Journal of Sea Research 205 (2025) 102579

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Journal of Sea Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/seares

Beach morphology, textural variation and erosion along the south-eastern

coastal segment in Cox’s Bazar-Teknaf, Bangladesh
Md. Bazlar Rashid a,*, Md. Rubel Sheikh a , A.J.M. Emdadul Haque a ,
Mohammad Abdul Aziz Patwary a , Md. Ahosan Habib a , Md Shamsuzzaman a,
Abdullah Al Mamun b, Mohammad Elius Hossain a
a
Geological Survey of Bangladesh (GSB), Segunbaghicha, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
b
Department of Disaster Management, Begum Rokeya University, Rangpur 5404, Bangladesh

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Coastal erosion is one of the key concerns on the longest beach on the earth along the southeastern Bengal coast
Climate change in the Cox’s Bazar-Teknaf area of Bangladesh. The objectives of the current attempt are to delineate the erosion-
Sea level rise accretion scenario, cause, and consequence of erosion of the coast, textural variations of beach sediments and
Cyclone
depositional conditions. These phenomena were illustrated through the interpretation of satellite imagery,
Southwest monsoon
Beach nourishment
characterizing beach morphology, sediment texture, tidal amplitudes, etc. The grain size of the sandy beach
samples was explained through standard deviation, mean, kurtosis and skewness. Investigation implies that from
1989 to 2024, 1085 and 284 ha of land at a rate of 31 and 8 ha per year have degraded and accreted, respec­
tively. Surge, cyclones, waves, current, human interference, sea level and climate fluctuations, beach
morphology and high tidal amplitude are the prime influential factors for beach erosion at concern level. The
matrices are mainly composed of well to moderately well sorted finer sand with silt. The result suggests that low
energy tidal conditions prevailed along the coastline of the area. The findings would be advantageous for coastal
scientists, researchers, academia, planners, policy makers, investors, other related stakeholders, etc. to under­
stand the coastal procedure, beach morphology, sedimentation processes and cycles, and influence of southwest
monsoon on the beach. It would also be useful for baseline information on granulometry, sedimentary envi­
ronments of beach sediments, future beach nourishment scheme on the eroding shorelines, and for sustainable
coastal zone management.

1. Introduction essential to identify the shore line changes of any beaches (Harris and
Defeo, 2022; Orlando et al., 2020; Nicholls et al., 2007; Defeo and
The beaches are being threatened worldwide through different Elliott, 2021).
stressors (Bozzeda et al., 2023; Defeo et al., 2021; Harris and Defeo, The Cox’s Bazar-Teknaf sea beach (part of coastal plain) in
2022). Vousdoukas et al. (2020) stated that due to climate change Bangladesh (Fig. 1) is situated at a distinctive geographical position in
related sea level rise, nearly half of the global sandy beaches will the funnel shaped semi-enclosed Bay of Bengal (BoB), the northeastern
disappear at the end of the 21th century. Luijendijk et al. (2018) noted tip of the Indian Ocean between Tertiary hills in the northeast (NE) and
that 24 % of the global sandy beaches are eroding at a rate of 0.5 m/yr. open sea in the southwest (SW). It is one of the longest unbroken-
Moreover, anthropogenic interferences including urbanization, tourism, uninterrupted sandy beaches (length: ~120 km; width: ~100 to 500
etc. have had harmful socioeconomic and eco-environmental conse­ m) in the globe (Ahsan and Rashid, 2016; Fig. 2). The beach experiences
quences for sandy beaches (Defeo et al., 2021; Fanini et al., 2020; Corte severe coastal erosion due to beach geology-geomorphology, tidal
et al., 2022; Costa et al., 2020; Costa et al., 2022). Therefore, for amplitude, frequent high intensity/energy cyclone surges, geographic
effective coastal management and protection strategies, and conse­ position, anthropogenic activities, etc. However, in August 2023 the
quently assist the livelihoods and safety of coastal inhabitants, it is erosion was more prominent and severely affected in many parts of the

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: bazlarrashid@ymail.com (Md.B. Rashid).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seares.2025.102579
Received 13 January 2025; Received in revised form 2 March 2025; Accepted 14 March 2025
Available online 19 March 2025
1385-1101/© 2025 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc/4.0/).
Md.B. Rashid et al. Journal of Sea Research 205 (2025) 102579

primary attempt to investigate granulometric composition of beach

sediments.
The Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information System (GIS)
are globally reliable, acceptable and effective technique to delineate the
erosion- accretion scenario of any cost of the world (Islam et al., 2011;
Rashid and Rahman, 2022; Hasan and Matin, 2019a, 2019b; Mahamud
and Takewaka, 2018). Hence, the dynamic scenarios of the coast were
assessed through satellite image interpretation. The textural features of
beach matrices were analyzed through the statistical parameters in grain
size appraisal such as standard deviation, mean, kurtosis, and skewness
(Spencer, 1963; Pedreros et al., 1996; Nugroho and Putra, 2018). The
objectives of the present research were to - 1) characterize the beach
morphology; 2) delineate erosion and accretion of beach; 3) identify the
probable causes of erosion; 4) understand textural and sediment distri­
bution patterns; 5) deduce the depositional condition and 6) recommend
the probable best alternative measures to manage sustainably the beach
against the erosion and other undesired consequences/threats. The
result gives the recent beach dynamic scenario and probable interfering
causes, effects, consequence of erosion, baseline information of gran­
ulometry, depositional regime of beach materials, and finally helpful for
planners, policymakers and global community to undertake necessary
actions to protect the area from unwanted erosion, socio-economic loss,
coastal ecology, ecosystem, eco-environment threats, coastal infra­
structure failure, etc. (Checon et al., 2022; Harris et al., 2011; Orlando
et al., 2021; Orlando et al., 2020).

