metals

Review
Metal Additive Manufacturing (MAM) Applications in
Production of Vehicle Parts and Components—A Review
Bartłomiej Sarzyński * , Lucjan Śnieżek and Krzysztof Grzelak

Institute of Robots & Machine Design, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Military University of Technology, Gen.
S. Kaliskiego 2 St., 00-908 Warsaw, Poland; [email protected] (L.Ś.); [email protected] (K.G.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: In this article, the significance of additive manufacturing techniques in the production of
vehicle parts over the past several years is highlighted. It indicates the industries and scientific sectors
in which these production techniques have been applied. The primary manufacturing methods are
presented based on the materials used, including both metals and non-metals. The authors place
their primary focus on additive manufacturing techniques employing metals and their alloys. Within
this context, they categorize these methods into three main groups: L-PBF (laser-powder bed fusion),
sheet lamination, and DED (directed energy deposition) techniques. In the subsequent stages of work
on this article, specific examples of vehicle components produced using metal additive manufacturing
(MAM) methods are mentioned.

Keywords: additive manufacturing; metal additive manufacturing; vehicle components

1. Introduction
The Fourth Industrial Revolution, also known as Industry 4.0, has radically trans-
formed the manufacturing sector [1]. Globally, there has been a shift to embrace the ongoing
trend of mechanical automation in conventional production processes, resulting in the
Citation: Sarzyński, B.; Śnieżek, L.; emergence of intelligent production [2]. This is one of the most extensively researched
Grzelak, K. Metal Additive topics in modern times. Cyber-physical systems and the integration of physical processes,
Manufacturing (MAM) Applications storage systems and manufacturing equipment that autonomously exchange information
in Production of Vehicle Parts and and monitor each other are at the heart of Industry 4.0 [3,4]. Additive manufacturing
Components—A Review. Metals 2024, techniques are considered to be one of the components of modern production [4–7]. Ac-
14, 195. https://doi.org/10.3390/ cording to the ISO/ASTM 52900:2021 international standard, the definition of additive
met14020195 manufacturing is as follows: “the process of joining materials to make parts from 3D
Academic Editors: Litong Guo and model data, usually layer by layer, as opposed to subtractive and formative manufacturing
Baoe Li processes” [8]. The first mentions of 3D printing techniques date back to the 1980s [9]. From
the beginning, this type of manufacturing has been used to produce a wide range of compo-
Received: 22 December 2023 nents. The graph in Figure 1 is taken from a report by Wohlers Associates, one of the largest
Revised: 30 January 2024
organizations focusing on additive techniques, published in 2023 [10]. It illustrates the
Accepted: 3 February 2024
total cost of components and services produced using additive manufacturing techniques
Published: 5 February 2024
in recent years. It shows a significant increase in the importance of the manufacturing
techniques under review. These products are used in a wide range of industries, from
automotive to aerospace, medical, electronics, defense, etc. The breakdown described is
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
shown in Figure 2 [11].
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Based on the data provided, it is clear that additive manufacturing techniques are
This article is an open access article being used in a variety of production and manufacturing sectors. The wide variety of
distributed under the terms and materials, flexibility in shaping geometries and material savings are some of the advantages
conditions of the Creative Commons that distinguish it from other manufacturing methods [12,13]. The growing interest and use
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// of additive techniques in the design and manufacture of machine parts and components
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ prompted the authors to undertake a literature review on the application of additive tech-
4.0/). niques in the manufacturing of vehicles parts and components. Due to the already extensive

Metals 2024, 14, 195. https://doi.org/10.3390/met14020195 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

Metals 2024, 14, 195 2 of 20

use of additive techniques and the focus, it was decided to present examples of metal parts.
A comparison was made between additive and conventional manufacturing techniques in
terms of the strength properties of the parts. The advantages and disadvantages of each
Metals2024,
Metals 2024,14,
14,xxFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 22 ofof 22
22
technique were presented. This work is of great importance for the research development
of the academy in which it was produced.

