Q1.

concept of keys
(i)Super key(ii)Candidate key(iii)Primary key(iv)foreign key

Ans:- Keys
o Keys play an important role in the relational database.
o It is used to uniquely identify any record or row of data from the
table. It is also used to establish and identify relationships between
tables.

For example, ID is used as a key in the Student table because it is

unique for each student. In the PERSON table, passport_number,
license_number, SSN are keys since they are unique for each person.

Types of keys:

1. Primary key

o It is the first key used to identify one and only one instance of an
entity uniquely. An entity can contain multiple keys, as we saw in
 the PERSON table. The key which is most suitable from those lists
becomes a primary key.
o In the EMPLOYEE table, ID can be the primary key since it is unique
for each employee. In the EMPLOYEE table, we can even select
License_Number and Passport_Number as primary keys since they
are also unique.
o For each entity, the primary key selection is based on requirements
and developers.

2. Candidate key

o A candidate key is an attribute or set of attributes that can uniquely

identify a tuple.
o Except for the primary key, the remaining attributes are considered
a candidate key. The candidate keys are as strong as the primary
key.

For example: In the EMPLOYEE table, id is best suited for the primary
key. The rest of the attributes, like SSN, Passport_Number,
License_Number, etc., are considered a candidate key.
3. Super Key
Super key is an attribute set that can uniquely identify a tuple. A super
key is a superset of a candidate key.

For example: In the above EMPLOYEE table, for(EMPLOEE_ID,

EMPLOYEE_NAME), the name of two employees can be the same, but their
EMPLYEE_ID can't be the same. Hence, this combination can also be a key.

The super key would be EMPLOYEE-ID (EMPLOYEE_ID, EMPLOYEE-NAME),

etc.

4. Foreign key

o Foreign keys are the column of the table used to point to the
primary key of another table.
 o Every employee works in a specific department in a company, and
employee and department are two different entities. So we can't
store the department's information in the employee table. That's
why we link these two tables through the primary key of one table.
o We add the primary key of the DEPARTMENT table, Department_Id,
as a new attribute in the EMPLOYEE table.
o In the EMPLOYEE table, Department_Id is the foreign key, and both
the tables are related.

Q2.ER-diagram?
Ans:- ER Model is used to model the logical view of the system from
data perspective which consists of these components:
Entity, Entity Type, Entity Set –
An Entity may be an object with a physical existence – a particular
person, car, house, or employee – or it may be an object with a
conceptual existence – a company, a job, or a university course.
An Entity is an object of Entity Type and set of all entities is called as
entity set. e.g.; E1 is an entity having Entity Type Student and set of all
students is called Entity Set. In ER diagram, Entity Type is represented
as:
Attribute(s):
Attributes are the properties which define the entity type. For
example, Roll_No, Name, DOB, Age, Address, Mobile_No are the
attributes which defines entity type Student. In ER diagram, attribute is
represented by an oval.

1. Key Attribute –
The attribute which uniquely identifies each entity in the entity set is
called key attribute. For example, Roll_No will be unique for each
student. In ER diagram, key attribute is represented by an oval with
underlying lines.
2. Composite Attribute –
An attribute composed of many other attribute is called as composite
attribute. For example, Address attribute of student Entity type consists
of Street, City, State, and Country. In ER diagram, composite attribute
is represented by an oval comprising of ovals.

3. Multivalued Attribute –
An attribute consisting more than one value for a given entity. For
example, Phone_No (can be more than one for a given student). In ER
diagram, multivalued attribute is represented by double oval.

4. Derived Attribute –
An attribute which can be derived from other attributes of the entity
type is known as derived attribute. e.g.; Age (can be derived from
DOB). In ER diagram, derived attribute is represented by dashed oval.

The complete entity type Student with its attributes can be represented
as:
Q3. DML,DCL and DDL?
Ans:- Structured Query Language(SQL) as we all know is the database
language by the use of which we can perform certain operations on the
existing database and also we can use this language to create a
database. SQL uses certain commands like Create, Drop, Insert, etc. to
carry out the required tasks.
These SQL commands are mainly categorized into four categories as:
1. DDL – Data Definition Language
2. DML – Data Manipulation Language
3. DCL – Data Control Language
4. TCL – Transaction Control Language

DDL is short name of Data Definition Language, which deals with

database schemas and descriptions, of how the data should reside in the
database.