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Study area profile

Cox’s Bazar-Teknaf sea beach is located in the southeastern coastal

part of Bangladesh, closest to the eastern Indian Ocean (Fig. 1), is one of
Fig. 1. Location map of the study area and sampling points, and three seg­ the famous tourist destinations of the country. The area lies, geologically
ments, Segment 1, Segment 2, Segment 3. complex and tectonically dynamic, within east coastal zone and the
south-eastern part of Chittagong-Tripura Fold Belt of the southeast (SE)
Cox’s Bazar-Teknaf Marine Drive road and beach (Fig. 3). Consequently, Bengal Basin, BB (Bangladesh) and immediate west of the Indo-
it was published in different national electronic and print media. Earlier Myanmar deformation front (Khan, 2002; Hasan and Hasan, 2002).
researchers carried out several researches on local geology, geo­ The morphological, depositional and tectonic evolution of the area is
morphology, coastal erosion, sea level change, etc. as well as evolution associated with BoB, and Indo-Burman Ranges (Rashid et al., 2023a,
of the coast (Ahsan and Rashid, 2016; Ahsan et al., 2009; Ahsan et al., 2024). The area encompasses an accretionary prism of subduction
2017; Ahsan and Rashid, 2016; Hasan and Hasan, 2002; Khan et al., complex consequential from the overriding of the Burmese Sub-plate on
2006; Monsur and Kamal, 1994; Hasan and Matin, 2019a, 2019b; the subducting Indian Plate (Khan and Chouhan, 1996). The piedmont
Mahamud and Takewaka, 2018; Islam et al., 1999; Khan et al., 2019). plains appear sporadically in between hills and coastal plain (Fig. 2. A),
However, till now no remarkable work has been carried out regarding comprising of clayey silt, sandy silt and finer sand (admixture) (Ahsan
the issue, especially the recent scenario of the coastal erosion and it’s et al., 2009, 2017). The sandy beach is present along the coast and
causes so far. Therefore, it is inevitable to identify the causes of severe developed as narrow fringes at the boundary of coast and shore (Fig. 2;
erosion, and probable solutions or defensive strategic mitigation mea­ Ahsan et al., 2009, 2017). The beach detraitus consist of accessory
sures need to be addressed and recommended. Beach nourishment (ultra)stable syngenetic heavy minerals (~ 8.9 to 32.0 %) like zircon,
through adding the external sediments recovers beaches from erosion rutile, tourmaline, epidote, staurolite, garnet, chlorite, biotite, mona­
(de Schipper et al., 2021; Dean, 2002). Granulometric similarity is zite, hornblende, leucoxene, kyanite, ilmenite, limonite, hematite, etc.
important (beach sediments and external sediments) for beach nour­ and the rest quartz, lithics and other primary rock forming light minerals
ishment processes (Amalan et al., 2018; Gunasinghe et al., 2021, 2022; (Rahman, 1994; Hossain et al., 2023; Rahman et al., 2019; Hossain et al.,
Ratnayake et al., 2018, 2019; Saengsupavanich et al., 2023). The 2018; Khan et al., 2017). Development of the beach was initiated with
textural composition and circulation is controlled by a number of factors the erosion-weathering of adjoining Tertiary hills and transportation,
such as climate, weathering, source composition, hydrodynamic trans­ accumulation, redistribution, reworking of eroded-weathered silici­
forms, beach sediment characters, etc. Therefore, grain size measure­ clastic detritus along with Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna River sedi­
ment is essential to recognize the sediment distribution patterns, ments due to intensified monsoon induced Holocene sea level rise at
depositional condition, etc., thereby, ecological fortification, engineer­ around ~6 ka BP (Monsur and Kamal, 1994; Ahsan et al., 2009). The
ing applications, coastal management and so on (Medina et al., 1994; coastal geometry of the area has been altering with time due to continual
Folk and Ward, 1957; le Roux and Rojas, 2007; Lepesqueur et al., 2019; sea level fluctuations along with exogenetic forces and anthropogenic
Nugroho and Putra, 2018; Woodruf et al., 2021; Siqueira-Silva et al., interventions (Ahsan et al., 2009). The area experiences a humid trop­
2020). However, till now no mentionable effort was made by re­ ical climate. Monsoon prevails from June to October. The winter season
searchers or policy makers regarding textural composition measurement extends from November to February, and the wet season from March to
of the sediments. Hence, the research undertook an initiative to delin­ May. Tropical cyclones generally pass the area during the months from
eate the erosion- accretion patterns and grounds of erosion as well as a May to November generating tidal bores which grounds massive impact
to the coast.

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Md.B. Rashid et al. Journal of Sea Research 205 (2025) 102579

Fig. 2. Beach morphology in various parts of the research area A) Beach in front of Tertiary hill and piedmont plain; B) Beach (dune sand) in front of hotels and
resorts; C-E, G) Beach dune complex; F) Beach backed by coastal forest; H) New dune is forming; I) Intertidal/foreshore beach.

Fig. 3. A) Strong waves caused erosion of Marine drive road at Sabrang Cox’s Bazar (Aziz, 2023; Anon, 2023a, 2023b, 2023c, 2023d; Shuvo, 2023); B) Rising sea
levels: Geo bags placed to save Cox’s Bazar’s Marine drive (Aziz, 2023).

