ETHICS

Ethics is a branch of Philosophy. Philosophy came from the Greek

words philo means “love” and sophia means “wisdom”, It is an act of Ethics is an indispensable knowledge. It means right living and
wondering. good moral character. It is in good moral character that man finds his-
true worth and perfection.

BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY Without moral perception man is only an animal. Man as a

rational being is a failure without morality.
Study of reality. The ultimate nature of reality,
Metaphysics
that questions “what is real and existing”. Moral integrity is the only true measure of what man ought to
Study of human knowledge. It questions how be. All the great teachers of the ages maintain that the supreme
Epistemology
do we know what we know? purpose of human being ties on the development of moral qualities
which lift man far above animal creation, not the acquisition of
Logic Study of correct reasoning. Examines ideas in
an orderly manner and systematic way. material goods or bodily pleasure.

Aesthetics Study of beauty and arts. Ethics teaches man to act in accordance with his rational nature
by giving him the rules of human conduct. Acting in accordance with
Ethics Study of morality. What is right or wrong. his nature eventually leads man to the acquisition of his super- natural
destiny- his union with God.
Cosmology Study of cosmos. The primary objective of education is the harmonious
development of the whole man. Emphasis should be given on the moral
ETHICS IN GENERAL training of students. The head, heart and the will should be trained for
balanced development.
Ethics is derived from the Greek word “ethos” which means the
“characteristic way of acting.” APPROACHES TO ETHICS

Ethos N orm a tive Ethic s

It is concerned with the content of moral judgments and the

➢ It refers to those characteristics belonging to man as a
rational being, endowed with intellect and free-will. criteria for what is right or wrong.

Ap p lied Ethic s
➢ Ethos which can be mean custom, habit, character or
disposition. It looks at controversial topics like war, animal rights and
capital punishment.
ETHOS OF MAN AS MAN
M eta - Ethic s
1) Distinguish between good or evil, right or wrong, moral and
immoral. It deals with the nature of moral judgment. It looks at the origins
and meaning of ethical principles.
2) Oblige to do what is good and to avoid what is evil.

3) Accountable for actions where much is expected of man to TWO ETHICAL SYSTEMS
conduct himself to the “dictates of reasons.” ATHEISTIC APPROACH THEISTIC APPROACH
Ethics is a system of moral principles, affecting how people, There is no God who creates God is the Supreme, Creator,
make decisions and lead their lives. and rules the universe. and Law giver.

Ethics is concerned with what is good for individuals and The concept of good and evil is There are absolute principles of
society and is also described as moral philosophy. relative and changeable. morality which do not change.
MEANING OF ETHICS Man is a matter and does not Man has immortal soul that
have spiritual dimension. cannot die.
➢ It is a practical science of the morality of human acts
(Montemayor, 1994). Man is free and must use his
Man is free and must exercise
➢ It is a practical science that guides us in our actions that we freedom to promote his
his freedom to promote the
may live rightly and well. personal and social interest
welfare of society.
➢ Ethics is the investigation of life (Socrates). It tells about along with his fellowmen.
human conduct and the morality of human acts.
Man deserves either a reward
There is no life after death. or punishment in this life or in
the next.

Man is accountable for his

Man is accountable only to the actions. Everything must
state. conform to God’s eternal plan
of creation.

HUMAN ACTS
THE IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS

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Human acts are those of which a man is master, he has the

power of doing or not doing as he pleases. Elicited acts are performed by the will and are not bodily
externalized.
✓ Good acts our reason commends and approves; these we call
right. Elic ited Ac ts b y P a ul Glenn in the b ook of Agap ay (1 991 )
 Evil acts our reason disapproves and blames; these we call
1. Wish - tendency of the will towards something, whether it
wrong.
can be realized or not.

THE DIFFERENCE OF HUMAN ACTS AND ACTS OF MAN 2. Intention - tendency of the will towards something
attainable but without necessarily committing oneself to
HUMAN ACTS ACTS OF MAN attain it.
a) Consciously b) Unconsciously
3. Consent - tendency of the will of those needed to carry on the
Performs intention.
Instinctive actions are not
➢ Knowingly, within the control of the will. 4. Election - the selection of the will of those means effective
➢ Freely, and enough to carry on the intention.
➢ Voluntarily ➢ Biological and physiological
➢ Result of conscious movements such as, 5. Use - refers to the command of the will to make use of these
knowledge and control of the ➢ Metabolism, respiration, fear, means elected to carry out the intention.
will, thus, these actions are anger, love, and jealousy.
deliberate, intentional or 6. Fruition - the enjoyment of the will derived from the
voluntary. attainment of the thing he had desired earlier.

THE MORALITY OF HUMAN ACTS 2 . Comm a nd ed

Commanded acts are either internal or external actions.

➢ Acts that are freely chosen in consequence of a judgment of
conscience, can be morally evaluated, either good or evil.
Examples of Commanded Internal Actions
➢ Acting is morally good when the choices of freedom are in ➢ Reasoning
conformity with man’s true good and in accordance with God.
➢ Recalling Something
The m orality of huma n ac ts d ep end s on: ➢ Encouraging Oneself, etc.

a. The object chosen. THE END OF HUMAN ACTS

b. The end sought or the intention.
c. The circumstances of the action. Man does not act without an end or purpose. He acts because he
enjoys the action, or because he wants to achieve something.
The object, the intention, and the circumstances make up the DIFFERENCE OF THE END OF THE AGENT/DOER AND THE END OF
“sources” or constitutive elements of the morality of human acts. THE ACT

ESSENTIAL ATTRIBUTES OF HUMAN ACTS The End of the Ag ent/ d oer

K now ledg e ➢ It is the goal which the agent or doer intends to achieve. The
end of the agent/ doer is called the motive. It is the force that
It is performed consciously by the agent, and he is aware of its sustains the act and bring it to completion.
consequences.
➢ Example: The person eats to satisfy his hunger, and he reads to
F reew ill relax himself.
It is performed by an agent freely, that is by his own volition and The End of the Ac t
powers.
➢ It is the natural termination of an activity.
Intention

It is performed by the agent who decides wilfully to do the act. ➢ Example: The end of eating is nourishment that of reading is
comprehension.
The lack of any of the three attributes renders an act defective and
less voluntary.

Human act is imputable to the agent. This means that the person
performing the act is liable to such act. The doer is either deserving
of reward or punishment.

Immoralities, unless prohibited by law are not given legal

punishments such as fines or imprisonment. Spiritual death as found
in the bible is a form of punishment, spiritual death is the loss of peace
of mind. On the other hand, peace contentment and honor are the
rewards to an upright individual.

KINDS OF ENDS
KINDS OF HUMAN ACTS
P roxim ity
1. Elicited

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➢ The proximate end is the purpose which a doer wishes to ➢ Essentials are those goods that fit the natural needs of man
accomplish immediately by his action. as man.
➢ The remote end is the purpose which the doer wishes to ➢ Accidentals are those that fit the wants of an individual.
accomplish in a series to acts.
R ea l a nd App a rent
Example: The proximate end of eating is the satisfaction of hunger,
and its remote end is the promotion of good health. ➢ A real good is something which has an intrinsic value. Thus,
we call it value, because it possesses qualities rendering it
U ltima c y “fitting” or desirable. Ex. Good acts and habits. Real good
includes both essential and accidental goods.
➢ The ultimate end is the purpose which is desired for its own ➢ Apparent good is an evil act but is viewed as “good” under
sake and not because of something else. The attainment of certain aspects, like diseases, sadness, death, worry, crimes,
the ultimate end completes an act and stops all further acts. etc.
➢ The intermediate end is the purpose which is desired as a
means for obtaining another thing. The attainment of an P erfec t a nd N on - P erfec tive
intermediate end leads to either another intermediate end or
an ultimate end. ➢ Perfect good contributes to the perfection of a person. Ex. Are
education, virtue, food.
PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN ACTS BY PAANIZO ➢ Non-perfective good merely contributes to the external
appearance of a person.
1) Every agent performs an action for the sake of an end or
purpose to be attained. For a man to act he must first have a P erfec t a nd Im p erfec t G ood , or
motive. Ab solute a nd R ela tive G ood

2) Every agent acts towards an ultimate end. ➢ Perfect good has the fullness of qualities enabling it to fully
satisfy human desire. Only God, in the absolute sense, is
3) Every agent has the power to move himself towards an end perfect good.
which he finds suitable for him. ➢ Imperfect good has only certain qualities so that it does not
fully satisfy human desire. All earthly goods are imperfect.
The end is the motivation of an act. Only what is good can be
suitable to man, because man does not desire evil for its own sake. THE GREATEST GOOD
For Aristotle, eudaimonia is human good, the highest the only human
good that is desirable for its own sake (as an end in itself) rather than ➢ In philosophy, the greatest good is Summum Bonum.
for the sake of something else (as a means toward some other end).
➢ For Aristotle, the greatest good is happiness. It is the ultimate
Human beings have their needs and wants. purpose of life.
Needs are good which are essential to man as a man. Man is
➢ Christian philosophers, St. Augustine and St. Aquinas, believed
incomplete without them. Ex. Knowledge, virtue, food, shelter,
that man, in every deliberate action act toward an end, and
clothing.
ultimately, to an ultimate end: happiness. Thus, God the Infinite
Good is the greatest good or “Summum Bonum” to attained as
Wants may be good depending on an individual requirement
the ultimate end.
which is brought by one’s particular circumstances in life. Ex. Car,
power, luxury, etc.