 CREATE - to create a database and its objects like (table, index, views,
store procedure, function, and triggers)
 ALTER - alters the structure of the existing database
 DROP - delete objects from the database
 TRUNCATE - remove all records from a table, including all spaces allocated
for the records are removed
 COMMENT - add comments to the data dictionary
 RENAME - rename an object
DML
DML is short name of Data Manipulation Language which deals with data
manipulation and includes most common SQL statements such SELECT,
INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, etc., and it is used to store, modify, retrieve,
delete and update data in a database.

 SELECT - retrieve data from a database

 INSERT - insert data into a table
 UPDATE - updates existing data within a table
 DELETE - Delete all records from a database table
 MERGE - UPSERT operation (insert or update)
 CALL - call a PL/SQL or Java subprogram
 EXPLAIN PLAN - interpretation of the data access path
 LOCK TABLE - concurrency Control

DCL
DCL is short name of Data Control Language which includes commands
such as GRANT and mostly concerned with rights, permissions and other
controls of the database system.

 GRANT - allow users access privileges to the database

 REVOKE - withdraw users access privileges given by using the GRANT
command

TCL
TCL is short name of Transaction Control Language which deals with a
transaction within a database.

 COMMIT - commits a Transaction

 ROLLBACK - rollback a transaction in case of any error occurs
 SAVEPOINT - to rollback the transaction making points within groups
 SET TRANSACTION - specify characteristics of the transaction

Q4.Data Abstraction?
Ans:-Data abstractions in DBMS refer to the hiding of unnecessary data from the
end-user. Database systems have complex data structures and relationships. These
difficulties are masked so that users may readily access the data, and just the
relevant section of the database is made accessible to them through data
abstraction. Let's understand this more with an example.
Example: If we want to retrieve any email from Gmail, we don't know where that
data is physically kept, such as in India or the United States, or what data model was
utilized to store it. These things are not essential to us. Only our email is of interest
to us.
Levels of Data abstractions in DBMS
The level of Data abstractions in dbms reduces the time complexity and helps make
the system efficient.

Now let's look at the levels of data abstractions in DBMS and discuss them in detail.
1. Physical level
It is the lowest level of abstraction for DBMSs, defining how data is stored, data
structures for storing data, and database access mechanisms.
Developers or database application programmers decide how to store data in the
database. It is complex to understand.
2. Logical level
The logical level is the next higher level or intermediate level. It explains what data is
stored in the database and how those data are related. It seeks to explain the
complete or entire data by describing what tables should be constructed and what
the linkages between those tables should be. It is less complex than the physical
level.
3. View level
This is the top level. There are various views at the view level, with each view
defining only a portion of the total data. It also facilitates user engagement by
providing a variety of views or numerous views of a single database. All users have
access to the view level. This is the easiest and most simple level.
Q5.Specialization,Aggregation,Generalisation?
Ans:- Generalization –
Generalization is the process of extracting common properties from a
set of entities and create a generalized entity from it. It is a bottom-up
approach in which two or more entities can be generalized to a higher
level entity if they have some attributes in common. For Example,
STUDENT and FACULTY can be generalized to a higher level entity
called PERSON as shown in Figure 1. In this case, common attributes
like P_NAME, P_ADD become part of higher entity (PERSON) and
specialized attributes like S_FEE become part of specialized entity
(STUDENT).

Specialization –
In specialization, an entity is divided into sub-entities based on their
characteristics. It is a top-down approach where higher level entity is
specialized into two or more lower level entities. For Example,
EMPLOYEE entity in an Employee management system can be
specialized into DEVELOPER, TESTER etc. as shown in Figure 2. In
this case, common attributes like E_NAME, E_SAL etc. become part of
higher entity (EMPLOYEE) and specialized attributes like TES_TYPE
become part of specialized entity (TESTER).

Aggregation –
An ER diagram is not capable of representing relationship between an
entity and a relationship which may be required in some scenarios. In
those cases, a relationship with its corresponding entities is aggregated
into a higher level entity. Aggregation is an abstraction through which
we can represent relationships as higher level entity sets.
For Example, Employee working for a project may require some
machinery. So, REQUIRE relationship is needed between relationship
WORKS_FOR and entity MACHINERY. Using aggregation,
WORKS_FOR relationship with its entities EMPLOYEE and PROJECT
is aggregated into single entity and relationship REQUIRE is created
between aggregated entity and MACHINERY.
Q6.Strong and weak entity set?
Ans:-
Strong Entity:
A strong entity is not dependent on any other entity in the schema. A
strong entity will always have a primary key. Strong entities are
represented by a single rectangle. The relationship of two strong
entities is represented by a single diamond.
Various strong entities, when combined together, create a strong entity
set.
Weak Entity:
A weak entity is dependent on a strong entity to ensure its existence.
Unlike a strong entity, a weak entity does not have any primary key. It
instead has a partial discriminator key. A weak entity is represented by
a double rectangle.
The relation between one strong and one weak entity is represented by
a double diamond. This relationship is also known as identifying
relationship.
 Difference between Strong and Weak Entity:

