GOVERNEMENT ARTS COLLEGE,

CHIDAMBARAM
(Affiliated to Annamalai University)

COMPUTER SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

Study Material

For

III-CS
BSc-Computer Science

Prepared By

Prof.P.Sankar.,M.C.A.,M.Phil.,(P.hD).,
Faculty of Computer Science & Application

PG DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

2024-25
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 UNIT-5

Memory Hierarchy

A memory unit is an essential component in any digital computer since it is needed for
storing programs and data.

Typically, a memory unit can be classified into two categories:

1. The memory unit that establishes direct communication with the CPU is called Main
Memory. The main memory is often referred to as RAM (Random Access Memory).
2. The memory units that provide backup storage are called Auxiliary Memory. For
instance, magnetic disks and magnetic tapes are the most commonly used auxiliary
memories.

Apart from the basic classifications of a memory unit, the memory hierarchy consists all of
the storage devices available in a computer system ranging from the slow but high-capacity
auxiliary memory to relatively faster main memory.

The following image illustrates the components in a typical memory hierarchy.

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Auxiliary Memory

An Auxiliary memory is known as the lowest-cost, highest-capacity and slowest-access

storage in a computer system. It is where programs and data are kept for long-term storage or
when not in immediate use. The most common examples of auxiliary memories are magnetic
tapes and magnetic disks.

Magnetic Disks

A magnetic disk is a digital computer memory that uses a magnetization process to write,
rewrite and access data. For example, hard drives, zip disks, and floppy disks.

A magnetic disk is a type of memory constructed using a circular plate of metal or plastic
coated with magnetized materials. Usually, both sides of the disks are used to carry out
read/write operations. However, several disks may be stacked on one spindle with read/write
head available on each surface.

The following image shows the structural representation for a magnetic disk.

 The memory bits are stored in the magnetized surface in spots along the concentric
circles called tracks.
 The concentric circles (tracks) are commonly divided into sections called sectors.

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Magnetic Tape

Magnetic tape is a storage medium that allows data archiving, collection, and backup for
different kinds of data. The magnetic tape is constructed using a plastic strip coated with a
magnetic recording medium.

The bits are recorded as magnetic spots on the tape along several tracks. Usually, seven or
nine bits are recorded simultaneously to form a character together with a parity bit.

Magnetic tape units can be halted, started to move forward or in reverse, or can be rewound.
However, they cannot be started or stopped fast enough between individual characters. For
this reason, information is recorded in blocks referred to as records.

Main Memory

The main memory in a computer system is often referred to as Random Access Memory
(RAM). This memory unit communicates directly with the CPU and with auxiliary memory
devices through an I/O processor.The programs that are not currently required in the main
memory are transferred into auxiliary memory to provide space for currently used programs
and data.

The primary technology used for the main memory is based on semiconductor integrated
circuits. The integrated circuits for the main memory are classified into two major units.

1. RAM (Random Access Memory) integrated circuit chips

2. ROM (Read Only Memory) integrated circuit chips

RAM integrated circuit chips

The RAM integrated circuit chips are further classified into two possible operating modes,
static and dynamic.

The primary compositions of a static RAM are flip-flops that store the binary information.
The nature of the stored information is volatile, i.e. it remains valid as long as power is
applied to the system. The static RAM is easy to use and takes less time performing read and
write operations as compared to dynamic RAM.

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ROM integrated circuit

The primary component of the main memory is RAM integrated circuit chips, but a portion of
memory may be constructed with ROM chips.

A ROM memory is used for keeping programs and data that are permanently resident in the
computer.

Apart from the permanent storage of data, the ROM portion of main memory is needed for
storing an initial program called a bootstrap loader. The primary function of the bootstrap
loader program is to start the computer software operating when power is turned on.

Cache Memory

The data or contents of the main memory that are used frequently by CPU are stored in the
cache memory so that the processor can easily access that data in a shorter time. Whenever
the CPU requires accessing memory, it first checks the required data into the cache memory.
If the data is found in the cache memory, it is read from the fast memory. Otherwise, the CPU
moves onto the main memory for the required data.

Associative Memory

An associative memory can be considered as a memory unit whose stored data can be
identified for access by the content of the data itself rather than by an address or memory
location.Associative memory is often referred to as Content Addressable Memory (CAM).

When a write operation is performed on associative memory, no address or memory location

is given to the word. The memory itself is capable of finding an empty unused location to
store the word.

The following diagram shows the block representation of an Associative memory.

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From the block diagram, we can say that an associative memory consists of a memory array
and logic for 'm' words with 'n' bits per word.

The functional registers like the argument register A and key register K each have n bits, one
for each bit of a word. The match register M consists of m bits, one for each memory word.

The words which are kept in the memory are compared in parallel with the content of the
argument register.

The following diagram can represent the relation between the memory array and the external
registers in an associative memory.

Cache Memory

The data or contents of the main memory that are used frequently by CPU are stored in the
cache memory so that the processor can easily access that data in a shorter time. Whenever
the CPU needs to access memory, it first checks the cache memory. If the data is not found in
cache memory, then the CPU moves into the main memory.

Cache memory is placed between the CPU and the main memory. The block diagram for a
cache memory can be represented as:

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The cache is the fastest component in the memory hierarchy and approaches the speed of
CPU components. Cache memory is organised as distinct set of blocks where each set
contains a small fixed number of blocks.

VIRTUAL MEMORY:

Virtual memory is a method that computers use to manage storage space to keep systems running
quickly and efficiently. Using the technique, operating systems can transfer data between different
types of storage, such as random access memory (RAM), also known as main memory, and hard drive
or solid-state disk storage. At any particular time, the computer only needs enough active memory to
support active processes. The system can move those that are dormant into virtual memory until
needed.