KINDS OF GOODS ACCORDING TO AGAPAY

ETHICS AND MORALITY
Essentia l a nd Acc id ental
➢ Ethics is a branch of philosophy that studies morality or the
righteousness or wrongness of human conduct.

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➢ As a branch of philosophy, ethics stands to queries about what ➢ It usually coupled with means to impose consequences on those
there is reason to do. Dealing with human actions and reasons who violate them.
for action, ethics is also concerned with character. ➢ People follow accepted rules to avoid negative consequences.

S om e q uestions tha t a re ethica l in na ture a re: R ules help to g ua ra ntee eac h p erson c erta in rig hts and
freed om
1. What is good?
2. Who is a moral person? ➢ Rules form framework for society. Nations are generally
3. What are the virtues of a human being? nations of law the governing principles are outlines in what is
4. What makes an act right? called constitution. Because the majority has agreed to follow
5. What duties do we have for each other? and consent to be governed by such constitution, the freedoms
outlined exist. An advantage of such system is that each person
➢ Ethics is also called “moral philosophy”, ethics evaluates is guaranteed certain rights as the government is limited in its
moral concepts, values, principles, and standards. Because it is power ensure that it does not become powerful enough to
concerned with norms of human conduct, ethics is considered suppress liberty. Rules on divisions of power and checks and
a normative study of human actions. balances further protect individual liberty.

➢ The Christian concepts of ethics is on collision course with R ules p rod uc e a sense of j ustic e a m ong soc ial b eing s
much of what is being expressed as morality. This is because we
do not determine right or wrong based on what everybody ➢ It is needed to keep the strong from dominating the weak,
else is doing. As Christians, the character of God supplies our preventing exploitation and domination. Without rules,
ultimate ethos or ethic, the ultimate framework by which we schemes in which those with power control the system would
discern what is right, good, and pleasing to Him. take over. In effect, rules generate a stable system that provide
justice, in which even the richest and most powerful have
RULES IN SOCIETY limitations on what they can do. If they transgress rules such as
laws and ordinances and take advantage of people, there are
➢ Rules refer to explicit or understood regulations or principles consequences both socially and criminally.
governing conduct within a specific activity or sphere.
➢ Rules tell us what is or is not allowed in a particular context R ules a re essentia l for a hea lthy ec onom ic system
or situation.
➢ Without rules regulating the business, power would centralize
➢ Rules serve as a foundation for any healthy society, without
around monopolies and threaten the strength and
its society would likely to fall into anarchy.
competitiveness of the system. Rules are needed to ensure
product safety, employee safety, and product quality.
U sua l R ules:
Copyright and patents help protect people’s intellectual
property. Rules and regulations also keep the banking system
➢ Etiquette- standards by which we judge manner to be good or
stable to avoid depression and the like.
bad; normally dictated by socio-economic elite.
MORAL AND NON-MORAL STANDARD
➢ Legal- standards by which we judge legal right and wrong; in
democracy, formulated by representatives of the people. M ora l S ta nda rd s

➢ Language- standards by which we judge what is ➢ It involves the rules people have about the kinds of actions
grammatically right or wrong; evolve through use. they believe are morally right and wrong, as well as the
values they place on the kinds of object they believe are
➢ Aesthetics- standards by which we judge good and bad art; morally good or bad.
usually dictated by a small circle of art connoisseurs. ➢ Some ethicists equate moral standards with moral values and
moral principles.
➢ Athletic- standards by which we judge how good or bad a ➢ Moral standards are the sum of combined norms and values.
game is played; usually formulated by governing bodies. In other words, norms plus values equal moral standards.
➢ Norms are understood as general rules about our actions or
behaviours. For example, we may say “We are always under
the obligation to fulfill our promises” or “It is always believed
that killing innocent people is absolutely wrong”.
➢ Values are understood as enduring beliefs or statements
about what is good and desirable or not. For example, we may
say “Helping the poor is good” or “Cheating during exams is
bad”.

WHY RULES ARE BENEFICIAL IN THE SOCIETY? N on-m ora l S ta nda rd s

R ules p rotec t soc ia l b eing s b y reg ula ting b eha vior
➢ It refers to the rules that are unrelated to moral or ethical
considerations. Either these standards are not necessarily
➢ It builds boundaries that place limits on behavior.
linked to morality or by nature lack ethical sense.

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➢ Basic examples of non-moral standards include rules of changed nor nullified by the decisions of authoritative body. One
etiquette, fashion standards, rules in games, and various thing about these standards, nonetheless, is that its validity lies on the
house rules. soundness or adequacy of the reasons that are considered to support
➢ Non-moral standards refer to standards by which we judge and justify them.
what is good or bad and right or wrong in a non-moral way.
M ora l sta nd a rd s have the trait of ‘universa lizab ility.’
➢ Examples of non-moral standards are standards of etiquette by
which we judge manners as good or bad, standards we call the These means that everyone should live up to moral standards. To
law by which we judge something as legal or illegal, and be more accurate, however, it entails that moral principles must apply
standards of aesthetics by which we judge art as good or to all who are in the relevantly similar situation. If one judges that act A
rubbish. Hence, we should not confuse morality with etiquette, is morally right for a certain person P, then it is morally right for
law, aesthetics or even with religion. anybody relevantly like P.
➢ Religious rules, some traditions, and legal statutes (i.e. laws and
ordinances) are non-moral principles, though they can be This characteristic is exemplified in the Golden Rule, “Do unto
ethically relevant depending on some factors and contexts. others what you want them do unto you (if you were in their shoes)”
➢ Non-moral standards are matters of taste or preference. and in the formal Principle of Justice, “It cannot be right for A to treat
Hence, a scrupulous observance of these types of standards B in a manner in which it would be wrong for B to treat A, merely on
does not make one a moral person. Violation of said standards the ground that they are two different individuals, and without there
also does not pose any threat to human well-being. being any difference between the natures or circumstances of the two
which can be stated as a reasonable ground for difference of
HOW TO DISTINGUISH MORAL STANDARD AND NON-MORAL treatment.” Universalizability is an extension of the principle of
STANDARD? consistency, that is, one ought to be consistent about one’s value
judgments.
 In moral standard we say, “Do not harm innocent people” or
“Don’t steal.” M ora l sta nd a rd s a re b a sed on imp a rtial c onsid erations.

 In non-moral standard we say, “Don’t text while driving” or Moral standard does not evaluate standards on the basis of the
“Don’t talk while the mouth is full”. interests of a certain person or group, but one that goes beyond
personal interests to a universal standpoint in which each person’s
SIX (6) CHARACTERISTICS OF MORAL STANDARDS interests are impartially counted as equal.

M oral stand ard s involve serious w rong s or sig nifica nt Impartiality is usually depicted as being free of bias or prejudice.
b enefits. Impartiality in morality requires that we give equal and/or
adequate consideration to the interests of all concerned parties.
Moral standards deal with matters which can seriously impact,
that is, injure or benefit human beings. It is not the case with many M ora l sta nd a rd s a re a ssoc ia ted with sp ec ia l em otions
non-moral standards. For instance, following or violating some a nd voc ab ula ry.
basketball rules may matter in basketball games but does not
necessarily affect one’s life or wellbeing. Prescriptivity indicates the practical or action-guiding nature of
moral standards. These moral standards are generally put forth as
M oral stand ard s ought to b e p referred to other va lues. injunction or imperatives (such as, ‘Do not kill,’ ‘Do no unnecessary
harm,’ and ‘Love your neighbor’). These principles are proposed for
Moral standards have overriding character or hegemonic use, to advise, and to influence to action. Retroactively, this feature is
authority. If a moral standard states that a person has the moral used to evaluate behavior, to assign praise and blame, and to produce
obligation to do something, then he/she is supposed to do that even if feelings of satisfaction or of guilt.
it conflicts with other non-moral standards, and even with self-
interest. If a person violates a moral standard by telling a lie even to fulfill a
special purpose, it is not surprising if he/she starts feeling guilty or
Moral standards are not the only rules or principles in society, but being ashamed of his behavior afterwards. On the contrary, not much
they take precedence over other considerations, including aesthetic, guilt is felt if one goes against the current fashion trend (e.g. refusing
prudential, and even legal ones. A person may be aesthetically justified to wear tattered jeans).
in leaving behind his family to devote his life to painting, but morally,
all things considered, he/she probably was not justified. It may be
prudent to lie to save one’s dignity, but it probably is morally wrong to
do so. When a particular law becomes seriously immoral, it may be
people’s moral duty to exercise civil disobedience.