S.NO Strong Entity Weak Entity

While a
weak entity
has a partial
discriminator
1. Strong entity always has a primary key. key.
Weak entity
depends on
2. Strong entity is not dependent on any other entity. strong entity.
Weak entity
is
represented
by a double
3. Strong entity is represented by a single rectangle. rectangle.
While the
relation
between one
strong and
one weak
entity is
represented
Two strong entity’s relationship is represented by a single by a double
4. diamond. diamond.
5. Strong entities have either total participation or not. While weak
 entity always
has total
participation.

Q7.Data Independence with it’s types?

Ans:-
Data Independence
o Data independence can be explained using the three-schema
architecture.
o Data independence refers characteristic of being able to modify the
schema at one level of the database system without altering the
schema at the next higher level.

There are two types of data independence:

1. Logical Data Independence

o Logical data independence refers characteristic of being able to
change the conceptual schema without having to change the
external schema.
o Logical data independence is used to separate the external level
from the conceptual view.
o If we do any changes in the conceptual view of the data, then the
user view of the data would not be affected.
o Logical data independence occurs at the user interface level.

2. Physical Data Independence

o Physical data independence can be defined as the capacity to
change the internal schema without having to change the
conceptual schema.
o If we do any changes in the storage size of the database system
server, then the Conceptual structure of the database will not be
affected.
 o Physical data independence is used to separate conceptual levels
from the internal levels.
o Physical data independence occurs at the logical interface level.

Fig: Data Independence

Unit-2(Relational data model)

Q1.Relational algebra operation like

select ,join ,Division ,outer union?

Ans:- Relational Algebra

Relational algebra is a procedural query language. It gives a step by step
process to obtain the result of the query. It uses operators to perform
queries.

Types of Relational operation

1. Select Operation:

o The select operation selects tuples that satisfy a given predicate.

o It is denoted by sigma (σ).

1. Notation: σ p(r)

Where:

σ is used for selection prediction

r is used for relation
p is used as a propositional logic formula which may use connectors like:
AND OR and NOT. These relational can use as relational operators like =,
≠, ≥, <, >, ≤.

For example: LOAN Relation

2. Project Operation:

o This operation shows the list of those attributes that we wish to

appear in the result. Rest of the attributes are eliminated from the
table.
o It is denoted by ∏.

1. Notation: ∏ A1, A2, An (r)

Where

A1, A2, A3 is used as an attribute name of relation r.

Example: CUSTOMER RELATION

3. Union Operation:

o Suppose there are two tuples R and S. The union operation contains
all the tuples that are either in R or S or both in R & S.
o It eliminates the duplicate tuples. It is denoted by ∪.

1. Notation: R ∪ S

A union operation must hold the following condition:

o R and S must have the attribute of the same number.

o Duplicate tuples are eliminated automatically.

Example:

DEPOSITOR RELATION4. Set Intersection:

o Suppose there are two tuples R and S. The set intersection

operation contains all tuples that are in both R & S.
o It is denoted by intersection ∩.

1. Notation: R ∩ S

Example: Using the above DEPOSITOR table and BORROW table

Input:

1. ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (BORROW) ∩ ∏ CUSTOMER_NAME (DEPOSITOR)

5. Set Difference:

o Suppose there are two tuples R and S. The set intersection

operation contains all tuples that are in R but not in S.
o It is denoted by intersection minus (-).

1. Notation: R - S

Example: Using the above DEPOSITOR table and BORROW table

Input:
6. Cartesian product

o The Cartesian product is used to combine each row in one table with
each row in the other table. It is also known as a cross product.
o It is denoted by X.

1. Notation: E X D

Example:
EMPLOYEE

7. Rename Operation:
The rename operation is used to rename the output relation. It is denoted
by rho (ρ).

Example: We can use the rename operator to rename STUDENT relation

to STUDENT1.