A virtual memory system has many advantages, including:

 Allowing users to operate multiple applications at the same time or applications that
are larger than the main memory
 Freeing applications from having to compete for shared memory space and allowing
multiple applications to run at the same time
 Improving security by isolating and segmenting where the computer stores
information
 Improving efficiency and speed by allowing more processes to sit in virtual memory
 Increasing the amount of memory available by working outside the limits of a
computer's physical main memory space
 Optimizing central processing unit (CPU) usage

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Virtual Memory Types:

The two ways computers handle virtual memory are through paging and segmenting. Here are some
of the differences between these types of virtual memory:

 1. Paging
Paging is a virtual memory technique that separates memory into sections called paging files.
When a computer reaches its RAM limits, it transfers any currently unused pages into the part
of its hard drive used for virtual memory. The computer performs this process using a swap
file, a designated space within its hard drive for extending the virtual memory of the
computer's RAM. By moving unused files into its hard drive, the computer frees its RAM
space for other memory tasks and ensures that it doesn't run out of real
memoryThe MMU communicates between the computer's OS and its page tables. When the
user performs a task, the OS searches its RAM for the processes to conduct the task.

 2. Segmenting
Segmentation is another method of managing virtual memory. A segmentation system divides
virtual memory into varying lengths and moves any segments that aren't in use from the
computer's virtual memory space to its hard drive. Like page tables, segment tables track
whether the computer stores the segment in memory or a physical address. Segmentation
differs from paging because it divides memory into sections of varying lengths, while paging
divides memory into units of equal size. With paging, the hardware determines the size of a
section, but the user can select the length of a segment in a segmentation system.

Multiprocessor

A multiprocessor is a computer with numerous processors in one unit. At various levels of

solving a problem, the processors of a multiprocessor system may be able to interact and
cooperate. The processors communicate with one another by passing messages or by sharing
a common memory.

Two or more CPUs make up a multiprocessor system. It’s a system that connects two or more
CPUs with memory and I/O equipment. The term “processor” can refer to either a central
processing unit (CPU) or an input-output processor in a multiprocessor (IOP). A system with
a single CPU and one or more lOPs, on the other hand, is usually not considered a
multiprocessor unless the IOP has computational capabilities comparable to a CPU.

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Types of Multiprocessors

The following are the types of multiprocessors.

Symmetric Multiprocessors

Each processor in these systems runs a similar version of the operating system and
communicates with the others. There is no master-slave connection between the processors
because they are all peer-to-peer.The Encore version of Unix for the Multimax Computer is a
symmetric multiprocessing system.

Asymmetric Multiprocessors

In an asymmetric system, each CPU is allocated a certain task. A master processor is in

charge of giving all of the other processors’ instructions. An asymmetric multiprocessor
system has a master-slave relationship.

Asymmetric multiprocessors were the only type of multiprocessor available before the advent
of symmetric multiprocessors. This is also the more affordable alternative right now.

Advantages of Multiprocessor Systems

More reliable Systems

Even if one processor fails in a multiprocessor system, the system will not come to a halt.
The ability to work seamlessly even in the case of hardware failure can be defined as graceful
degradation. If one of the five processors in a multiprocessor system fails, the remaining four
processors continue to work. As a result, rather than coming to a complete stop, the machine
slows down.

Increasing Throughout

The system’s throughput increases as several processors work together, indicating the number
of processes done per unit of time increases. The throughput increases by a factor of N when
there are N processors.

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More Economic Systems

Since multiprocessor systems share data storage, peripheral devices, power supply, and other
resources, they are less expensive in the long run than single-processor systems. If several
processes share data, it is preferable to schedule them on multiprocessor systems with shared
data rather than separate computer systems with different copies of the data.

Characteristics of Multiprocessor

The following are the important characteristics of multiprocessors.

1. Parallel Processing: This requires the use of many processors at the same time. These
processors are designed to do a particular task using a single architecture. Processors are
generally identical, and they operate together to create the effect that the users are the only
individuals who are using the system. In reality, several others are trying to use the system in
the first place.
2. Distributed Computing: In addition to parallel computing, this distributed processing
requires the use of a processor network. Each processor in this network can be thought of as a
standalone computer with the ability to solve problems. These processors are diverse, and
each one is typically assigned to a separate job.
3. Supercomputing: This entails using the quickest machines to address large, computationally
difficult issues. Supercomputers used to be vector computers, but nowadays, most people
accept vector or parallel computing.
4. Pipelining: Besides supercomputing, this is a method that divides a task into multiple
subtasks that must be completed in a specified order. Each subtask is aided by the functional
units. The devices are connected serially, and they all work at the same time.
5. Vector Computing: This is a method that divides a task into multiple subtasks that must be
completed in a specified order. Each subtask is aided by the functional units. The devices are
connected serially, and they all work at the same time.

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Interconnection Structures

A computer is a network of basic modules of mainly 3 types (Processors, Memory, I/O

Modules). Collection of path connecting these modules is called Interconnection Structure.

Types of Interconnection Structures:

1. Bus: Single communication path shared by all devices.

2. Star: Devices connected to a central node.
3. Ring: Devices connected in a circular configuration.
4. Mesh: Each device connected to every other device.
5. Tree: Hierarchical structure with branches.
6. Hybrid: Combination of multiple structures.

Characteristic of Interconnection Structures

1. Scalability
2. Reliability
3. Fault tolerance
4. Bandwidth
5. Latency
6. Cost

Network Interconnection:

1. Local Area Network (LAN)

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)
4. Internet

Benefits:

1. Resource sharing
2. Communication
3. Data exchange
4. Flexibility
5. Reliability

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