There is a general moral duty to obey the law, but there may come
a time when the injustice of an evil law is unbearable and thus calls for
illegal but moral non-cooperation (such as the antebellum laws calling
for citizens to return slaves to their owners).

WHY THE NEED TO DISTINGUISH MORAL STANDARDS FROM NON-

MORAL ONES?
M oral stand ard s a re not esta blished by a uthority
fig ures. It is important to note that different societies have different
moral beliefs and that our beliefs are deeply influenced by our own
Moral standards are not invented, formed, or generated by culture and context. For this reason, some values do have moral
authoritative bodies or persons such as nations’ legislative bodies. implications, while others don’t. For example, the wearing of hijab. In
Ideally instead, these values ought to be considered in the process of traditional Muslim communities, the wearing of hijab is the most
making laws. In principle therefore, moral standards cannot be
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appropriate act that women must do in terms of dressing up. For some the very least, a moral dilemma involves conflicts between moral
Muslims, showing parts of the woman’s body, such as the face and requirements.
legs, is despicable. However, in many parts of the world, especially in
Western societies, most people don’t mind if women barely cover their What is common to moral dilemmas is conflict. In each ethical
bodies. In fact, the Hollywood canon of beauty glorifies a sexy and slim dilemma, an agent regards himself as having moral reasons to do
body and the wearing of extremely daring dress. The point here is that each of two actions, but doing both actions seems to be ethically not
people in the West may have pitied the Muslim women who wear hijab, possible.
while some Muslims may find women who dress up daringly
despicable. The k ey fea tures of a m ora l d ilemm a a re these:

This clearly shows that different cultures have different moral 1) Agent is required to do each of two actions.
standards. What is a matter of moral indifference, that is, a matter of 2) Agent can do each of the actions but cannot do both actions at
taste (hence, non-moral value) in one culture may be a matter of moral the same time.
significance in another. 3) Neither of the conflicting moral requirements are overridden.

The danger here is that one culture may impose its own cultural In a moral dilemma the agent thus seems condemned to moral
standard on others, which may result in a clash in cultural values and failure; no matter what he does, he will do something wrong or fail
beliefs. When this happens, violence and crime may ensue, such as to do something that he ought to do.
religious violence and ethnic cleansing.
THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMAS
HOW CAN WE ADDRESS THIS CULTURAL CONUNDRUM?
P ersona l Dilemm a s
This is where the importance of understanding the difference
between moral standards (that is, of what is a moral issue) and non- ➢ They are experienced and resolved on the personal level;
moral ones (that is, of what is a non-moral issue―thus, a matter of most ethical decisions are personally made; thus, many moral
taste) comes in. This issue may be too obvious and insignificant for dilemmas fall under this level. There are many examples of
some people but understanding the difference between the two may personal dilemmas. If a person makes conflicting promises, he
have far-reaching implications. faces a moral conflict; when an individual must choose
between the life of a child who is about to be delivered and the
Once we have distinguished moral standards from non-moral child’s mother, he faces an ethical dilemma.
ones, through the aid of the principles and theories in ethics, we will be
able to identify fundamental ethical values that may guide our actions. Org a niza tiona l Dilemm a s
Once we know that values and beliefs are non-moral, we will be able to
avoid running the risk of falling into the pit of cultural reductionism ➢ It refers to ethical cases encountered and resolved by social
(that is, taking complex cultural issues as simple and homogenous organizations. This category includes moral dilemmas in
ones) and the unnecessary imposition of one’s own cultural standard business, medical field, and public sectors.
on others. ➢ A medical institution which believes that human life should not
be deliberately shortened, and that unpreventable pain should
If such standards are non-moral (that is, a matter of taste), then we not be tolerated encounters a conflict in resolving whether to
don’t have the right to impose them on others. But if such standards withdraw lie support from a dying patient. This is a common
are moral ones, such as not killing or harming people, then we may moral dilemma faced by healthcare organizations.
have the right to force others to act accordingly. In this way, we may ➢ Ethical dilemmas arise even in professional work.
be able to find a common moral ground, such as agreeing not to steal, Administrative bodies in business are confronted with
lie, cheat, kill, harm, and deceive our fellow human beings. situations in which several courses of action are possible but
none of them provide a total successful outcome to those
affected by the decisions or actions taken. Moral dilemmas in
business involve issues about corporate practices, policies,
business behaviours, and the conducts and relationships of
individuals in the organizations. Other business-related
dilemmas pertain to the social responsibility of businesses,
employee rights, harassment, labour unions, misleading
advertisement, job discrimination and whistle blowing.
➢ In a public sector, government leaders and employees have a
moral duty to act in a manner that is fair and unbiased, that is
loyal to the public by putting public interest before personal
gain, and that fulfils duties of competency, integrity,
accountability, and transparency. In fulfilling these
responsibilities, public officials may encounter foreseeable
moral dilemmas. These dilemmas include whether or not to
favour family, friends, or campaign contributors over other
constituents; favouring the agenda of one’s political party over
a policy one believes to be good for the community; dealing
with conflicting public duties or commission; resigning from
organizations in which membership may give rise to future
conflicts; becoming a whistle blower even if it means
potentially derailing a policy objective one is pursuing; and
MORAL DILEMMA accepting gifts if it is legally permitted but creates the
appearance of impropriety.
Dilemma refers to situation in which a tough choice must be
made between two or more options, especially more or less equally S truc tura l Dilem ma s
undesirable one. Not all dilemmas are moral dilemmas.
➢ It refers to cases involving network of institutions and
Moral dilemmas are also called ethical dilemmas, they are operative theoretical paradigm as they usually encompass
situations in which a difficult choice must be made between two multi- sectoral institutions and organizations, they may be
courses of action, which entails transgressing a moral principle. At larger in scope and extent than organizational dilemmas.

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➢ Case in point is the prices of medicine in the Philippines which

are higher compared to other countries in Asia and in countries Only hum a n b eing s a re pa rt of the m oral c omm unity.
of similar economic status. Factors affecting medicine prices
include the cost of research, presence of competition in the The so-called moral community is not defined in terms of the
market, government regulations, and patent protection. intrinsic properties that being have, but rather in terms of essential
Institutions concerned may want to lower the cost of medicine, social relations that exist between or among beings. Distinctively,
thereby benefiting the Filipino public, but such move may ruin only human beings can possess or practice values such as love, social
the interests or legal rights of the involved researchers, relationships, forgiveness, compassion, and altruism.
inventors or discoverers and pharmaceutical companies which
own the patent of the medicines or healthcare technologies. Moreover, only human beings can communicate with each other
in truly meaningful ways, can engage in economic, political, and
➢ Another case which is structural in nature is that of the
familial relationships with each other, and can also form deep personal
Universal health Care (UHC). Locally applied, it is called
relationships with each other. These kinds of relationships require
“Kalusugan Pangkalahatan” (KP). It is the provision to every
members of such to extend real concern to other members of these
Filipino of the highest possible quality of health care that is
relationships for it to continue. These relationships are what constitute
accessible, efficient, equitably distributed, adequately funded,
our lives, and the values contained in them.
fairly financed, and appropriately used by an informed and
empowered public. As a government mandate, it intends to
Another thing human beings have that no animal has, is the ability
ensure that every Filipino shall receive affordable and quality
to participate in a collective cognition. That is, we, as individuals, can
health benefits by providing adequate resources- health human
draw on the collective knowledge of humanity in a way no animal can.
resources, health facilities, and health financing.
➢ Concerning this program, health financing is first and foremost FREEDOM AS A FOUNDATION OF MORALITY
a big issue. Government could set aside bigger budget for health
for the implementation of this provision. But then, this would As explained above, one of the reasons animals cannot be truly
mean cutting down allocations on other sectors (such as ethical is that they are not autonomous or free. Likewise, a robot, no
education or public works). matter how beneficial its functions may be, cannot be said to be moral,
for it has no freedom or choice but to work according to what is
FREEDOM AS FOUNDATION OF MORALITY commanded based on its built-in program.
Another basic tenet in ethics is the belief that only human beings Basically, morality is a question of choice. Morality is choosing
can be truly ethical. Most philosophers hold that unlike animals, ethical codes, values, ethical standards to guide us in our daily lives.
human beings possess some traits that make it possible for them to be Philosophically, choosing is impossible without freedom.
moral.
Morality requires and allows choice, which means the right to
Only hum an b eing s a re ra tional, a utonom ous, a nd self - choose even differently from our fellows. In their daily lives, people
c onsc ious.
make the choice to give to charities, donate time and money to schools,
The qualities of rationality, autonomy, and self-consciousness mentor children, open businesses, or protest against animal cruelty.
are believed to confer a full and equal moral status to those that Everyone who wishes to function morally and rationally in a society
possess them as these beings are the only ones capable of achieving must make choices virtually every minute of the day. Practically, the
certain values and goods. These values and goods are something sum of our choices can be said to define our specific morality.
that outweighs the types of values and goods that non-rational, Applicably, using the government or one’s culture to coerce people to
nonautonomous, and non-self-conscious beings can realize. For behave in a certain way is not morality but the antithesis of morality.
instance, to attain the kind of dignity and self-respect that human
beings have, a being must be able to conceive of itself as one among
many and must be able to consciously select his actions rather than be
led by blind instinct.