2.2. Image processing, analysis and interpretation ebb tides these areas remain free of water and are identified as land.
Therefore, in the present research, the intertidal areas were excluded
The images of different time intervals (Table S1; Fig. S1) were from the land area, and we verified the image interpretation results
sampled from the USGS website (https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov) and (intertidal area) by direct field checking. After defining the land water
used in the research. Besides, the field checking was also conducted to boundary, the boundary lines were superimposed to compute the
collect the recent photographs of the changed coast like erosional- erosion-accretion rate following previous published records (Rashid,
depositional patterns, different protective measures from erosion, 2020; Rashid and Habib, 2022; Rashid and Rahman, 2022; Fig. S8).
anthropogenic activities, beach morphology (beach slope, distance from ArcMap 10.2, Microsoft Office Excel 2007 and Microsoft Office Power
breaker line to shoreward, etc.), etc. (Figs. 4, 5; Table S2). Tidal data Point 2007 were utilized to generate the usable infographic maps.
were sourced from Bangladesh Inland Water Transport Authority. Be­
sides, data from available literature, and print and electronic media 2.3. Sediment sampling and analysis
were also collected for the work. Modification Normalized Difference
Water Index (MNDWI) analysis was carried out to demarcate the land Siliciclastic beach samples were scientifically/systematically
water boundary of the area in various times (Figs. S2-S8). Land-water (Fournier-sowinski, 2024) taken from foreshore beach at 24 sites using
boundary delineation through image interpretation is a challenging handheld shovels. The foreshore is an area that is normally flooded
task in coastal boundaries (Hasan and Matin, 2019a, 2019b; Rashid and during high tide and exposed during ebb tide. Therefore, the major tidal
Rahman, 2022; Marfai et al., 2008; Emran et al., 2017). Intertidal areas activities like sediment distribution, erosion, beach development, effect
are inundated with tidal water during flood tides, whereas during low- of longshore and rip currents, etc. are facing the areas. In this research,

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Md.B. Rashid et al. Journal of Sea Research 205 (2025) 102579

Fig. 4. A) Western part of southern Teknaf (Sabrang): here severe erosion is taking place due to absence of beach in front of the area. Presently, Bangladesh army
used angular block and behind the block they also used geo bag to protect the area from erosion; B) South-western part Shahporir island (Dakhinpara): Earlier severe
erosion was taking place in the area. Presently the area is protected by embankment and in front of embankment concrete cubic blocks were applied; C & D) Southern
tip of Shahporir island (Dakhinpara): Earlier severe erosion was taking place in the area. Presently the area is protected by embankment and in front of the
embankment concrete cubic blocks were applied. Geo bag (~100 m length) was applied here 3 years ago across the sea and it was helpful for beach development, and
also a unic biodiversity observed on its wall. Geo bag changed the hydrodynamics and also help to reduce the energy of longshore current and thereby more
sedimentation was taking place near the shore; E) No well developed beach near western part of southern Teknaf (Sabrang), therefore during high tide wave directly
hit to the coast and erosion is taking place, and it is more severe during the monsoon, when more tidal height; F) Presently the area (Sabrang) is protected through the
application of 3 stage barrier in front on the shore. A gigantic geobag was used then after 50 ft placed another geo bag, and finally angular/tetrapod concrete block in
front. Presently, sedimentation (sandy) is taking place within the two applied geo bag strip; G, H & I) No erosion due to para forest and well developed beach in
different parts of the Cox’s Bazar-Teknaf beach.

sampling sites were divided into three zones such as Segment-1 (n = 11), Kolatoli area) and Laboni beach areas (Fig. 5. E, F, G). Well-developed
Segment-2 (n = 5), and Segment-3 (n = 8). The samples were preserved beaches are present in these areas, but during monsoon, especially in
in an airtight poly pack. After removing shell and other biological sub­ the month of August when sea level is higher, the tidal wave overtops
stances, samples were dried at room temperature in the laboratory. For the beaches and directly hits the landmass and consequently causes
fine tuning, samples were further dried in an air drier near a day at erosion. The authority used geo bags to protect the area from erosion. In
100 ◦ C. Samples were mixed thoroughly for homogenization. Fifty (50) some areas, there is no well-developed beach (Figs. 4. A-F; 5. B, C, E, H).
gram representative composite samples were separated and selected for Therefore, during high tide, waves directly hit the landmass and erode
each sample for granulometric analyses and the rest were stored for the existing land like Sabrang, south-western part of Teknaf. The au­
further analyses. Mechanical sieve interpretation was carried out among thority used one or two layers of geo bags, and in front of the geo bags
mesh #10 (2 mm, sand) and #230 (1/16 mm, silt and clay). The sieved angular concrete blocks were used to divert the wave energy from the
sediments were gathered and weighed. The statistical parameters of shore and protect the area from erosion. In various areas, seawall and
grain size such as kurtosis, skewness, sorting and mean size were embankment were constructed to protect it from erosion, and in some
calculated following Folk (1980) (Table S3-S8). The classification and areas the seawall construction is going on (Figs. 4. B, C, D; 5. H, I).
composition of sediments were carried out following the ASTMD2487
standard and unified classification system. The acquired percentage of
clay, silt, and sand was plotted in the ternary diagram for the grain size 3.2. Erosion-accretion
categorization. Spatial variability of mean grain size and sorting of
samples were carried by ArcMap 10.2 through IDW following previous During 1989 to 2024, 1085 ha of landmass was eroded at a rate of 31
published records (Rashid, 2023; Rashid et al., 2023a). ha per year (Table 1; Fig. 6) which is consistent with earlier research
(Islam et al., 2011). On the contrary, 284 ha of landmass was accreted at
3. Results a rate of 8 ha per year. It also divided the area into three segments
(Fig. 1) and estimated the erosion-accretion rates of different time in­
3.1. Field findings tervals (Table 1; Figs. 7–9; S9-S10). During 1989 to 2024, in segment-1,
94.0 ha of land was eroded at a rate of 2.7 ha per year and 250.0 ha of
During fieldwork, different scenarios were observed in different land was accreted at a rate of 7.1 ha per year. In segment-2, 47.0 ha of
parts of the area (Figs. 4, 5; Table S2). Well-developed beaches are land was eroded at a rate of 2.7 ha per year and 34.0 ha of land was
present in some areas (Figs. 4. G, H, I; 5. A, D). Therefore, the area is accumulated and aggraded at a rate of 1.0 ha per year. In segment-3,
protected from coastal erosion. Though, differences were found in some 944.0 ha of land was eroded at a rate of 27.0 ha per year and no land
areas, like the northern part of Himchari (in between Himchari and was deposited and aggraded.