Natural Join (⋈)

Natural join is a binary operator. Natural join between two or more
relations will result set of all combination of tuples where they have
equal common attribute.
Conditional Join
Conditional join works similar to natural join. In natural join, by default
condition is equal between common attribute while in conditional join
we can specify the any condition such as greater than, less than, not
equal

Q2.SQL command?

Ans:- Structured Query Language or SQL is a standard Database language

which is used to create, maintain and retrieve the data from relational
databases like MySQL, Oracle, SQL Server, PostGre, etc. The recent ISO
standard version of SQL is SQL:2019.

As the name suggests, it is used when we have structured data (in the form
of tables). All databases that are not relational (or do not use fixed
structure tables to store data) and therefore do not use SQL, are called
NoSQL databases. Examples of NoSQL are MongoDB, DynamoDB,
Cassandra, etc
SQL Command Description
CREATE DATABASE Creates a new database

CREATE TABLE Creates a new table

ALTER DATABASE Modifies a database

ALTER TABLE Modifies a table

DROP TABLE Deletes a table

CREATE INDEX Creates an index

DROP INDEX Deletes an index

SELECT Fetch data from database tables

UPDATE Modify data in a database table

DELETE Deletes data from a database table

INSERT INTO Inserts new data into a database table

Above SQL query are often used and always starts with these commands.

Q2.Triggers in SQL?
Ans:- Trigger is a statement that a system executes automatically when
there is any modification to the database. In a trigger, we first specify when
the trigger is to be executed and then the action to be performed when the
trigger executes. Triggers are used to specify certain integrity constraints
and referential constraints that cannot be specified using the constraint
mechanism of SQL.
Example –
Suppose, we are adding a tuple to the ‘Donors’ table that is some person has
donated blood. So, we can design a trigger that will automatically add the
value of donated blood to the ‘Blood_record’ table.
Types of Triggers –
We can define 6 types of triggers for each table:
1. AFTER INSERT activated after data is inserted into the table.

2. AFTER UPDATE: activated after data in the table is modified.

3. AFTER DELETE: activated after data is deleted/removed from the

table.

4. BEFORE INSERT: activated before data is inserted into the table.

5. BEFORE UPDATE: activated before data in the table is modified.

 6. BEFORE DELETE: activated before data is deleted/removed from
the table.

Q3.Embedded and Dynamic SQL?

Ans:- Static or Embedded SQL are SQL statements in an application that
do not change at runtime and, therefore, can be hard-coded into the
application. Dynamic SQL is SQL statements that are constructed at
runtime; for example, the application may allow users to enter their own
queries. Dynamic SQL is a programming technique that enables you to
build SQL statements dynamically at runtime. You can create more general
purpose, flexible applications by using dynamic SQL because the full text of
a SQL statement may be unknown at compilation. Static SQL are faster and
more efficient while dynamic SQL is less efficient since access plans for
dynamic statements are generated at run-time so they must be prepared in
the application, and this is something you will never look at in the static SQL,
but these are not the only differences between them, so we can say that
dynamic SQL has only one advantage over static statements which can be
clearly noticed once the application is edited or upgraded, so with Dynamic
statements there’s no need for pre-compilation or re-building as long as the
access plans are generated at run-time, whereas static statements require
regeneration of access plans if they were modified, in addition to the fact that
Dynamic SQL requires more permissions, it also might be a way to execute
unauthorized code, we don’t know what kind of users we’ll have, so for
security it can be dangerous if the programmer didn’t handle it. Below
mentioned are the basic differences
between Static or Embedded and Dynamic or Interactive SQL:Limitation
of Dynamic SQL: We cannot use some of the SQL statements Dynamically.
Performance of these statements is poor as compared to Static
SQL. Limitations of Static SQL: They do not change at runtime thus are
hard-coded into applications.

Q4.Reference integrity?

Ans:- Referential Integrity constraint

A referential integrity constraint is also known as foreign key
constraint. A foreign key is a key whose values are derived from the
Primary key of another table.

The table from which the values are derived is known as Master or
Referenced Table and the Table in which values are inserted accordingly
is known as Child or Referencing Table, In other words, we can say that
the table containing the foreign key is called the child table, and the
table containing the Primary key/candidate key is called
the referenced or parent table. When we talk about the database
relational model, the candidate key can be defined as a set of attribute
which can have zero or more attributes.

The syntax of the Master Table or Referenced table is:

1. CREATE TABLE Student (Roll int PRIMARY KEY, Name varchar(25) , C

ourse varchar(10) );

Here column Roll is acting as Primary Key, which will help in deriving the
value of foreign key in the child table.