Figure1.
Figure
Figure 1.1.The
Theuse
The useof
use ofadditive
of additivemanufacturing
additive manufacturingtechniques
manufacturing techniquesover
techniques overthe
over thepast
the past15
past 15years.
15 years.Reproduced
years. Reproducedwith
Reproduced with
with
copyright
copyright permission
permission of
of Wohlers
Wohlers Associates
Associates from
from Reference
Reference [10].
[10].
copyright permission of Wohlers Associates from Reference [10].

Figure
Figure2.
Figure Application
2.2.Application of
Applicationof additive
ofadditive manufacturing
additivemanufacturing in
manufacturingin various
invarious sectors.
varioussectors. Reproduced
sectors.Reproduced from
Reproducedfrom Reference
fromReference [11].
Reference[11].
[11].

2. Materials and Methods

Basedon
Based onthethedata
dataprovided,
provided,ititisisclear
clearthat
thatadditive
additivemanufacturing
manufacturingtechniques
techniquesareare
beingAused
being classification
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in aa variety
variety of techniques
of production
production is presented based
and manufacturing
and manufacturing on The
sectors.
sectors. data fromvariety
The wide
wide scientific
variety of
of
publications
materials, on additive
flexibility in manufacturing
shaping [14].
geometries Additive
and manufacturing
material savings
materials, flexibility in shaping geometries and material savings are some of the aretechniques
some of are
the
classified
advantages
advantages according
that to three criteria:
thatdistinguish
distinguish ititfrom
fromother
othermanufacturing
manufacturingmethods
methods[12,13].
[12,13].The
Thegrowing
growing
interestand
interest anduse
useof ofadditive
additivetechniques
techniquesin inthe
thedesign
designand
andmanufacture
manufactureof ofmachine
machineparts
parts
andcomponents
and componentsprompted
promptedthe theauthors
authorsto
toundertake
undertakeaaliterature
literaturereview
reviewononthetheapplication
application
ofadditive
of additivetechniques
techniquesin inthe
themanufacturing
manufacturingof ofvehicles
vehiclesparts
partsand
andcomponents.
components.Due Duetotothe
the
already extensive use of additive techniques and the focus, it was
already extensive use of additive techniques and the focus, it was decided to present decided to present
examples of
examples of metal
metal parts.
parts.AA comparison
comparison waswas made
made between
between additive
additive and
and conventional
conventional
Metals 2024, 14, 195 3 of 20

• methodology of the product formation,

• type of base material used,
• processing method.
According to the methodology of the product formation, the following can be distin-
guished:
• Material Jetting,
• Binder Jetting,
• Vat Photopolymerization,
• Powder Bed Fusion,
• Material Extrusion,
• Energy Deposition,
• Sheet Lamination.
Based on the type of base material used, a classification is made between:
• Solid-based (Laminated Object Manufacturing “LOM”, Fused Deposition Modelling
“FDM”, Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing “WAAM”, Electron Beam Free Form
Fabrication “EBFFF”),
• Powder-based (Selective Laser Sintering “SLS” and Direct Metal Laser Sintering
“DMLS”, Electron Beam Melting “EBM”, Selective Laser Melting “SLM”, Laser Metal
Deposition “LMD”),
• Liquid-based (Stereolithography “SLS”, Direct Light Processing “DLP”, PolyJet print-
ing).
In terms of the processing method, a distinction is made between:
• Laser beam,
• Ultraviolet rays,
• Thermal means.
Metals 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 22
The diagram presented in Figure 3 illustrates the categorization of additive manufac-
turing techniques [14].

Figure 3. Classification
Figure3. Classification of
of additive
additive manufacturing
manufacturing techniques.
techniques. Reproduced
Reproduced from
fromReference
Reference[14].
[14].

Today, the manufacturing of parts using polymers has become relatively common.
These materials are frequently used in AM techniques due to their low weight to volume
ratio, corrosion resistance, relatively high achievable mechanical and thermal properties,
good electrical insulation and, in some cases, fire resistance, biocompatibility and
biodegradability [10]. With the advanced development in the field of materials, polymers
with previously unavailable properties have been introduced based on the research. As a
Metals 2024, 14, 195 4 of 20