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Md.B. Rashid et al. Journal of Sea Research 205 (2025) 102579

Fig. 5. A) No erosion due to well developed beach; B & C) Erosion are taking place near the Patuartek sea beach. Geo bag and triangular concrete blocks were applied
to resist the erosion; D) Jhaobon is created here to protect the area from erosion; E) Erosion is taking place at Himchahri area. Gigantic geo bag and triangular
concrete blocks were applied to resist the erosion. F) Well developed beach is present in the northern part of Himchari area but during monsoon the beach submerged
by the tidal water and tidal wave directly hit to the marine drive road. Therefore Geo bag was applied to resist the erosion; G) Well developed beach is present at
Laboni sea beach but during monsoon the beach submerged by the tidal water and tidal wave directly hit to the marine drive road. Therefore Geo bag was applied to
resist the erosion; H) Sea wall is under construct in the Himchari area to protect the area from coastal erosion; I) Sea wall was constructed at Kalatoli area to protect
the area from coastal erosion.

Table 1
Statistics of erosion-accretion (Hectares), and erosion-accretion rate (Hectares/yr) of the Cox’s Bazar-Teknaf coast from 1989 to 2024.
Erosion-accretion (Hectares)

Segment-1 Segment-2 Segment-3 Whole area

Duration Erosion Accretion Erosion Accretion Erosion Accretion Erosion Accretion

1989–2001 58 204 16 29 409 7 483 240

2001–2007 190 39 184 0 227 27 601 66
2007–2014 152 97 63 11 489 0 704 108
2014–2018 27 192 2 150 40 49 69 391
2018–2024 67 146 20 58 102 13 189 217
1989–2024 94 250 47 34 944 0 1085 284
Erosion-accretion rate (Hectares/yr)
1989–2001 4.8 17.0 1.3 2.4 34.1 0.6 40.3 20.0
2001–2007 31.7 6.5 30.7 0.0 37.8 4.5 100.2 11.0
2007–2014 21.7 13.9 9.0 1.6 69.9 0.0 100.6 15.4
2014–2018 6.8 48.0 0.5 37.5 10.0 12.3 17.3 97.8
2018–2024 11.2 24.3 3.3 9.7 17.0 2.2 31.5 36.2
1989–2024 2.7 7.1 1.3 1.0 27.0 0.0 31.0 8.1

3.3. Grain size variations loam (Fig. 12). The interpreted data represent low energy depositional
conditions prevailed during sedimentation (Saengsupavanich et al.,
Expressive statistical parameters such as mean size, skewness, sort­ 2023; Bhattacharya et al., 2016; Perera et al., 2023; Mohanty et al.,
ing, and kurtosis of grain size values are shown in Table 2. The spatial 2023; Venkatramanan et al., 2011).
difference of mean grain size is shown in Figs.10, 11, S11-S12. The Phi
values of Segment-1 vary from 3.06 to 3.65 (average 3.45); Segment-3
3.4. Standard deviation and skewness
ranges from 2.98 to 3.65 (mean 3.42) (Table 2). Segment-1 and
segment-3 are mainly composed of fine (19.61 % and 24.27 %) to very
The grain size standard deviation values are used to delineate the
fine (68.19 % and 64.59 %) sand with silt (11.93 % and 10.69 %)
sorting or spread of the samples. The lower values reflect well-sorted,
(Figs. 10. a, c; 11). In Segment-2, it distributes from 3.24 to 3.75 (mean:
indicating a low-energy sedimentary environment (Yun et al., 2023;
3.57) (Table 2), and sediment is mainly composed of very fine sand
López, 2017). The sorting values of Segment-1 reflect that the sediments
(70.75 %) and silt (21.62 %) (Figs.10. B; 11). Ternary diagram reflects
are well to moderately well sorted, in segment-2 and segment-3 the
that the sediments are comprised mainly of sand, loamy sand and sandy
samples are moderately well sorted (Table 2; Folk, 1980). Accordingly,

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Md.B. Rashid et al. Journal of Sea Research 205 (2025) 102579