Many ethicists thus believe that only human beings are beings that
are rational, autonomous, and self-conscious deserving of full and
equal moral status.

Moreover, the values of appreciating art, literature, and the goods

that come with deep personal relationships all require a being to be
rational, autonomous, and self-conscious. These values and others like
them, are the highest values to us humans, they comprise those which
make our lives worth living.

THE MORAL AGENT

Only hum an b eing s c a n a c t m ora lly or imm ora lly
Culture in M ora l Beha vior
Strictly speaking, an animal which devours another animal cannot
be said to be immoral. In the same manner, no matter how “good” an
animal’s action seems to be, it cannot be technically said to be moral.

Only human beings can act morally and immorally. This is

important in ethics because only beings that can act morally can be
required to sacrifice their interest for the sake of others. Not able to
truly act morally, animals could not really sacrifice their own good for
the sake of others but would even pursue their good at the expense of
others.
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 ETHICS

Culture- the foundation of morality 1) Different societies have different moral Codes.
2) The moral code of a society determines what is right within
THE DIFFERENCE OF ETHICAL OBJECTIVISM AND ETHICAL that society.
SUBJECTIVISM AND ETHICAL RELATIVISM 3) There is no objective standard that can be used to judge one
society’s code as better than others.
4) The moral code of our own society has no special status.
5) It is arrogant for us to judge other cultures. We should always
be tolerant of them.

THE CULTURAL DIFFERENCES ARGUMENT

Cultural Relativists often employ a certain form of argument

starting with facts about cultures and ending with conclusion about
morality:

a) Greeks believed that it was wrong to eat the dead, whereas the
Callatians believed it was right to eat the dead,
b) Therefore, eating the dead is neither objectively right nor
objectively wrong. It is merely a matter of opinion which varies
from culture to culture.
Or:
Ethic a l Obj ec tivism a) The Eskimos saw nothing wrong with infanticide, whereas
Americans believed infanticide is immoral,
➢ May also referred to as moral realism b) Therefore, infanticide is neither objectively right nor objectively
➢ It is the belief that moral values are absolute truths and never wrong.
change.
➢ It is universal and they apply around the world and throughout These are arguments of one fundamental idea. They are both
time. examples of a general argument which says:
➢ Allows straightforward application of logic to moral
statements. 1) Different cultures have different moral codes.
➢ It also facilitates the settling of moral disagreements because if 2) Therefore, there is no objective truth in morality. Right and
two moral beliefs contradict each other, then only one can be wrong are only matters of opinion, and opinions vary from
right. culture to culture.

Ethic a l S ub j ec tivism The Consequenc es of Cultura l R ela tivism ( W hat if

Cultura l R ela tivism is true?)
➢ It views moral judgments depending on the personal 1) We could no longer say that the customs of other societies are
perspective of the individual rather than the society. morally inferior to our own.
➢ The judgment of an individual event is dependent on the 2) We could no longer criticize the code of our own country.
individual making the judgment. 3) The idea of moral progress is called into doubt.
➢ Example of an anti- realism moral theory.
THE CONTRAST BETWEEN THE CULTURAL RELATIVISM AND
Ethic a l R ela tivism CULTURAL OBJECTIVISM

➢ It is a theory that an ethical viewpoint can be specific to a Cultura l R ela tivism

given society.
It is the claim that ethical practices differ among cultures, and
➢ This acknowledges that what may be considered the norm in
what is considered right in one culture may be considered wrong in
one culture, is out of the ordinary in another.
another. The implication of cultural relativism is that no one society is
➢ Morality is therefore relative to the norm of one’s culture. The superior to another; they are merely different.
only moral standards that can judge a society’s practice are its
own. Cultura l Obj ec tivism
THE ISSUE OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM (JAMES RACHELS) The theory states that custom beliefs and practices do indeed
exist independently of the community a person comes from and
Moral beliefs and practices of people are greatly affected by the what they deem to be right or wrong. People source their values
environment that surrounds them. How the individual was brought up and morality from the communities they were raised in.
and the social and cultural elements that the person was exposed to
contribute to his/her understanding and judgment of what is right and
what is wrong. Can we conclude that morality is relative, that is, what
is right varies from one person to another or from one culture to
another? Or is morality objective, that is, what is right is based on a
universal principle that applies to all people regardless of culture,
religion, or ideology?

There are Universal Value

CULTURAL RELATIVISTS ON MORALITY
Consider a culture in which people believe it is wrong to eat cows.
“Different cultures have different moral codes” - no universal truths? This may be a poor culture, in which there is not enough food, yet the
cows are prohibited to be butchered. Such a society would appear to
have values very different from our own. Shall we say that their values

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 ETHICS

differ from ours? No, the difference lies in our belief system, not in our empathy. It is a Filipino nurtured skill to read or be with and in other's
values system. feelings to maintain smooth relationship. But it is not just a feeling
because it is also the willingness to understand the messages of other's
Many factors work together to produce the customs of a society. indirect or bodily and spoken expressions. Others may consider this
Not only are the society’s values important, but so are its religious then as observation and emotional intelligence to do pakikisama.
beliefs, factual beliefs, and physical environment. Thus, we cannot
conclude that two societies differ in values just because they differ in S TR EN GTH
custom.
This can start, maintain and end with smooth relationships if
Thus, some values are shared by all cultures: one is truly nakikiramdam. It is not easily learned but once it becomes
a skill, one can easily size up people, understand their indirect and
➢ Value on Honesty covert behaviors. Unlike Westerners, Filipinos can easily get along
with other nationalities because they know how to makiramdam.
➢ Prohibition against murder
This is best in relationships as one is always feeling for or considerate
➢ Value on human happiness (Culture-independent moral of other's feelings and welfare.
standard)
W EAK N ES S

But this can be very unsure because one's pakikiramdam may be

mistaken. Aside from the possibility that one may misinterpret
behaviors because of fleeting emotions, it is difficult to make personal
interpretations especially that behaviours do not necessarily reflect
the person's intentions. In serious cases such as when life and
common welfare are at stake, one cannot rely on pakikiramdam to
make moral and critical decisions.

PAKIKISAMA
(Smooth Interpersonal Relationship)

The literal translation of makisama is to go with or to accompany.

Pakikisama then is 'to make fellowship with, which could also be
translated as smooth interpersonal relationship, relating well,
comradeship, and getting along with. After napakiramdam or being
able to feel the other, one should makisama or relate well. It is another
learned skill of dealing well with others including strangers. This is
done to avoid conflicts and to always keep mutual good feelings at
all costs and to anyone to do pakikipagkapwa-tao.

S TR EN GTH

Pakikisama is taking a further step from pakikiramdam to making

fellowship or getting along with others. One must be present with and
make whatever supports the other. Filipinos are known successfully
anywhere else in the world because they live with people regardless
of their differences. They are also known for being loyal because they
know how to make a makisama or stay with others whether in easy
or hard times.

W EAK N ES S

But this can be very negative if it is meant to simply avoid conflicts

or confrontations. Pakikisama can also be faked when one simply
submits to the majority without scrutiny and good reason. This can
be one's generous praise or a smile to another but with an ill will. Using
sarcastic languages may be hard to decipher as they seem to be
pakikisama, but it actually destroys relationships. Filipinos hardly say
"no" to others. One may know how to makisama but arbitrarily and
could not maintain a genuine relationship.