Today, the manufacturing of parts using polymers has become relatively common.
These materials are frequently used in AM techniques due to their low weight to volume ra-
tio, corrosion resistance, relatively high achievable mechanical and thermal properties, good
electrical insulation and, in some cases, fire resistance, biocompatibility and biodegradabil-
ity [10]. With the advanced development in the field of materials, polymers with previously
unavailable properties have been introduced based on the research. As a result, polymeric
materials that respond to external stimuli such as temperature, light, electric or magnetic
fields, moisture or pH changes are being used to print structures that have the ability to
change shape or physicochemical properties under the influence of certain environmental
changes [11]. Due to their proven benefits, polymer-made objects have found applications
in many industries such as automotive, aerospace, engineering or medical [15–17]. The
most popular technique based on thermoplastic extrusion is FDM/FFF (fused deposition
modeling/fused filament fabrication). It is based on the use of polymers or advanced
composites doped with other types of materials such as carbon fibers, glass beads or metals
and their alloys [18]. The nozzle of the machine heats the material to plasticize it and then,
layer by layer, the printer builds up the expected product based on a previously generated
CAD model [19].
Within the range of additive techniques operating in the field of non-metallic materials,
ceramics should be mentioned. Compared to polymers and metals, ceramic materials also
have advantageous properties [20,21]. A major advantage of this group of materials is
the high hardness of the components and their ability to insulate heat and electricity.
Taking into account the criterion of thermal resistance, ceramic materials are able to operate
in the most extreme conditions, where the use of polymers or advanced metal alloys is
impossible [22–25]. For this reason, additive manufacturing has extended to ceramics.
Using the material in a form that can be additively molded, 3D printers are producing
components and parts that are used, for example, in the aerospace industry to produce
cooling components that reach an operating temperature range of 1200 degrees Celsius [26].
The properties of these materials also make it possible to produce medical implants, such
as a teeth or part of a human skull [27]. By analyzing the research carried out, which shows
that the structure of the material has a direct effect on the functional properties, it is possible
to apply it in many sectors of the manufacturing industry.

3. Metal Additive Manufacturing

3.1. MAM Technologies
When manufacturing parts and components for machinery and equipment, metals or
metal alloys are typically used by designers. However, with the development of additive
manufacturing techniques, it is now possible to use non-metallic materials to create similar
products with positive functional properties [28,29]. In the past thirty years, there has
been a rapid development in additive techniques for working with metals. These tech-
niques have resulted in the creation of various methods for forming metals, which differ
mainly in the way in which the material is plasticized, and the energy source and form
of the based material. Figure 4 shows the most common metal additive manufacturing
techniques found in the literature [14]. There are also other, less well-known methods of
additive manufacturing of metals, such as friction-stir additive manufacturing [30], cold
spraying [31,32], direct metal writing [33] and diode-based processes [34].
Of the main additive techniques, sheet lamination is the least popular. It is a process
that involves applying thin layers of material in succession. The layers are bonded to
the previous ones either by heating the material (laminated object manufacturing) or by
plasticizing it using high frequency waves (ultrasonic additive manufacturing) [35–37].
These methods are commonly used in the production of components with a larger surface
area. Figure 5 shows the manufacturing process of an unmanned aerial vehicle wing using
these techniques [38].
 differ mainly in the way in which the material is plasticized, and the energy source and
form of the based material. Figure 4 shows the most common metal additive
manufacturing techniques found in the literature [14]. There are also other, less well-
known methods of additive manufacturing of metals, such as friction-stir additive
Metals 2024, 14, 195 manufacturing [30], cold spraying [31,32], direct metal writing [33] and diode-based
5 of 20
processes [34].

Metals 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 22

Figure 4. Metal additive manufacturing (MAM) classification.

Figure 4. Metal additive manufacturing (MAM) classification.

Of the main additive techniques, sheet lamination is the least popular. It is a process that
involves applying thin layers of material in succession. The layers are bonded to the previous
ones either by heating the material (laminated object manufacturing) or by plasticizing it using
high frequency waves (ultrasonic additive manufacturing) [35–37]. These methods are
commonly used in the production of components with a larger surface area. Figure 5 shows
the manufacturing process of an unmanned aerial vehicle wing using these techniques [38].

