue on the filter paper with a small
amount of distilled water to remove any soluble impurities."
5. Drying: "Carefully remove the filter paper and dry the solid sample in
a warm oven."
○
6.
Section 5: The Master's View - Deep Insights & Unspoken Rules
● The Proton is the Star Player. The Brønsted-Lowry theory (proton donor/acceptor)
is the more fundamental model. An acid is a proton donor. A base is a proton
acceptor. H⁺ is just a proton. Neutralisation is simply a proton transfer from an acid to
a base. This explains why ammonia (NH₃), which has no OH⁻ group, can act as a
base by accepting a proton to become NH₄⁺.
● The Oxide Spectrum. There is a clear trend across the Periodic Table. Left-side
metals form strongly basic oxides (e.g., Na₂O). Metals in the middle form
amphoteric oxides (Al₂O₃, ZnO). Right-side non-metals form acidic oxides (SO₂,
CO₂). This pattern is not an accident; it's a direct consequence of the changing
metallic character across a period.
● Solubility Rules Govern Precipitation. Your ability to prepare an insoluble salt
depends entirely on your knowledge of the solubility rules. You must know that all
nitrates are soluble and all sodium/potassium/ammonium salts are soluble.
This allows you to choose appropriate starting reagents for any precipitation reaction.
Section 6: The Toolkit - Models, Analogies & Memory Aids
● Acid Reactions Summary (MASH / BASH / CASH):
○ Metal + Acid → Salt + Hydrogen
○ Base + Acid → Salt + H₂O
○ Carbonate + Acid → Salt + H₂O + CO₂
●
● Alkali vs. Base Analogy:
○ Think of "Mammals" (Bases) and "Humans" (Alkalis). All humans are
mammals, but not all mammals are humans. All alkalis are bases, but not all
bases are alkalis.
●
● Titration Calculation Rhyme (The C-V-N-R-C Cycle):
○ Concentration of Known
○ Volume of Known → Calculate Moles
○ Now use the Ratio (from the balanced equation) → Calculate Moles of
Unknown
○ Volume of Unknown → Calculate Concentration of Unknown
●
Section 7: The Final Word - Distilled Strategic Summary
Your five-minute pre-exam review.
● Definitions: Acid = H⁺ donor. Base = proton acceptor (reacts with acid → salt +
water). Alkali = Soluble Base (produces OH⁻).
● Strength vs. Concentration: Strength = % ionised. Concentration = Moles per dm³.
They are not the same.
● General Equations: MASH, BASH, CASH.
● Oxides: Metal Oxides = Basic. Non-metal Oxides = Acidic. Amphoteric = Al₂O₃,
ZnO (react with both).
● Salt Prep:
○ Soluble Salts: Use MASH/BASH/CASH, starting with an excess of the
insoluble reactant (metal/insoluble base/carbonate), then filter and evaporate
filtrate. Or titrate for soluble bases.
○ Insoluble Salts: Use Precipitation. Mix two soluble salt solutions, filter,
wash, and dry the precipitate.
●
● Titration Calculation: Moles = Conc × Vol (in dm³). Use the mole ratio from the
balanced equation.