PAKIKIPAGKAPWA-TAO
(Camaraderie)
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE FILIPINO CHARACTER
Literally, pakikipagkapwa-tao is “sharing oneself as a fellow
FILIPINO VALUES AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT human person to others,” which could also be translated as shared
identity, social work and self-in-the-other. After napakisamahan or
PAKIKIRAMDAM
(Sensitivity) having made fellowship with the other, one must makipagkapwa-tao
or to share oneself as a fellow human being. According to Patricia B.
The literal translation of pakiramdam is feeling. Pakikiramdam Licuanan, it is an entirely unique Filipino skill of having a regard to
then is 'having a feeling with' which could also mean sensitivity and
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 ETHICS

the dignity and being of others. Part of pakikipagkapwa-tao must be

expressed in so many ways like showing hiya. S TR EN GT H

S TR EN GTH Having a pure heart and mind, one is surely a good person. The
mother who will do everything to protect and save her children is the
To share oneself with the other as a fellow human person is best example to demonstrate one who has magandang-loob or
basically what makes a human person. Every Filipino person in social magandang kalooban. As wise people usually say, "no man can put a
work so that if one really knows how to makipagkapwa-tao to the good man down." One who has beauty-of-will is always good no
poor and needy, then one must become like them or better yet matter what bad things happen. It is unthinkable that something bad
should make actions to elevate them from their status so that they can come out of it.
could truly be "tao" or humans. Licuanan strongly believes that
pakikipagkapwa-tao should be part of every Moral Recovery Program W EAK N ES S
as this can build people—the Filipino Nation.
Similarly with the other Filipino values, this can be abused. There
W EAK N ES S are those who do not really deserve to be treated with
kagandahang-loob. People who intentionally killed innocent lives do
The 4P's is a concrete example of pakikipagkapwa-tao as it aims to not deserve expressions of kagandahang-loob such as special
provide financial support to poor Filipinos so that they to experience treatment but a deserved punishment. Applying kagandahang-loob
the benefits being enjoyed by their kapwa Filipinos. But this can be does not have to be always fine and acceptable. Giving justice or fair
abused and does not really help. Many complain about some punishment can be very undesirable but could truly reflect
members who misuse the money for their vices and who are not really kagandahang-loob.
qualified.
UTANG NA LOOB
HIYA (Indebtedness)
(Shame or Self-control)
The literal translation of loob is inside, which is also interpreted as
The literal meaning of hiya is shame or embarrassment so when will. The meaning then of utang na loob is debt-of-will, debt of one's
people say: "Mahiya ka naman" it means "you should also feel shame" inner self, indebtedness, debt of gratitude and reciprocity. Utang na
or "be embarrassed." It could also be translated as a feeling of loob is just a proof of one's kagandhan ng loob. Being indebted or
lowliness, meekness, inhibition, modesty and fear of losing face or pagtananaw ng utang ng loob is the skill of wilful response to other's
damaging reputation. It is the skill of controlling or restraining one's kagandahan ng loob.
selfish desires or interest and doing it for the sake of the kapwa-tao
(fellow human) or utang na loob. S TR EN GTH

S TR EN GTH Pagtanaw ng utang na loob or being indebted is always admirable

because it shows how much one is grateful for what one owes and to
Hiya as fear of losing face is very helpful to Filipinos because it can whom one has owed. As a self-imposed obligation, one does not have
promote morality. People who have hiya are basically good because to be told to pay one's credit because one pays back on time what he
they are afraid to do bad things that may damage not only their borrowed or honors his commitment in the contract. This strengthens
reputation but also their family.So when one does something it is like harmonious relationships because people become both trusting and
the family is also the one doing because it is the family who suffers if it trustworthy. This also restrains one from doing bad to whom one
has bad effects.Some judges who do not want to lose their "face" owes. People often say to those who do badly despite the good thing
because of the possibility of partial judgement usually inhibits in a case done to them: "Wala kang utang na loob." This means that the offender
of a friend or relative. Filipinos normally nahihiya to lose their is too blind to recognize that he owes to his victims and do not know
dignity and honour which is symbolized by "face." how to pay back.

W EAK N ES S W EAK N ES S

Too much hiya, can be having little confidence. This can be This can be used sometimes by manipulative and criminals to
detrimental to the person especially if it is not necessary or could only blackmail people. Some leaders do special favors and even give
deprive him of better opportunities. Fear of losing face can sometimes money to invest utang na loob into the hearts and minds of their
so trivial. It may lead to an inferiority complex just like what normally constituents. During the election, they simple remind them: “may
happens to some who choose to deprive themselves of their rights and utang na loob ka sa akin ha." The people may also feel obliged that they
do not fight for what is right because of over thinking that what are have utang na loob to these politicians and should vote for them. This
doing are nakakahiya. Some people can easily take advantage of this indebtedness can be sometimes misused and abused.
and the more that this is encouraged when people do not assert their
rights because they are nahihiya.

LAKAS NG LOOB O BAHALA NA

(Moral Courage)
KAGANDAHANG-LOOB
(Benevolence or Kindness) The literal translation of lakas ng loob is the strength of the inside
and bahala na is let it be. They are used interchangeably to mean
The literal meaning of loob is inside, which is also translated as will. courage. Bahala na is claimed to have originated from Bathala na
Kagandahang-loob can be translated as beauty-of-will, purity mind which means let God take his course so that it considered as the skill
and heart, goodness, kindness, magnanimity and generosity. It is of having the courage to face uncertainty. Lakas ng loob or bahala na
the wellspring of the other Filipino values like hiya and is Filipino's essential skill to do pagkamaasikaso sa bisita.
pakikipagkapwa-tao. It is proving the beauty inside. This acquired and
nurtured skill of sharing the beauty within only expresses goodness S TR EN GTH
and necessarily reflects outside values such as utang na loob and lakas
ng loob.
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 ETHICS

Filipinos often proudly express that lakas ng loob is their only

remaining weapon and advantage in worst situations. They may lose This has long been a very practical values because it has sustained
everything but not with lakas ng loob that keep them survive and move Filipino families and institutions. Paggalang sa nakatatanda ensured
on. They often sigh with the invocation of Bahala na!" to express how that children take good care of their parents and old relatives.
much they believe in God so that they entrust everything to Him. As Philippines need not to spend millions in order to build homes for the
they entrust everything to God, they do everything depending solely on aged because the elders are already taken cared well by their family
their human capacity. "Bahala na! exemplifies the lakas ng loob of members. Respect for elders is not just an ideal thing because it is a
every Filipino. daily activity because of its multiple expressions.

W EAK N ES S W EAK N ES S

When one said: "Bahala na!" some foreign researchers and However, because of the many abuses of the elders themselves
observers though it to be a fatalism or resignation. It had been people begin to become selective respect only the elders who are
considered a negative Filipino trait, until Filipino thinkers defended it respectable. This is precisely because some elders do not even know
to be an expression of moral principle-moral courage. One who says how to respect and have done worst things that do not deserve respect.
this must really have lakas ng loob or courage and determination to do Being an elder seem no longer presupposes moral authority and
everything to either reach his goals or destination. A Filipino is willing maturity. Besides, institutions and other factors that thought
to die or do self-sacrifice even if he is unsure of the future. He is not individualism and weakened family ties also offered alternatives other
afraid of uncertainties because his strength inside can be identified as than just respecting elders.
Bathala or God who certainly answers everything.
PAGMAMAHAL SA PAMILYA
PAGKAMAASIKASO (Familial Love)
(Hospitality)
The literal translation of this is love for the family. It is doing
The literal translations of asikaso are the attention given to the everything for the love of family. In choosing between family and
other so that that pagkamaasikaso is being mindful or taking care other things, family is always the right priority and in choosing
of the other, attending to other's needs and entertain well the other. between right and wrong the family determines what is right. Morality
It is often called Filipino hospitality, which is the ability to be warm, is basically shaped and dictated by the family. To do what the family
caring, friendly, welcoming, and accommodating to others. As a deem is right because one loves the family is the moral principle.
proof of kagandahang loob at lakas ng loob, this is also a necessary skill
to be able to show paggalang sa nakatatanda and pagmamahal sa S TR EN GTH
pamilya.
The Filipinos has enshrined the family as the foundation of the
S TR EN GT H Philippines in the constitution and many institutions. To love one’s
family is actually what can lead to patriotism and better service for the
Filipina women are sought for all around the world because of their country. Logically speaking, anything good that happens to a family
being pagkamaasikaso. It is not just being hospitable but treating the also happens to the nation. It has been observed that many Filipino
other just like a family member. Some researchers have even dubbed OFWs excel in other countries precisely because they are inspired to
Filipino nurses the ambassadors of globalizing tender and OFWs as the work hard for their families. They could not also miss a chance helping
greatest domestic helpers. These only reflects how Filipinos asikasuhin them in any way they can like sending balik-bayan boxes. One cannot
their family as well as those they consider as their family. fathom how many OFW Filipina mothers must leave their children and
teach foreign children only to give their family a bright future.
W EAK N ES S
W EAK N ES S
But others see this trait negatively because it only makes Filipinos
prone to being abused of maltreated. Many elder Westerners are Too much favor because of love by OFWs can be abused. There
suspected to have married Filipinas not primarily as a wife but as have been many cases of OFWs and some foreigners who sincerely
helpers and workers. If there are other options to better lives, loved Filipinos and showered gifts but only to be cheated and
Filipinos surely need not to go abroad as nurses and domestic helpers. abused. The love of family is not a guarantee of moral behavior, that is
They are prouder and safer to stay with or serve their families and why it must be a love that is also balanced with reason. Other members
fellow Filipinos but see no better choices. of the family can be too dependent and just use that love to take
advantage of the others. The love of family should ensure also the
freedom and welfare of the other. Likewise, everything gradually
changed as many Filipinos adapted the Western culture. The family is
slowly weakening as the moral authority and love of the family is
continuously confronted by the problems of same sex marriage, drug
addiction and terrorism.