Figure
Figure 5. 5. Stepsofofmanufacturing
Steps manufacturing aircraft
aircraft wing
wing using
using LOM
LOMtechnique.
technique.Reprinted
Reprintedwith
withpermission from
permission
Reference [38], 2019, Bhatt, P.
from Reference [38], 2019, Bhatt, P.

Directed
Directed energy
energy deposition
deposition (DED)(DED) is another
is another type ofmanufacturing
type of additive additive manufacturing
technique
technique
that works withthat metals.
works with DEDmetals.
coversDED16% covers 16% ofAM
of the metal themarket
metal AM [39].market [39]. The
The printing
printing head
machine’s machine s head
applies applies successive
successive layers in the layers
forminofthe form of(powder
powder powderDED) (powder DED)
or wire
or wire
(wire DED).(wire
WithDED).
the helpWithof the help
a laser of a laserelectron
(LW-DED), (LW-DED), beam electron
(EB-DED),beam or (EB-DED),
electric arcor
electric arcthe
(AW-DED), (AW-DED),
material thegoes material
into a goes
liquidinto a liquid
state state andsuccessive
and deposits deposits successive
layers of layers
the
of the target part [40–42]. In most cases, a shielding gas (usually
target part [40–42]. In most cases, a shielding gas (usually argon) is used to prevent argon) is used to prevent
thethe atmosphere
atmosphere from
from reacting
reacting with
with thethe liquid
liquid metal
metal andand forming
forming metal
metal oxides,
oxides, which
which
could
couldnegatively
negatively affect
affectthethestructure
structureof of
thethematerial
material[43].
[43].These
These techniques
techniques enable
enable thethe
production
production of of
large
largeparts
partsusing
using advanced
advanced materials,
materials, such
such asasstainless
stainless steels,
steels,titanium,
titanium, oror
Inconel
Inconelalloys, which
alloys, which have
havefavorable
favorable performance
performance properties.
properties. The mentioned
The mentioned techniques
techniques
not only
not onlyenable
enablethethe
complex
complex production
production ofof components
components from
from basics,
basics,but
but also
alsoallow
allowforfor
equipment regeneration and damaged component repair [44–47].
equipment regeneration and damaged component repair [44–47]. The primary goal of The primary goal of a a
specific procedure
specific procedureisistotoreproduce
reproduce aa component’s originalgeometry
component s original geometryand and properties
properties using
using only
only an additive
an additive manufacturing
manufacturing process process
[48]. A[48].
laser isAused
lasertoisweld
usedthe tomaterial
weld the andmaterial
determine andthe
determine the material
material structure, structure,
which which
affects the affects the
mechanical mechanical
properties properties
of the of the product.
product. Figure 6 presents
an example of the remanufacturing process for repairing a key part of a jet engine rotor,
specifically its blades. Despite the high degree of freedom in remanufacturing the components
in question, in many cases post-processing is required. This is due to the high surface
roughness.
 production of large parts using advanced materials, such as stainless steels, titanium, or
Inconel alloys, which have favorable performance properties. The mentioned techniques
not only enable the complex production of components from basics, but also allow for
equipment regeneration and damaged component repair [44–47]. The primary goal of a
Metals 2024, 14, 195 specific procedure is to reproduce a component s original geometry and properties using only
6 of 20
an additive manufacturing process [48]. A laser is used to weld the material and determine the
material structure, which affects the mechanical properties of the product. Figure 6 presents
an example
Figure of the
6 presents anremanufacturing process for repairing
example of the remanufacturing processa for
keyrepairing
part of aa jet
keyengine
part ofrotor,
a jet
specifically its blades. Despite the high degree of freedom in remanufacturing the components
engine rotor, specifically its blades. Despite the high degree of freedom in remanufacturing
in question,
the components in many cases in
in question, post-processing is required. This
many cases post-processing is due toThis
is required. the ishigh
duesurface
to the
roughness.
high surface roughness.

Figure6.6.The
Figure Theprocess
processof
ofregenerating
regeneratingjet
jetengine
enginerotor
rotorblades.
blades.Reproduced
Reproducedfrom
fromReference
Reference[48].
[48].