The syntax of Child Table or Referencing table is:

1. CREATE TABLE Subject (Roll int references Student, SubCode int, S

ubName varchar(10) );
 Unit -3(Database design and normalisation)
Q1.Functional dependency and multivalued dependency?
Ans:-

Functional Dependency
The functional dependency is a relationship that exists between two attributes. It ty
exists between the primary key and non-key attribute within a table.

1. X → Y

The left side of FD is known as a determinant, the right side of the production is know
dependent.

For example:

Assume we have an employee table with attributes: Emp_Id, Emp_Name, Emp_Address

Here Emp_Id attribute can uniquely identify the Emp_Name attribute of employee
because if we know the Emp_Id, we can tell that employee name associated with it.

Functional dependency can be written as:

1. Emp_Id → Emp_Name

We can say that Emp_Name is functionally dependent on Emp_Id.

Types of Functional dependency

1. Trivial functional dependency

o A → B has trivial functional dependency if B is a subset of A.

o The following dependencies are also trivial like: A → A, B → B

Example:

1. Consider a table with two columns Employee_Id and Employee_Name.

2. {Employee_id, Employee_Name} → Employee_Id is a trivial functional dependency as
3. Employee_Id is a subset of {Employee_Id, Employee_Name}.
4. Also, Employee_Id → Employee_Id and Employee_Name → Employee_Name are trivial
dencies too.

2. Non-trivial functional dependency

o A → B has a non-trivial functional dependency if B is not a subset of A.

o When A intersection B is NULL, then A → B is called as complete non-trivial.

Example:

1. ID → Name,
2. Name → DOB

Multivalued Dependency
 o Multivalued dependency occurs when two attributes in a table are
independent of each other but, both depend on a third attribute.
o A multivalued dependency consists of at least two attributes that
are dependent on a third attribute that's why it always requires at
least three attributes.

Example: Suppose there is a bike manufacturer company which produces

two colors(white and black) of each model every year.

BIKE_MODEL MANUF_YEAR COLOR

M2011 2008 White

M2001 2008 Black

M3001 2013 White

M3001 2013 Black

M4006 2017 White

M4006 2017 Black

Here columns COLOR and MANUF_YEAR are dependent on BIKE_MODEL

and independent of each other.

In this case, these two columns can be called as multivalued dependent

on BIKE_MODEL. The representation of these dependencies is shown
below:

1. BIKE_MODEL → → MANUF_YEAR
2. BIKE_MODEL → → COLOR
Q2.Normalisation and normal form?
Ans:-

Normalization
A large database defined as a single relation may result in data duplication. Th
repetition of data may result in:

o Making relations very large.

o It isn't easy to maintain and update data as it would involve searching many records
 relation.
o Wastage and poor utilization of disk space and resources.
o The likelihood of errors and inconsistencies increases.

So to handle these problems, we should analyze and decompose the relations wit
redundant data into smaller, simpler, and well-structured relations that are satis
desirable properties. Normalization is a process of decomposing the relations int
relations with fewer attributes.

What is Normalization?
o Normalization is the process of organizing the data in the database.
o Normalization is used to minimize the redundancy from a relation or set of relations. It
also used to eliminate undesirable characteristics like Insertion, Update, and Deletio
Anomalies.
o Normalization divides the larger table into smaller and links them using relationships.
o The normal form is used to reduce redundancy from the database table.

Why do we need Normalization?

The main reason for normalizing the relations is removing these anomalies. Failure t
eliminate anomalies leads to data redundancy and can cause data integrity and othe
problems as the database grows. Normalization consists of a series of guidelines tha
helps to guide you in creating a good database structure.

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Data modification anomalies can be categorized into three types:

o Insertion Anomaly: Insertion Anomaly refers to when one cannot insert a new tuple in
a relationship due to lack of data.
o Deletion Anomaly: The delete anomaly refers to the situation where the deletion
data results in the unintended loss of some other important data.
o Updatation Anomaly: The update anomaly is when an update of a single data valu
requires multiple rows of data to be updated.

Types of Normal Forms:

Normalization works through a series of stages called Normal forms. The normal form
apply to individual relations. The relation is said to be in particular normal form if
satisfies constraints.

Following are the various types of Normal forms:

Normal Description
Form

1NF A relation is in 1NF if it contains an

atomic value.