THE MANY FACES OF THE FILIPINO CHARACTER

PAGGALANG SA NAKATATANDA Many of our strong points are also the sources of our weakness.
(Respect for the Elderly)
As a people, we are person-oriented, and relationships with
The literal translation of this is respect to elders. This is not just a others are a very important part of our lives. Thus, we are capable of
good idea for the Filipinos but should be shown into concrete actions much caring and concern for others. On the other hand, in the
such as putting the elders’ hand to the forehead (pagmamano), extreme our person orientation leads to lack of objectivity and a
using the po, opo, ate, kuya, nanay, tatay, lolo, lola, tita and tito in disregard for universal rules and procedures so that everyone,
communicating with others, following the will of parents, regardless of our relationship with them, is treated equally. Our
sacrificing seats for the elders and being courteous to them. This personal orientation leads us to be concerned for people, and yet
could be considered as a manifestation of the other Filipino values unfair to some.
especially pagmamahal sa pamilya so that one treats the others or
elders just like the way one treats and loves his family. Our family orientation is both a strength and a weakness, giving
us a sense of rootedness and security, both very essential to any form
S TR EN GTH
P a g e 11 | 17
 ETHICS

of reaching out to others. At the same time, it develops in us an in- In its modern usage, ‘character’ stresses on “individuality”. It is
group orientation that prevents us from reaching out beyond the the merging of “character and personality”, mannerisms, social
family to the larger community and the nation. gestures, habit of dress, and the like.

Our flexibility, adaptability and creativity are strengths that LINGUISTIC HISTORY
allows us to adjust to any set of circumstances and to make the best
of the situation. But this ability to "playthings by ear" leads us to According to the Book II of Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle tells us
compromise on the precision and discipline necessary to that there are two distinct of human excellences:
accomplish many work-oriented goals.
1. Excellences of thought
Our sense of joy and humour serves us well in difficult times. It 2. Excellences of character
makes life more pleasant, but serious problems do need serious
analysis, and humour can also be destructive. Aristotle used ‘ethikai arethai’ for excellences of character and
translated as ‘moral virtues’ and ‘moral excellences.’ When we speak
Our faith in God and our religiosity are sources of strength and of a ‘virtue’ or an excellence of moral character, it is not on mere
courage, but they also lead to an external orientation that keeps us singularity or individuality, but on the blend of qualities that make
passive and dependent on forces outside ourselves. a person ethically admirable.

There are other contradictions in the many faces of the Filipino. We Therefore, philosophically speaking, ‘moral character’ refers to
find pakikipagkapwa-tao and the kanya-kanya mentality living having or lacking moral virtue. If one lacks virtue, the moral agent
comfortably together in us. We are others-oriented and capable of may have any of the moral vices, or the agent may be marked by the
great empathy; and yet we are self-serving, envious of others, and condition somewhere in between virtue and vice.
unconstructively critical of one another.
Philosophers think that moral character traits have a fewer
We also find the Filipino described alternately as hardworking and evaluative dimension, that is, they involve a normative judgment
lazy. Indeed, we see that we can work long and hard at any job. (desirable or undesirable). The agent is morally responsible for
However, our casual work ethic as well as our basic passivity in the having the moral character trait itself or for the outcome of that
work setting also is apparent as we wait for orders and instructions trait. Thus, a certain moral character trait is a trait for which the agent
rather than taking the initiative. is morally responsible.

ACTS AND CHARACTER: THE CIRCULAR RELATIONSHIP

There is a circular relationship between acts that build

character and moral character itself. Not all acts help to build moral
character, but those acts coming from moral character matter. A
person’s actions determine his/her moral character, but moral
character itself generates acts that help in developing either virtue
or vice.

VIRTUE AS A HABIT MORAL CHARACTER AS DISPOSITIONS

Develop ing V irtue a s a H ab it Dispositions – particular kinds of properties or characteristics

that objects can possess.
Moral character refers to the existence or lack of virtues such
as integrity, courage, fortitude, honesty, and loyalty. A certain ➢ The moral character traits that constitute a person’s moral
person has a good moral character if he/she is a good person and a character are understood as behavioral and affective
good citizen with a sound moral stature. disposition.
➢ Moral character traits are those dispositions of character for
ETYMOLOGY which it is suitable to hold agents morally responsible.
According to the Greeks, ‘charakter’ is a mark impressed on a V irtue
coin. A distinct mark by which one thing was distinguished from
others, an assemblage of qualities that distinguish one person from It is a moral character trait for which a person is deserving of a
another. positive reactive attitude (praise or gratitude)

V ic e
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 ETHICS

As children grow older, they begin to see

It is a moral character trait for which the agent is deserving of a that other people have their own goals
negative reactive attitude (resentment or blame) Self- and preferences and that often there is
Interest room for negotiation. Decisions are
In other words, a good moral character is a disposition to do Stage 2 Orientation made based on the principle of "What's
in it for me?" For example, an older
virtuous deeds. child might reason: "If I do what mom or
dad wants me to do, they will reward me.
In the opposite, a bad moral character is a disposition to vicious Therefore, I will do it."
acts.
L EV EL 2 ( W ha t Others Think)
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT Conventiona l M ora lity

Moral development should be understood in the sense of

human flourishing. This is attained by the habitual practice of moral By adolescence, most individuals have
developed to this stage. There is a sense
and intellectual excellences, or ‘virtues.’ Developing morally also Social of what "good boys" and "nice girls" do
brings about self-realization and happiness, acting in line with virtues Stage 3 Conformity and the emphasis is on living up to
is also acting in accordance with reason. Orientation social expectations and norms
because of how they impact day-to-
American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) is best day relationships.
known for his theory of the stages of moral development. Kohlberg
employed Swiss clinical psychologist Jean Piaget’s (1896-1980) story By the time individuals reach adulthood,
Law and they usually consider society as a whole
telling techniques involving moral dilemmas, with options to be Order when making judgments. The focus is on
considered, for example, between the rights of some authority and the Stage 4
Orientation maintaining law and order by
needs of some deserving person who is being unfairly treated. One of following the rules, doing one's duty
his best-known stories is the Heinz’s dilemma: and respecting authority.

In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. L EV EL 3 (U niversa lity)
There was one drug that the doctor’s thought might save her. It was a P ost- Conventiona l M orality
form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently
discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was At this stage, people understand that
charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for there are differing opinions out there on
the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick what is right and wrong and that laws
woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the are just a social contract based on
money, but he could only get together about $ 1,000 which is half of majority decision and inevitable
what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him compromise. People at this stage
Social sometimes disobey rules if they find
to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: "No, I Stage 5 Contract them to be inconsistent with their
discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it.” So, Heinz Orientation personal values and will also argue for
got desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug-for his certain laws to be changed if they are no
wife. Should the husband have done that? longer "working". Our modern
democracies are based on the reasoning
of Stage 5.
Kohlberg’s questions:
The rights of every individual.
1) Should Heinz have stolen the drug?
2) Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife? Few people operate at this stage all the
time. It is based on abstract reasoning
3) What if the dying person was a stranger, would it make any and the ability to put oneself in other
difference? Universal people's shoes. At this stage, people
Stage 6 Ethics
4) Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman Orientation have a principled conscience and will
died? follow universal ethical principles
regardless of what the official laws
and rules are.
These questions were asked to children of various ages and hoped
to discern the ways in which moral reasoning developed as individuals However, not all ethicists accept Kohlberg’s Theory on Moral
grew older. The emphasis here is not on whether one answers "yes" or Development. The issue was that his mentioned dilemma was artificial,
"no", or whether the children judged the action as right or wrong, but or they lack ecological validity. In the Heinz dilemma, Kohlberg’s
rather the reasoning behind the answer. subjects were aged between 10 and 16, never been married, and so, not
credible to answer whether Heinz should steal the drug.

KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

L EV EL 1 (S elf)
P re- Conventiona l M ora lity

This is the stage that all young

Obedience children start at (and a few adults
or remain in). Rules are seen as being FEELINGS AND MORAL DECISION-MAKING
Stage 1
Punishment fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is
Orientation important because it means avoiding Role of Feelings on Morality
punishment.
Some ethicists believed that ethics is also a matter of emotions.
Moral judgments should also be emotional. Feelings are seen as
necessary in ethical judgment as they are deemed by some as
instinctive and trained response to moral dilemmas.

Some hold that reason and emotion are not really opposites. They
are both abstract inference and emotional intuitions or instincts seen
as having relative holes in ethical thinking.

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these are utterances used to express a speaker’s attitude or

Many times, ethical judgments are highly emotional as people feelings toward something.
emotionally express their strong approval or disapproval of different
acts. Moral sentiments highlight the need for morality to be based also There is also a distinction between reporting or conveying an
on sympathy for other people. Many ethicists conclude that being good attitude and expressing same attitude. If I say, “I like X.” I am reporting
involves thinking and feeling. the fact that I have a positive attitude towards X. On the other hand, if I
say, “Hooray for X!”, I am not stating a fact, not even a fact of my
FEELINGS ARE INSTINCTIVE RESPONSES TO MORAL DILEMMAS attitude, but expressing an attitude, but not reporting that I have it.