The original parts are made of titanium alloys, which are highly sensitive to chemical
reactions with atmospheric air components, mainly oxygen and nitrogen [49]. Remanu-
factured parts must regain their initial aerodynamic and strength properties during repair
to be put into service. To minimize the negative effects of atmospheric gases, a common
solution is to inject protective gas together with the surface material or to conduct the entire
manufacturing process in a special chamber filled with gas.
Metal additive manufacturing called PBF (powder bed fusion) cover 54% of the metal
AM market [39]. Similar to the DED techniques mentioned previously, these methods
use a high-powered laser (sometimes multiple lasers in advanced machines) to melt or
super-melt the material and fuse it together [50]. The process involves a powder reservoir,
and the laser beam exposes thin layers to create a CAD model [51]. The process occurs
in a chamber filled with protective gas. The printer operator determines the parameters,
such as laser speed, exposure path scheme, or material layer thickness, during the print
preparation phase [52]. These parameters may be significantly different for each material
(various types of steel, aluminum and other metal alloys). The techniques used include
selective laser powder melting (SLM), selective laser sintering (SLS), and direct metal laser
sintering (DMLS). PBF techniques enable the production of parts and components using
a variety of materials, such as aluminum alloys, steels, copper alloys, nickel alloys, and
titanium alloys. Compared to DED techniques, PBF techniques result in smaller product
sizes due to the need to fill the entire working chamber with powder, which significantly
increases costs. However, the powder can be reused in subsequent processes after having
been sieved. The final components have a high manufacturing accuracy, typically within
the range of 0.2–0.4 mm, and can have total dimensions of up to 300–400 mm. Larger
devices with working chambers of up to 500 × 280 × 850 mm are slowly entering the
industrial market, providing greater production capabilities [53]. The technique has some
disadvantages, including the structure’s porous nature, high surface roughness, and high
internal stresses that occur immediately after the manufacturing process. Post-processing
is necessary to remove these issues.
Each of these techniques has advantages and disadvantages. These are mainly due to
the manufacturing characteristics. Table 1 lists the main advantages and disadvantages of
each technique mentioned, the materials used and their application.
Metals 2024, 14, 195 7 of 20

Table 1. Specification of the most important types of production techniques [36,50,52,54–56].

Metal Additive
Mainly Used
Manufacturing Advantages Disadvantages Application
Materials
Technique
fabricating complex part size limitation,
structures, production time,
aluminum alloys,
lattice structures, cost of machines and manufacturing
magnesium alloys,
high strength combined with materials, complex parts for
titanium alloys, steels,
lower weight large number of available aerospace,
Powder Bed Ni-based superalloys,
components, materials, automobile,
Fusion (PBF) nitinol based alloys,
no support structures need for aeronautic,
Zn-based, pure
required, post-processing biomedical implants,
copper or
saving and re-use material, (porosity, surface industrial parts,
copper alloys
reduction of material waste roughness, cracks and
and fuel consumption residual stresses)
strength and integrity
process high speed, low cost, largely rely on the large surface
aluminum sheets,
Sheet Lamination ease of material handling, adhesives used, components
steel sheets
multi-material process material preparation (aircraft wings)
before process
freedom in the materials
repair or
domain, enabling fabrication production time,
manufacturing parts
of multi-material structures, need for
titanium alloys, steels, for aerospace,
Directed Energy build environment’s post-processing
Ni-based superalloys, automobile,
Deposition (DED) freeform with 5-axis to free (surface roughness,
aluminum alloys aeronautic,
axis deposition heads, more cracks, delaminations
biomedical implants,
possibilities to repair and residual stresses)
industrial parts
damaged parts

3.2. Examples of Vehicles Parts Produced via Metal Additive Manufacturing

Additive manufacturing techniques are increasingly used to produce components of
motor vehicle subassemblies and parts [57–65]. In the common cases, the manufacturing
process only requires a 3D printer or a finishing machine (grinding or polishing). The
lowest costs are obtained when producing parts with relatively small sizes (volumes)
and complex geometries. The use of additive techniques in the production of machine
components has become increasingly clear due to the addition of one of the most important
issues of recent years: reducing CO2 emissions. According to the work of M. Rupp et al.,
emissions can be reduced by more than 50% [66]. Following to available publications, major
automotive companies such as Daimler, Volvo Construction Equipment, and Deutsche
Bahn have started implementing additive manufacturing techniques to produce machine
parts [67]. Modern manufacturing technology has been incorporated into almost every
aspect of machine production, including the engine, drivetrain, and styling components.
To account for the unknown mechanical properties of manufactured components, various
tests are conducted to demonstrate the material behavior under different loads and high
temperatures [68–71]. The subsequent paragraphs offer examples of components produced
using additive techniques and the advantages of the application of these techniques.