2NF A relation will be in 2NF if it is in 1NF and

all non-key attributes are fully functional
dependent on the primary key.

3NF A relation will be in 3NF if it is in 2NF and

no transition dependency exists.

BCNF A stronger definition of 3NF is known as

Boyce Codd's normal form.

4NF A relation will be in 4NF if it is in Boyce

Codd's normal form and has no multi-
valued dependency.

5NF A relation is in 5NF. If it is in 4NF and

does not contain any join dependency,
 joining should be lossless.

Advantages of Normalization
o Normalization helps to minimize data redundancy.
o Greater overall database organization.
o Data consistency within the database.
o Much more flexible database design.
o Enforces the concept of relational integrity.

Disadvantages of Normalization
o You cannot start building the database before knowing what the user needs.
o The performance degrades when normalizing the relations to higher normal forms, i.e
4NF, 5NF.
o It is very time-consuming and difficult to normalize relations of a higher degree.
o Careless decomposition may lead to a bad database design, leading to serious problems

Unit -4
Q1.Short note
(i)Transaction processing and state diagram

Ans:- (i)Transaction
o The transaction is a set of logically related operation. It contains a
group of tasks.
o A transaction is an action or series of actions. It is performed by a
single user to perform operations for accessing the contents of the
database.

Example: Suppose an employee of bank transfers Rs 800 from X's

account to Y's account. This small transaction contains several low-level
tasks:
X's Account

1. Open_Account(X)
2. Old_Balance = X.balance
3. New_Balance = Old_Balance - 800
4. X.balance = New_Balance
5. Close_Account(X)

Y's Account

1. Open_Account(Y)
2. Old_Balance = Y.balance
3. New_Balance = Old_Balance + 800
4. Y.balance = New_Balance
5. Close_Account(Y)

Operations of Transaction:
Following are the main operations of transaction:

Read(X): Read operation is used to read the value of X from the database
and stores it in a buffer in main memory.

Write(X): Write operation is used to write the value back to the database
from the buffer.

Let's take an example to debit transaction from an account which consists

of following operations:

1. 1. R(X);
2. 2. X = X - 500;
3. 3. W(X);

Let's assume the value of X before starting of the transaction is 4000.

o The first operation reads X's value from database and stores it in a
buffer.
o The second operation will decrease the value of X by 500. So buffer
will contain 3500.
o The third operation will write the buffer's value to the database. So
X's final value will be 3500.
But it may be possible that because of the failure of hardware, software or
power, etc. that transaction may fail before finished all the operations in
the set.

For example: If in the above transaction, the debit transaction fails after
executing operation 2 then X's value will remain 4000 in the database
which is not acceptable by the bank.

Q2.Difference between OODBMS And RDBMS?

Ans:- RDBMS:
RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System. It is a
database management system based on the relational model i.e. the data
and relationships are represented by a collection of inter-related tables. It is
a DBMS that enables the user to create, update, administer and interact with
a relational database. RDBMS is the basis for SQL, and for all modern
database systems like MS SQL Server, IBM DB2, Oracle, MySQL, and
Microsoft Access.
OODBMS:
OODBMS stands for Object-Oriented Database Management System. It is a
DBMS where data is represented in the form of objects, as used in object-
oriented programming. OODB implements object-oriented concepts such as
classes of objects, object identity, polymorphism, encapsulation, and
inheritance. An object-oriented database stores complex data as compared
to relational database. Some examples of OODBMS are Versant Object
Database, Objectivity/DB, ObjectStore, Caché and ZODB.
Difference Between RDBMS and OODBMS:
BASIS RDBMS OODBMS

Stands for Relational

Database Management Stands for Object Oriented Database
Long Form System. Management System.

Stores data in Entities,

Way of defined as tables hold
storing data specific information. Stores data as Objects.

Data Handles comparatively Handles larger and complex data than

Complexity simpler data. RDBMS.

Grouping Entity type refers to the Class describes a group of objects

collection of entity that share that have common relationships,
a common definition. behaviors, and also have similar
 BASIS RDBMS OODBMS

properties.

Data Stores data as well as methods to use

Handling RDBMS stores only data. it.

Main Data Independence from

Objective application program. Data Encapsulation.

A Primary key distinctively An object identifier (OID) is an

identifies an object in a unambiguous, long-term name for
Key table.. any type of object or entity.