4. Causes of coastal erosion

4.1. Beach morphology

In many parts of the inspected coast, there is no well-developed

beach (Figs. 4. A-F; 5. B, C, E, H; Table S2). Therefore, during high
tide, waves directly hit the beach and consequent erosion causes of the
existing landmass. Beach morphology (beach slope, distance from
breaker line to shoreward, etc.) plays one of the vital roles for erosion-
accretion of any coast (Rashid and Mahmud, 2011). The velocities of
longshore currents depend on beach morphology (Ingle Jr., 1966). The
high velocity longshore currents are more destructive for erosion and
sediments transport from shore to the sea. Wave energy is one of the
major factors regulating and governing the development and changes in
the beach (Johnson, 1919; Johnsen, 1961; Zencovitch, 1967; King,
1972). The longshore (most important sediment transport agent) and rip
currents generate within the surfzone owing to waves (Dette, 1974;
Dette and Fuhrboter, 1975; Fuhrboter et al., 1979). The beach slope of
the area widely varied from 0.5◦ to 7◦ (Table S2). Ingle Jr. (1966)
documented that higher waves and smaller angle at which wave hits the
beach, the stronger the longshore currents. The breaker height is also
high owing to the higher energetic condition of the bay. The average
wave height in the Cox’s Bazar region is ~4.03 m and in the Teknaf site
is ~3.21 m (Rahaman and Rahman, 2013). The findings reflect that
actively beach sediment carried from shore to the sea. Thus severe
erosion occurs in some parts of the beach due to high velocity longshore
currents and absence of a well-developed beach.

4.2. SW monsoon and tidal amplitudes

The BoB has deep and high-precipitation water (Fousiya et al., 2016;
Varkey et al., 1996; Mao and Wu, 2007; Kumari et al., 2018; He et al.,
Fig. 6. Erosion-accretion scenario of the Cox’s Bazar-Teknaf coast from 1989 2020). The surface layer of the bay is controlled by the SW monsoon
to 2024. wind (June to September) and the NE monsoon (November to February)
(Haditiar et al., 2022). The speed of the wind is twofold higher during
these findings illustrate that segment-1 subjected to comparatively low- August contrasted to February (wind speed varies from 4 to 6 m/s in
energy oceanic currents contrasted to segment-2 and segment-3. February; can reach 8 m/s in August) (Haditiar et al., 2022; Vinaya­
The skewness is dealing with the symmetry or normality of the fre­ chandran et al., 1996). The sea level in the area varies from − 2.42 to
quency distribution. It also implies the difference in the energy situa­ 1.50 m (Fig. 13). But in August it reached ~2 m from the mean sea level
tions of the sedimentation-transportation-beach processes (Mohanty (Fig. 13. A, B, E). Therefore, during monsoon, in many existing beaches,
et al., 2023; López, 2016). The values of Segment-1 vary from − 0.54 to waves directly strike the existing landmass, especially in August.
− 0.15 (mean:-0.32), and sediments show negative to strongly negative Therefore, more erosion is taking place due to higher tidal waves, for
skewed distribution (Folk, 1980). The results of Segment-2 vary from example erosion in August 2023 (Fig. 3).
− 0.56 to 0.11 (mean:-0.26) (Table 2), and samples represent near
symmetrical to strongly negative skewed distribution (Folk, 1980). The
4.3. Cyclone and sea level rise
values of Segment-3 vary from − 0.67 to 0.16 (mean:-0.24) (Table 2),
and samples represent near symmetrical to strongly negative skewed
Eustatic marine transgression, intensified by climate variation/fluc­
distribution (Folk, 1980). Accordingly, the distribution patterns can
tuation, is gradually flooding parts of the coast and contributing to
specify a comparatively low-energy oceanic current of the surveyed
erosion (IPCC, 2007). According to Khan et al. (2004), annual sea sur­
coast (López, 2016).
face temperature in the bay is sufficient for the source of tropical cy­
clones. Therefore, the bay is vulnerable to surge-cyclone, sea level
3.5. Kurtosis
augment, and flooding owing to monsoonal influence/effect, high tidal
values, GBM fluvial discharge, and low lying landmass (Sreejith and
The kurtosis dealings peakedness (or broadness), and it is exercised
Bhaskaran, 2017; Rashid, 2023; Rashid et al., 2022a, 2022b, 2023a). As
to explain the going away from the usual distribution. The differences in
a cyclone prone, during a cyclone (wind speeds ranging from ~150 to
the velocity of the distribution mode are imitated in the obtained results.
over 260 km/h; tidal surge ranging from ~4–10 m) it causes severe
The kurtosis values of Segment-1 widely range from 0.17 to 0.78 (mean:
coastal erosion due to storm surges and high waves (Fig. 14).
0.61) (Table 2), and sediments show very platy kurtic to platy kurtic
distribution. In Segment-2 range from 0.38 to 0.67 (mean: 0.49), and
sediments show very platy kurtic distribution. In Segment-3 confine 4.4. Geographical features
between − 0.24 and 0.92 (mean: 0.49), and sediments show very platy
kurtic to platy kurtic distribution (Folk, 1980). The kurtosis values The BoB has a wide continental shelf in several areas and compara­
reflect that there are not too big changes in the flow characteristics of the tively narrows in others, which can augment tidal ranges due to the
sedimentary environment. funneling effect of water movement (Sindhu and Unnikrishnan, 2013),
and tidal amplitude more during the storm surge. As a result more effect
on the coast and consequently more erosion.

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Md.B. Rashid et al. Journal of Sea Research 205 (2025) 102579

Fig. 7. Segment-1 Erosion-accretion scenario A)1989–2001; B) 2001–2007; C) 2007–2014; D) 2014–2018; E) 2018–2024; F) 1989–2024.