Feelings are obstacles to making the right decisions. This Thus, in Emotivism, utterances in ethics are not fact-stating
happens when feelings’ role in ethics are misinterpreted or sentences because they are not used to convey information.
exaggerated.
The theory cla im s tha t they ha ve tw o d ifferent
The following are two feeling-based theories in ethics: p urp oses:

ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM A. They are used to influence other’s behavior

B. Moral sentences are used to express (not report) the speaker’s
This theory is about the nature of moral judgments. It holds that attitude
the truth or falsity of ethical propositions is dependent on the feelings,
attitudes, or standards of a person or a group of persons. This theory FEELINGS ARE TRAINED RESPONSE TO MORAL DILEMMAS
states that moral judgment simply describes our personal feelings.
There are situations in which our feelings and likings are relevant
For example, on homosexuality or the issue on abortion, there are to the rightness of our decisions and actions. In selecting a course to
always two opposing views concerning the matter. One side declares take, a job to assume, and a person to marry. Feelings can help in
and express its stand that the action is immoral, unethical, defy God’s making the right decision:
teaching, that the doers of the action must be punished by the
government. On the other hand, the other group may claim that the A. Ethics-without-feelings appears to go against Christian
action is normal, accepted by the society, and that the doer must be philosophy on Love – love is a strong liking, desire or emotion.
tolerated, if not respected. Here enters the third view – another group B. Without feelings – it will go against the Biblical decree to
might say that people in the first two groups are expressing their worship and serve God with a joyful heart or feeling.
respective opinion, but where morality is concerned, there are no C. Feelings affect our moral responses to forces of disgust,
objective facts, and no position is objectively right. This third view fondness, or fear.
represents Ethical Subjectivism. It submits that our moral opinions are D. Emotions are crucial part of what gives life meaning, and
based on our feelings, and nothing more. ought to play a guiding role in morality.

It is a fact that some people practice abortion, or that some REASON AND IMPARTIALITY AS MINIMUM REQUIREMENT FOR
countries legalized abortion, and some countries or people do not MORALITY
practice it; but it is not a fact that one is good and the other is bad. So,
if someone say that abortion is wrong, he/she is, according to the REASON
theory, not stating a fact about abortion but merely expressing his/her
Human beings have not only feelings but also reason, which plays
feelings toward it. Subjectivists hold that there is no such thing as
an important role in ethics. Moral truths are truths of reason, a moral
objective right or real wrong.
judgment is true if it is backed by better reasons than the alternatives.
Thus, reason is a necessary requirement for morality.
EMOTIVISM

An improved version of Subjectivism considered by its proponents Philosophically speaking, reason is the basis or motive for an
as more subtle and sophisticated than Subjectivism. It is deemed action, decision, or conviction. As a quality, it refers to the capacity
invulnerable to many objections. for logical, rational, and analytic thought; for consciously making
sense of things, establishing and verifying facts, applying common
This theory was developed by the American philosopher Charles sense and logic, and justifying/changing (if necessary) practices,
L. Stevenson (1909-1979) which basically states that moral institutions, and beliefs based on existing or new existing information.
judgments express positive or negative feelings. “X is right” mean
“hooray for X!”, and “X is immoral” means “Boo on X!” Since ethical Reason tells the difference between moral judgments and
judgments are merely commands and exclamations, they are not expressions of personal taste.
true or false; so, there cannot be moral truths and moral knowledge.
Weighing reasons and being guided by them is essential in moral
Emotivism claims that moral judgments are not statements of deliberation.
fact but are mere expressions of the emotions of the speaker,
especially since they are feelings-based. Truth in Ethics entails being justified by good reasons. Thus, the
rightful moral decision involves selecting the option that has the
Language plays an important role in conveying moral judgments. power of reason on its side.
Language is used to state facts or what we believe to be facts. For
example, we may say, “Gasoline costs Php 50 per liter”, and “Jose Rizal Moral truths are objective in the sense that they are true no matter
is the author of El Filibusterismo”. In each statement, we are saying what we might think or want if they are defined by good reason. We
something that is true or false, and the purpose of our utterance is to cannot make an act moral or immoral by merely wishing it to be so,
convey information to the listener. because we cannot will that the weight of reason be on its side or
against it. And this explains why morality is not arbitrary or by chance.
W ays b y w hich lang uag e a re not sta tem ent of fa c ts: Reason commends what it commends, regardless of our feelings,
attitudes, opinions, and desires.
A. Command. “Close the door!” this utterance is neither true nor
false. Its purpose is not to convey information but to get to do IMPARTIALITY
something. In giving a command, it does not try to alter a
belief, but it is trying to influence a conduct. Impartiality involves each individual’s interest and point of view,
B. Expression of speaker’s attitude. “Boo on the price of are equally important. It is also called fair-mindedness or even-
gasoline!”, “Hooray for Y!” These are not statement of facts, but handedness. It is a principle of justice which holds that decisions
ought to be based on objective criteria, rather than on the basis of

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bias, prejudice, or preferring the benefit to one person over another will eliminate all alternatives except one. In fact, the purpose of this
for improper reasons. comparison is to see if there is a clear decision that can be made
without further deliberation. If a clear decision is not forthcoming,
In morality, Impartiality requires that we give equal and/or then the next part in the model must be considered. At the least, some
adequate considerations to the interests of all concerned parties. of the alternatives may be eliminated by this step of comparison.
The principle of impartiality assumes that every person is equally
important, that no one is seen as more significant than anyone else. 6 . W EIGH TH E CONS EQU EN CES

However, some ethicist noted that a clarification is required. To If the principles do not yield a clear decision, then a consideration
point that no one is intrinsically seen as more significant than anyone of the consequences of the remaining available alternatives is in
else, is not to say that there is no reason whatsoever for which an order. Both positive and negative consequences are to be considered.
individual might demand more moral attention or better treatment They should be informally weighted, since some positive
than others. Many ethicists pointed out that from the impartial and consequences are more beneficial than others and some negative
properly conceived point of view, some persons count as more consequences are more detrimental than others.
significant, at least in certain ways.
7. M AK E A DECIS ION
THE 7 STEP MORAL REASONING MODEL
Deliberation cannot go on forever. At some point, a decision must
(The Seven-Step model of Dr. William W. May, School of Religion, be made. Realize that one common element to ethical dilemmas is that
University of Southern California, from his course, "Normative there are no easy and painless solutions to them. Frequently, the
Analysis of Issues.") decision that is made is one that involves the least number of problems
or negative consequences, not one that is devoid of them.
1 . G ATH ER TH E F ACTS
COURAGE
Frequently ethical dilemmas can be resolved simply by clarifying
the facts of the case in question. In those cases that prove to be more TWO TYPES OF COURAGE
difficult, gathering the facts is the essential first step prior to any
ethical analysis and reflection on the case. In analyzing a case, we want P H YS ICAL COU R AG E
to know the available facts at hand as well as any facts currently not
known but that need to be ascertained. Thus, one is asking not only” ➢ It is often attributed to athletes, firefighters and police officers,
what do we know?" but also "what do we need to know?" to make an as well as soldiers when a physical act is performed.
intelligent ethical decision.
M OR AL COUR AG E
2 . DETER M IN E TH E ETH ICAL IS SU ES
➢ is attributed to individuals who take moral stands, such as
The ethical issue(s) are stated in terms of competing interests. It's Martin Luther King, Jr. who fought for moral principles he also
these conflicting interests that actually make for an ethical dilemma. gave his life for this fight. His example demonstrates that both
The issues should be presented in a __________ vs. __________ physical courage and moral courage have their origins in the
format in order to reflect the interests that are colliding in a particular courage described by Plato and Aristotle—courage in war. In the
ethical dilemma. For example, many ethical decisions, especially at the Laches, Socrates, Laches and Nicias attributed endurance of
end of a patient's life can be stated in terms of patient autonomy (or soul, wisdom and fear as well as the presence of battle to
the right of the individual to make his or her own decisions about courage. Martin Luther King, Jr. displayed all these elements,
medical care) vs. the sanctity of life (or the duty to preserve life). In except his battle was not a military one.
Case#1 above, the interests of the patient in having the physician keep
confidentiality conflict with the interests of his sister in being These two types of courage can be shown to correspond to two
protected from the risk of contracting HIV. different types of fear that are faced: physical harm or death, and “loss
of moral integrity or authenticity, [or]…social disapproval”
3. WH AT PR IN CIPL ES H AV E A BEAR ING ON TH E CAS E? respectively.