Q3.ACID properties?
Ans:-

ACID Properties in DBMS

DBMS is the management of data that should remain integrated when any
changes are done in it. It is because if the integrity of the data is affected,
whole data will get disturbed and corrupted. Therefore, to maintain the
integrity of the data, there are four properties described in the database
management system, which are known as the ACID properties. The ACID
properties are meant for the transaction that goes through a different
group of tasks, and there we come to see the role of the ACID properties.

In this section, we will learn and understand about the ACID properties.
We will learn what these properties stand for and what does each property
is used for. We will also understand the ACID properties with the help of
some examples.

ACID Properties
The expansion of the term ACID defines for:
Q4.Deadlock handling prevention?
Ans:- Deadlock is a situation where a process or a set of processes is
blocked, waiting for some other resource that is held by some other waiting
process. It is an undesirable state of the system. The following are the four
conditions that must hold simultaneously for a deadlock to occur.
1. Mutual Exclusion – A resource can be used by only one process
at a time. If another process requests for that resource then the
requesting process must be delayed until the resource has been
released.
2. Hold and wait – Some processes must be holding some resources
in non shareable mode and at the same time must be waiting to
acquire some more resources, which are currently held by other
processes in non-shareable mode.
3. No pre-emption – Resources granted to a process can be released
back to the system only as a result of voluntary action of that
process, after the process has completed its task.
4. Circular wait – Deadlocked processes are involved in a circular
chain such that each process holds one or more resources being
requested by the next process in the chain.
Methods of handling deadlocks : There are three approaches to deal with
deadlocks.
1. Deadlock Prevention
2. Deadlock avoidance
3. Deadlock detection
These are explained as following below.
1. Deadlock Prevention : The strategy of deadlock prevention is
to design the system in such a way that the possibility of
deadlock is excluded. Indirect method prevent the occurrence of
one of three necessary condition of deadlock i.e., mutual
exclusion, no pre-emption and hold and wait. Direct method
prevent the occurrence of circular wait. Prevention techniques
– Mutual exclusion – is supported by the OS. Hold and Wait
– condition can be prevented by requiring that a process
requests all its required resources at one time and blocking the
 process until all of its requests can be granted at a same time
simultaneously. But this prevention does not yield good result
because \
Q5. conflict serializability and view serializability?
Ans:-
As discussed in Concurrency control, serial schedules have less resource
utilization and low throughput. To improve it, two or more transactions are
run concurrently. But concurrency of transactions may lead to inconsistency
in database. To avoid this, we need to check whether these concurrent
schedules are serializable or not.
Conflict Serializable: A schedule is called conflict serializable if it can be
transformed into a serial schedule by swapping non-conflicting operations.
Conflicting operations: Two operations are said to be conflicting if all
conditions satisfy:
 They belong to different transactions
 They operate on the same data item
 At Least one of them is a write operation
Example: –
 Conflicting operations pair (R 1(A), W2(A)) because they belong to
two different transactions on same data item A and one of them is
write operation.
 Similarly, (W1(A), W2(A)) and (W1(A), R2(A)) pairs are
also conflicting.
 On the other hand, (R 1(A), W2(B)) pair is non-conflicting because
they operate on different data item.
 Similarly, ((W1(A), W2(B)) pair is non-conflicting.

View serializability is a concept that is used to compute whether schedules

are View-Serializable or not. A schedule is said to be View-Serializable if it
is view equivalent to a Serial Schedule (where no interleaving of
transactions is possible).

Why do we need to use View-Serializability ?

There may be some schedules that are not Conflict-Serializable but still
gives a consistent result because the concept of Conflict-
Serializability becomes limited when the Precedence Graph of a schedule
contains a loop/cycle. In such a case we cannot predict whether a schedule
would be consistent or inconsistent. As per the concept of Conflict-
Serializability, We can say that a schedule is Conflict-Serializable (means
serial and consistent) iff its corresponding precedence graph does not have
any loop/cycle.
But, what if a schedule’s precedence graph contains a cycle/loop and is
giving consistent result/accurate result as a conflict serializable schedule is
giving?
So, to address such cases we brought the concept of View-
Serializability because we did not want to confine the concept serializability
only to Conflict-Serializability.
Example : Understanding View-Serializability first with a Schedule S1 :

Unit-5
Q1.Concurrency control-timestamp?

Ans:- DBMS Concurrency Control

Concurrency Control is the management procedure that is required for
controlling concurrent execution of the operations that take place on a
database.

But before knowing about concurrency control, we should know about

concurrent execution.