4.5. Lunar cycle the coast disrupts natural coastal processes and leads to increased
erosion. Moreover, unregulated sand mining for land development and
Tidal amplitudes are persuaded by the lunar rotation, with higher construction purposes interrupts the sediment balance and also hastens
tides happening during full and new moons (spring tides) and lower erosion.
tides during the first and last quarters of the moon (neap tides). If August
matches with a period of augmented tidal array due to the lunar cycle, 5. Discussion
this could promote additional elevated tidal amplitudes, consequently
more effect on the coast and further erosion. Historically the coastal zones have attracted due to the rich
ecosystem, abundant benefit and graceful values that they offer. As a
4.6. Human interferences result, globally the coastal zones are heavily populated (Harris and
Defeo, 2022; Vousdoukas et al., 2020; Defeo et al., 2021; Small and
The Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna river systems are the main sedi­ Nichols, 2003; Hallegate et al., 2013; Hinkel et al., 2013). The sandy
ment source for the development of the Bengal mega delta complex and beaches that fringe much of the world’s oceans provide varied
its coast (beach, mudflat, coastal plain, marsh, swamp, mangrove, etc.). ecosystem services that are critical in maintaining safe and healthy en­
However, sediment flux is gradually decreasing from the upstream to the vironments for people (Harris and Defeo, 2022). Beaches act as a buffer
delta and its coast due to climate change (Goodbred and Kuehl, 2000; against extreme weather conditions and sea level rise (Harris and Defeo,
Rashid et al., 2022a) and human interventions (construction of several 2022). Therefore, for effective coastal management and protection
dams, barrages, bridges in the upper reach of the transboundary major strategies, and consequently assisting the livelihoods and safety of
rivers) (Rashid et al., 2024), and it is projected and predicted the sedi­ coastal inhabitants, it is crucial to evaluate shore line changes scenarios
ment supply will significantly decrease in the future (Dunn et al., 2018; of any beaches. So for proper management, global integrated policy like
Rahman et al., 2018). As a result, the delta and its coastal areas are in a SDGs (goal: particularly goal 11 (sustainable cities and community),
vulnerable situation due to the lack of sufficient sedimentation with goal 13 (climate action) and goal 15 (life on land)) and so on, it is
respect to climate change related sea level rise (Rashid et al., 2022a). important to know the state of beaches like erosion-growth dynamic
Unplanned infrastructure development, such as resorts and hotels, along scenario, impact of climate change, anthropogenic influences, etc. As the

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Md.B. Rashid et al. Journal of Sea Research 205 (2025) 102579

Fig. 8. Segment-2 Erosion-accretion scenario A)1989–2001; B) 2001–2007; C) 2007–2014; D) 2014–2018; E) 2018–2024; F) 1989–2024.

present research conducted on site-based investigation that particularly tide, tidal waves directly hit the beach/coast, which was more promi­
focuses on satellite based information and subsequent field checking, nent in August 2023 and eroded the marine drive road (Fig. 4. A, E, F).
that research information could be used for effective approach and Recently the area is protected from erosion by applying one or more
sustainable management policy of the indigenous beach and other layers of geo bags and in front of geo bags by constructing angular
beaches on the earth (Checon et al., 2022; Harris et al., 2011; Orlando concrete blocks against the undesired wave action of the sea to diverge
et al., 2021; Orlando et al., 2020). Coastal erosion is one of the main the wave energy from the shore (Fig. 4. A, F). The area from Bardeil to in
threatening factor to the present research area (Islam et al., 2011; Rashid front of Patuartek is more stable and experiences less erosion (Figs. 6, 8)
and Mahmud, 2011; Ahsan and Rashid, 2016) similar to the other global due to the presence of a well-developed beach (Fig. 4. G, H, I). However,
sandy sea beaches (Luijendijk et al., 2018; Bozzeda et al., 2023). In erosion has occurred in Patuartek beach due to the absence of a well-
addition, geology, geomorphology, sediment character, high tidal developed beach (Fig. 5. B, C). During high tide, waves directly hit the
waves, sea level rise, human interference, etc. are accounted for causing landmass and as a result erosion occurs. From Patuartek to in front of
erosion. Moreover, frequent devastating cyclones with higher intensity Himchari, has also a well-developed beach and therefore no erosion or
stimulated the beach erosion/degradation at concern level also. comparatively less erosion. But in the Himchari area there is no well-
Continuous erosion had occurred in the SW tip of the region, especially developed beach, accordingly during high tide, waves directly hit the
the SW corner of Shahpurir Dwip (Table S2; Figs. 6, 9). However, landmass and erosion takes place. Recently sea wall construction is
recently coastal embankment was constructed in the area and now it is going on in the area to defend from erosion. The northern part of
protected from erosion (Fig. 4. B–D). Moreover, for beach development Himchari, ahead of Kolatoli, there is a well-developed beach. But during
and beach nourishments, perpendicular geo bags (each of the geo bags is monsoon, higher tidal water overtops the beach and directly strikes the
~50 m length) were kept at various points of the area (Fig. 4. D) for landmass. Therefore, during monsoon, erosion takes place in this part.
changing the hydrodynamics like longshore current, sediments trans­ Similar scenario is also found at the Laboni beach site (Fig. 5. G). In the
portation, sediment trapping, etc. This activity played a pivotal role for Kolatoli beach area, there is no very well developed beach. Therefore, to
sediment trapping, and consequently new beach development. In the protect the area, earlier a seawall was constructed (Fig. 5. I). In the NW
Sabrang area, there is no well-developed beach. Therefore, during high part of the area, land is prograding and also has a well-developed beach.

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Md.B. Rashid et al. Journal of Sea Research 205 (2025) 102579

Fig. 9. Segment-3 Erosion-accretion scenario A)1989–2001; B) 2001–2007; C) 2007–2014; D) 2014–2018; E) 2018–2024; F)1989–2024.