In any ethical dilemma, there are certain moral values or principles Conc ep tion of M ora l Courag e b y R ielle Miller in 2 005
that are central to the competing positions being taken. It is critical to The F ive Ma j or Comp onents
identify these principles, and in some cases, to determine whether
some principles are to be weighted more heavily than others. Clearly 1. Presence and Recognition of a moral situation
Biblical principles will be weighted the most heavily. There may be 2. Moral Choice
other principles that speak to the case that may come from other 3. behavior
sources. There may be Constitutional principles or principles drawn 4. Individuality
from natural law that supplement the Biblical principles that come into 5. fear.
play here.
The presence of a moral situation is necessary because an
individual cannot be morally courageous if they are not faced with a
morally charged situation (i.e., being given a taste test is not a moral
4. L IS T TH E AL TERN ATIV ES situation). Recognizing that there is a moral situation is the first step
toward moral courage.
Part of the creative thinking involved in resolving an ethical
dilemma involves coming up with various alternative courses of When a moral situation is recognized, it immediately calls the
action. Though there will be some alternatives which you will rule out observer to appeal to her moral intuitions, values, principles, etc. It
without much thought, in general, the more alternatives that are listed, lays a claim upon the observer, demanding that she do something.
the better the chance that your list will include some high-quality ones. This leads us into the second component, moral choice. The individual
In addition, you may come up with some very creative alternatives that when faced with a moral situation must choose the moral option. The
you had not considered before. observer must make the appeal to her moral intuitions, values,
principles, etc. The decision must be based upon what she feels is
5. COM P AR E TH E AL TERN ATIV ES WITH TH E PR IN CIPL ES right morally, not legally.

At this point, the task is one of eliminating alternatives according Once the individual makes a moral decision, to be courageous she
to the moral principles that have a bearing on the case. In many must act on that decision. Behavior is indeed necessary because it
instances, the case will be resolved at this point, since the principles separates moral courage from moral reasoning. It is all well and good

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to realize that there is a moral dilemma that needs your attention, and deliberately”. Commonly, we think of will in the active sense, of self-
further to decide what is the right thing to do, but it is a far different control, of working toward and attaining goals.
thing to follow through with one’s decision and act upon it. Aristotle
places importance on behavior, too. He says that “one must not only The German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer explained that
know <what one ought to do>, but he must also be able to act when we become conscious of ourselves, we recognize that our
accordingly.” essential qualities are endless urging, craving, striving, wanting,
and desiring. He said that these are features of that which we call our
Aristotle says that only those individuals with moral strength or will. According to Schopenhauer, will “is the innermost essence, the
excellence of character act according to their moral reasoning. It is the kernel, of everything and of the whole. It appears in every blindly
choice that these individuals make that signifies their actions as truly acting force of nature, and in the deliberate conduct of man”. He
virtuous, and not just accidental. To really be courageous, one’s believed that the will is primary and uses knowledge to find an object
behavior must follow through with one’s moral decision. that will satisfy its craving.

In this sense the morally courageous individual acknowledges the A pertinent concept is that of will power. It refers to the “inner
claim that the moral situation puts upon her. In some situations, others strength to decide, act, and handle and execute any aim or task until
that seem not to act may be actively turning away (or shielding it is accomplished, regardless of inner and outer resistance,
themselves) from the moral situation and the claim. The act of discomfort or difficulties. it bestows the ability to overcome laziness,
acknowledging the moral situation is not enough. There must be a temptations and negative habits, and to carry out actions, even if they
moral decision and most importantly moral behavior. What makes require effort, are unpleasant and tedious or are atrary to one’s habits”
someone morally courageous is that her behavior is consistent with
her beliefs—morally—no matter what. Having moral courage and will means doing the right thing,
which may include listening to our conscience, that quiet voice
Moral courage is demonstrated in the following way: in the act of within. Disregarding that voice may lead to feelings of inadequacy,
acknowledging the moral situation and the claim it then lays upon guilt and diminished personal integrity. For parents, using will power
the observer, in the act of choosing the moral option, and the act of usually demands putting aside compelling but momentary pleasures or
following through with the moral decision. But what about how these comforts to set a good example for their children and be the good
actions are done? The next component is of equal necessity to moral parents they wish to be.
courage: individuality. Acts of moral courage must be done as an
individual, like a leader who does not care if she ever obtains any Moral courage demands us to make judgments about what
followers. The morally courageous individual is on display for all to see behaviours or acts are supportive of our ethical ideologies or
to judge. She alone must face the consequences of her success or highest ideals, and which ones are destructive. Moral courage and
failure. will require us to recognize our responsibilities and be accountable
to the consequences of our own actions.
That moral courage requires individuality does not mean that
groups cannot perform morally courageous acts. What distinguishes HOW IS MORAL COURAGE DEVELOPED?
the morally courageous individual is that even when she is involved
with a group, she faces the consequences alone. For example, while Aristotle claimed that virtues could be acquired. As per Miller,
there were many people who took part in the march from Birmingham moral courage is a preservative of the substantive virtues means
to Mobile, AL each of those individuals took full responsibility for their that to develop moral courage, an individual needs to develop the
acts. Every individual was considered equally responsible for his or her substantive virtues first.
participation. They all knew that were each as likely to be beaten,
harangued, or killed by the police officers in the blockade. So, while Moral courage can be developed through:
they took part in a group activity, it was with individuality that they
participated. Ed uc a tion a nd Ha b itua tion

Moral courage must be taught and habituated. These are claims

The final component is fear. Moral courage can be categorized as
made by Plato and Aristotle. Each of these philosophers detailed
facing a fear of the consequences of one’s success—as noted earlier.
specific educational reforms to produce not only the virtue of
Facing the fear is crucial to moral courage because this is the point
courage, but also a virtuous person in total. What follows in this
where the individual is highlighted. The individual must face her own
section is a brief review of both Plato and Aristotle’s theory of how
fear—no one can do it for her. Facing the fear allows her to act, to
virtue is developed, and then a short explanation of how moral
acknowledge the situation, to make the decision, and to behave
courage, specifically is learned and habituated.
consistently with that decision. Itis critical to note that the morally
courageous individual does have fear; she is not fearless. Being afraid
Education plays a key role in Plato’s theory of moral development.
denotes that the individual understands what the situation entails and
In the Republic, Socrates discusses at the length the type of education
what the consequences will be for a certain behavior.
necessary to create the perfect citizens for his utopia. Socrates
makes it clear that the education he wishes to provide will differ from
Each of the above components is a necessary piece of moral
the one currently being used in Athens. His education will focus on the
courage. They are all equally important, and it is only when all five are
soul, not the body. To nourish the soul, the citizens must be educated
present that moral courage is displayed.
in the virtues.
Furthermore, De Guzman et al. defined moral courage as doing the
Education is central to Aristotle’s view of moral development.
right thing even at the risk of inconvenience, ridicule, punishment, loss
Children must be taught the virtues. Children when they are young,
of job or security or social status, etc. Moral courage requires that we
however, cannot fully understand the virtues. What they need is a role
rise above the apathy, complacency, hatred, cynicism, and
model, someone who can demonstrate the virtues. “To inculcate a
fearmongering in our political systems, socioeconomic divisions, and
good disposition in any person,” Aristotle writes, “…is not a job for just
cultural/religious differences”.
anyone; if anyone can do it, it is the man who knows.”50 Children must
be taught to habituate themselves toward virtuous actions. They need
One sense of the concept ‘will’ refer to that faculty of the mind
to develop good habits of soul. Aristotle was convinced that if children
which chooses, now of making decision, the strongest desire from
were not habituated toward the good, they would habituate
among the various desires present. “Will does not refer to any desire,
themselves toward the bad. Regardless of education, children will form
but rather to the capacity to act decisively on one’s desires. Within
habits. As Aristotle writes, “Hence it is no small matter whether one
philosophy the will is important as one of the distinct parts of the mind,
habit or another is inculcated in us from early childhood; on the
along with reason and understanding. It is considered important in
contrary, it makes a considerable difference, or rather all the
ethics because of its central role in enabling a person to act
difference.” The role of education, for Aristotle, is to ensure that the
proper habits are formed. Once children have formed proper habits,

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they can now begin the next phase of their education. The children (or
young adults) can now be taught the virtues on an intellectual level.

Using strategies to develop courage, which in turn requires courage to

be implemented, seems contradictory. However, this is exactly what
Aristotle was referring to when he wrote, “For the things which we
have to learn before we can do them, we learn by doing.” Courage is
one those things that we must learn before we can be courageous, but
we must learn to be courageous by doing courageous acts. John
McCain echoes Aristotle’s statements in his own book. McCain tells us
that to acquire courage, we must force ourselves to use courage. What
McCain and Aristotle are telling us is that to habituate courage, we
must practice using courage. We must seek out those situations
where our substantive virtues are put to the test. We must prepare
ourselves to hold fast to our values, by practicing. Courage will never
come to those who wait to receive it.

In addition to education and habituation, the following are tip s or

sug g estions on how to d evelop w ill a nd m oral c ourag e:

a) Develop and practice self-discipline

b) Do mental strength training
c) Draw inspiration from people of great courage
d)Repeatedly do acts that exhibit moral courage
e) Avoid deeds that show lack of moral courage

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