Concurrent Execution in DBMS

o In a multi-user system, multiple users can access and use the same
database at one time, which is known as the concurrent execution
of the database. It means that the same database is executed
simultaneously on a multi-user system by different users.
o While working on the database transactions, there occurs the
requirement of using the database by multiple users for performing
different operations, and in that case, concurrent execution of the
database is performed.
o The thing is that the simultaneous execution that is performed
should be done in an interleaved manner, and no operation should
affect the other executing operations, thus maintaining the
consistency of the database. Thus, on making the concurrent
execution of the transaction operations, there occur several
challenging problems that need to be solved.

Problems with Concurrent Execution

In a database transaction, the two main operations
are READ and WRITE operations. So, there is a need to manage these
two operations in the concurrent execution of the transactions as if these
operations are not performed in an interleaved manner, and the data may
become inconsistent. So, the following problems occur with the
Concurrent Execution of the operations:

Q2. 2pL with example?

Ans:-
2PL locking protocol
Every transaction will lock and unlock the data item in two different
phases.
 Growing Phase − All the locks are issued in this phase. No
locks are released, after all changes to data-items are
committed and then the second phase (shrinking phase)
starts.
 Shrinking phase − No locks are issued in this phase, all the
changes to data-items are noted (stored) and then locks are
released.
The 2PL locking protocol is represented diagrammatically as follows −

In the growing phase transaction reaches a point where all the locks it
may need has been acquired. This point is called LOCK POINT.
After the lock point has been reached, the transaction enters a shrinking
phase.

Types
Two phase locking is of two types −
Strict two phase locking protocol
A transaction can release a shared lock after the lock point, but it cannot
release any exclusive lock until the transaction commits. This protocol
creates a cascade less schedule.
Cascading schedule: In this schedule one transaction is dependent on
another transaction. So if one has to rollback then the other has to
rollback.

Rigorous two phase locking protocol

A transaction cannot release any lock either shared or exclusive until it
commits.
The 2PL protocol guarantees serializability, but cannot guarantee that
deadlock will not happen.

Example
Let T1 and T2 are two transactions.
T1=A+B and T2=B+A

T1 T2

Lock-X(A) Lock-X(B)

Read A; Read B;

Lock-X(B) Lock-X(A)
Here,
Lock-X(B) : Cannot execute Lock-X(B) since B is locked by T2.
Lock-X(A) : Cannot execute Lock-X(A) since A is locked by T1.
In the above situation T1 waits for B and T2 waits for A. The waiting time
never ends. Both the transaction cannot proceed further at least any one
releases the lock voluntarily. This situation is called deadlock.

Q3.Timestamp based protocol?

Ans:- Timestamp Ordering Protocol

o The Timestamp Ordering Protocol is used to order the transactions

based on their Timestamps. The order of transaction is nothing but
the ascending order of the transaction creation.
 o The priority of the older transaction is higher that's why it executes
first. To determine the timestamp of the transaction, this protocol
uses system time or logical counter.
o The lock-based protocol is used to manage the order between
conflicting pairs among transactions at the execution time. But
Timestamp based protocols start working as soon as a transaction is
created.
o Let's assume there are two transactions T1 and T2. Suppose the
transaction T1 has entered the system at 007 times and transaction
T2 has entered the system at 009 times. T1 has the higher priority,
so it executes first as it is entered the system first.
o The timestamp ordering protocol also maintains the timestamp of
last 'read' and 'write' operation on a data.

Basic Timestamp ordering protocol works as follows:

1. Check the following condition whenever a transaction Ti issues a Read

(X) operation:

o If W_TS(X) >TS(Ti) then the operation is rejected.

o If W_TS(X) <= TS(Ti) then the operation is executed.
o Timestamps of all the data items are updated.

2. Check the following condition whenever a transaction Ti issues

a Write(X) operation:

o If TS(Ti) < R_TS(X) then the operation is rejected.

o If TS(Ti) < W_TS(X) then the operation is rejected and Ti is rolled
back otherwise the operation is executed.

Where,

TS(TI) denotes the timestamp of the transaction Ti.

R_TS(X) denotes the Read time-stamp of data-item X.

W_TS(X) denotes the Write time-stamp of data-item X.

Advantages and Disadvantages of TO protocol:

o TO protocol ensures serializability since the precedence graph is as
follows:

o TS protocol ensures freedom from deadlock that means no

transaction ever waits.
o But the schedule may not be recoverable and may not even be
cascade- free.