The erosion and deposition scenario were not similar in different Chim et al., 2023; le Roux et al., 2023; Sundar et al., 2023; van Gent and
parts of the beach during different time intervals (Table 1; Figs. 6–9). Teng, 2023; Perera et al., 2023). Beach nourishment is important for
Sometimes erosion was more prominent and sometimes deposition. It is beach management and protecting beach infrastructure from marine
due to morphological change of the beach, ocean current, wind direc­ waves (Hamm et al., 2002; Dean, 2002; de Schipper et al., 2021;
tion, human interference (embankments and sea wall construction, McLachlan and Brown, 2006; Saengsupavanich et al., 2023). The beach
application of geo bags, infrastructure development, sand mining, etc.), nourishment through sand add from external sources can protect the
climate change, sea level rise, tidal variations, storm surge due to cy­ beach from erosion (Baiyegunhi et al., 2017). But in that case it is
clones, etc. The strong wave action due to high tidal waves, particularly important to know the sediment compatibility like grain size, sorting,
during monsoon, leads to significant erosion. The SW monsoon winds etc. of sediments and nourishment sediments to take any beach nour­
carry high-energy waves (Haditiar et al., 2022) and consequently high ishment project (Dean, 2002; Hartog et al., 2008; van Der Wal, 1998;
amplitude (Fig. 13. A, B, E) that erode the coastline (Fig. 3). Due to Castelle et al., 2009; de Schipper et al., 2021). The grain size, sorting,
climate change (IPCC, 2021), sea level is rising (IPCC, 2007), is gradu­ etc. are practiced to know the coastal procedure like sediment distri­
ally submerging parts of the coast and contributing to erosion also. BoB bution, depositional system, monitoring erosion, wave energy, recon­
is a cyclone prone (Rashid et al., 2022b, 2023b), which also causes se­ structing past landscapes, water quality, nutrient cycling, ecological
vere coastal erosion during the storm surges through the strike of the conservation, etc. (Baiyegunhi et al., 2017; Dean, 2002; Saengsupava­
coast by high tidal waves. Moreover, unregulated sand mining and nich et al., 2023; Ratnayake et al., 2023; Saengsupavanich et al., 2022;
infrastructure development disrupts natural coastal processes, and leads Siqueira-Silva et al., 2020). The beach sediments are mainly composed
to increased erosion. of sand, loamy sand and sandy loam (Fig. 12). Therefore, the finding
To protect the erosion, different mitigation measures are practiced would play an important key role to know the coastal procedure like
worldwide, such as hard engineering solutions including seawalls and depositional processes and conditions of sediments, wave energy, etc.
groynes, soft engineering solutions including perpendicular geo bags, (Hartog et al., 2008; van Der Wal, 1998; Castelle et al., 2009; Saeng­
underwater breakers, beach nourishment, dune restoration, mangrove supavanich et al., 2022; McLachlan and Brown, 2006) and consequently
restoration, integrated coastal zone management, etc. (Asari et al., 2021; implementation of any beach nourishment scheme of this erosion prone

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Md.B. Rashid et al. Journal of Sea Research 205 (2025) 102579

Table 2 (1) Field Studies: Regular monitoring of grain size distribution for
Descriptive statistical parameters of grain size analysis. beach nourishment practice through sediment sampling and
Segment Value name Mean Sorting Skewness Kurtosis analysis.
size (ϕ) (σI) (SkI) (KG) (2) Beach Nourishment: Survey, mapping, modeling and applica­
Segment- tion of beach nourishment practices (perpendicular & elongated
1 Min 3.09 0.52 − 0.54 0.17 geo bag application, underwater breaker, etc.) need to continue
Max 3.65 0.63 − 0.15 0.78 for beach development and thereby protect the area from erosion.
Average 3.32 0.58 − 0.32 0.61 (3) Anthropogenic activity: Anthropogenic activities (urbaniza­
Standard
Deviation 0.24 0.04 0.12 0.19
tion, industrialization, communication development, sand
Segment- extraction from the shore, etc.) along the shore need to be
2 Min 3.24 0.45 − 0.56 0.38 properly monitored.
Max 3.75 0.58 0.11 0.67 (4) Vegetation: Where applicable, it is important to plant suitable
Average 3.57 0.51 − 0.26 0.49
vegetation along the coast and shore.
Standard
Deviation 0.21 0.06 0.30 0.13 (5) Remote Sensing and GIS: Using satellite imagery and GIS tools
Segment- to map and analyze changes in beach morphology and sediment
3 Min 2.98 0.38 − 0.67 − 0.24 characteristics regularly.
Max 3.65 0.72 0.16 0.92 (6) Bathymetry: Carrying out detailed bathymetric investigation
Average 3.42 0.53 − 0.24 0.49
Standard
along the coast for perpendicular geo bag application, underwa­
Deviation 0.22 0.11 0.27 0.31 ter breaker, etc.
Coarse Medium Fine Very fine (7) Modeling: Applying hydrodynamic and sediment transport
sand sand sand sand Silt models to predict future changes and assess the impact of
Segment- AVG
different coastal management strategies.
1 (%) 0.05 0.22 19.61 68.19 11.93
Segment- AVG
2 (%) 0.04 0.28 7.31 70.75 21.62 8. Conclusions
Segment- AVG
3 (%) 0.13 0.33 24.27 64.59 10.69 The Cox’s Bazar-Teknaf coast is a dynamic environment with com­
plex interactions between natural processes and human activities. The
combination of beach morphology, high tidal waves during the monsoon
beach. Green vegetation can offer a natural buffer against coastal haz­ and storm surge, sea level rise, human interference, etc. are responsible
ards, and can stabilize the beach and protect against erosion (Asari et al., for erosion. The beach detritus is mainly composed of fine to very fine
2021). Constructing seawalls can also protect the coastline. The groynes sand with silt, and well sorted to moderately well sorted. The detritus is
catch sand and help in construction up the beach but can also modify classified as sand, loamy sand and sandy loam, and low energy tidal
sediment distribution patterns (Sundar et al., 2023). conditions prevail along the SE sandy beach coast. Addressing coastal
Therefore, to apply those approaches it is important to make an in­ erosion and managing beach morphology requires a combination of
tegrated action plan or policy with different stakeholders including re­ hard and soft engineering measures, along with sustainable develop­
searchers of local, regional and international communities, (non) ment practices and community involvement. Proper evaluation, moni­
governmental agencies, environmental organizations, etc. It can help in toring, reporting and research are essential for adapting to the changing
developing sustainable solutions to manage coastal erosion and beach conditions and protecting this valuable coastal resource. These findings
morphology. The findings could be considered in evaluating the coastal can be useful for baseline information of textural distribution patterns,
restoration works, planning coastal growth, resource and coastal man­ depositional regime of beach detritus, and future beach nourishment
agement, etc. Finally, it would be helpful to support the sustainable schemes in this coast. Finally, it would also be helpful for coastal sci­
development goal achievement, develop public awareness, prepare risk entists and researchers of BoB allied countries to comprehend the
resilient strategies, and encourage eco-environmental wellbeing and textural distribution patterns of modern beach sediments of coast.
safety in a different place.
Funding
6. Limitation of the work
This effort did not take any grant from any agencies.
In the context of the BoB, cloud-free images are available during dry
periods. Hence, the images of the said period are suitable for analysis CRediT authorship contribution statement
(Rashid, 2020). Therefore, the present study considered the satellite
images of the mentioned period from 1989 to 2024 (Table S1). However, Md. Bazlar Rashid: Visualization, Project administration, Method­
there is a variation in the temporal range during the period considered, ology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Conceptualization, Writing – re­
as cloud-free images are not available at regular intervals. Moreover, a view & editing, Writing – original draft. Md. Rubel Sheikh:
single state image i.e. image collected during flood tide or ebb tide is Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Writing –
easy to determine land-water boundary (Marfai et al., 2008). However, review & editing, Writing – original draft. A.J.M. Emdadul Haque:
due to the lack of tidal information at the time of image acquisition, we Methodology, Investigation, Writing – review & editing. Abdullah Al
verified the image interpretation results through field checking. Mamun: Software, Writing – review & editing. Mohammad Elius
Hossain: Writing – review & editing. Md. Ahosan Habib: Writing –
7. Recommendations review & editing. Mohammad Abdul Aziz Patwary: Writing – review &
editing. Md. Shamsuzzaman: Writing – review & editing.
The following recommendations are suggested for future sustainable
management of the coast-. Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that there is no a competing financial interests or

personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the results
reported in this manuscript.

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Md.B. Rashid et al. Journal of Sea Research 205 (2025) 102579

Fig. 10. Grain size distributions A) segment-1, B) segment-2, and C) segment-3.

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Md.B. Rashid et al. Journal of Sea Research 205 (2025) 102579

Fig. 11. Spatial variation (A) sorting for beach sediments and (B) mean grain size in Cox’s Bazar-Teknaf coast.

Fig. 12. Ternary diagram of silt, sand, and clay with soil types.

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Md.B. Rashid et al. Journal of Sea Research 205 (2025) 102579

Fig. 13. A-D) Sea level of the Cox’s Bazar-Teknaf coast in 2013, 2018, 2023 (data collected from Bangladesh Inland Water Transport Authority (BIWTA); Teknaf-
Datum ID-H1120).

Fig. 14. A, B, C: Severe coastal erosion during Cyclone Mahasen in May 2013 at Kalatoli beach, Cox’s Bazar.

Acknowledgments Amalan, K., Ratnayake, A.S., Ratnayake, N.P., Weththasinghe, S.M., Dushyantha, N.,
Lakmali, N., Premasiri, R., 2018. Influence of nearshore sediment dynamics on the
distribution of heavy mineral placer deposits in Sri Lanka. Environ. Earth Sci. 77,
The authors would like to express their deep gratitude and cordial 737. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-018-7914-4.
thanks to the authority of the GSB for conducting field surveys and Anon, 2023a. Marine Drive Road crumbling into Sea, News Desk. risingbd.com, 4
permitting the results for publication. The authors are also thankful to August, 2023.
Anon, 2023b. Geo Bags Placed to Prevent Erosion of Cox’s Bazar Marine Drive, Business
Md. Ali Akbar, Mohammad Ashraful Kamal and Syed Nazrul Islam, Dr. Standard, 05 August, 2023.
Sultana Nasrin Nury, and Md. Mahmood Hossain Khan of GSB for their Anon, 2023c. Cox’s Bazar Marine Drive road Crumbling into Sea, Financial Express, 05
support to carry the work. August, 2023.
Anon, 2023d. Parts of Iconic Marine Drive Road Erode into Bay, The Daily Prothom Alo,
04 August, 2023.
Appendix A. Supplementary data Asari, N., Suratman, M.N., Mohd Ayob, N.A., Abdul Hamid, N.H., 2021. Mangrove as a
Natural Barrier to Environmental Risks and Coastal Protection. Ecology, Biodiversity
and Management, Mangroves, pp. 305–322.
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi. Aziz, A., 2023. Rising Sea Levels: Geo Bags Placed to Save Cox’s Bazar’s Marine Drive,
org/10.1016/j.seares.2025.102579. Dhaka Tribune, 05 August, 2023.
Baiyegunhi, C., Liu, K., Gwavava, O., 2017. Grain size statistics and depositional pattern
of the Ecca group sandstones, Karoo Supergroup in the eastern Cape Province, South
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