3.2.1. Combustion Engines Components

Although there are increasing restrictions on vehicles powered by internal combustion
engines, they remain a fundamental part of modern automobiles. The primary focus of
development is reducing weight while maintaining the required strength properties and
minimizing the production costs. These objectives are being achieved by manufacturing
subassembly components using additive manufacturing techniques. The study by C.
Ding et al. analyzed a material for the additive manufacturing of diesel camshafts. The
material produced using additive techniques was heat-treated, resulting in favorable
Metals 2024, 14, 195 8 of 20

strength properties [72]. BMW (Munich, Germany), a leading automotive company, is

increasingly using components produced with additive techniques in the production of
handheld tools that are used to attach bumpers and license plates [73]. The S58 engine
head used in BMW M-series sports cars was made with an additive manufactured core [74].
Wuhan Binhu Mechanical, Wuhan, China and Electrical Technology Industry Co., Ltd.,
London, UK used the SLM technique along with casting to reduce the production time of
the iron cylinder head of a six-cylinder engine [75]. The crankshaft is a crucial component
that converts the reciprocating motion of the engine’s pistons into rotary motion. Honda
designers collaborated with Autodesk to create a model of the crankshaft using Netfabb
and Fusion 360 programs [76]. The use of additive manufacturing and reverse engineering
allows for the creation of natural shapes for elements that were previously unattainable
through conventional techniques. This procedure allowed a significant reduction in the
crankshaft weight of 30%. Additive techniques can even replicate the capabilities of
vehicles produced in the early 20th century. A paper by E. Dalpadulo et al. presents several
Metals 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEWexamples of this process, including the restoration of a Steyr 220 car’s carburetor [77].
9 of 22
Figure 7 displays the results of the work. The use of additive techniques reduced the cost
and production time of the component by 30%.

Figure 7.7.Steyr
Figure Steyr220 carburetor
220 manufactured
carburetor using
manufactured additive
using techniques.
additive Reproduced
techniques. from Reference
Reproduced [77].
from Refer-
ence [77].
D.L. Bourell presents an example on fabricating a basic internal combustion engine
D.L.
component Bourell presents
[78]. The pistonan model
example wasoncreated
fabricating
usinga basic internal
generative combustion
design engine
techniques to
component [78]. The piston model was created using generative
reduce the weight, volume, and material usage. The lower mass of the piston generates design techniques to
reduce the weight,
lower inertia volume,
forces, resultingand material
in slowerusage.
wearTheof lower mass of the system.
the piston-crank piston generates
Porsche
lower inertiatoforces,
attempted resulting
produce in slower
internal wear ofengine
combustion the piston-crank system.
pistons using a Porsche
similar attempted
approach.
to produce internal
Innovative pistons,combustion
created using engine pistons
additive using a similarin
manufacturing approach. Innovative
a 3D printer, have pistons,
passed
created
their first endurance test in the 911 GT2 RS engine. The piston structure was optimizedtest
using additive manufacturing in a 3D printer, have passed their first endurance to
in the 911
match the GT2
loadRS engine. The
conditions, andpiston structure
a cooling channel was optimized
was to match
integrated, the in
resulting load conditions,
a 10% weight
and a cooling
reduction channel
compared towas
forgedintegrated, resulting
pistons. The in a 10% made
modifications weight toreduction
the enginecompared
allowed forto
forged pistons. The modifications made to the engine allowed
an increase in speed, reduced temperature load on the pistons, and optimized for an increase in speed,
reduced
combustion. temperature load on
Consequently, it isthe pistons,
possible to and optimized
achieve a powercombustion.
increase of up Consequently,
to 30 hp in the it
is possible to achieve a power increase of up to 30 hp in the 515
515 kW (700 hp) Porsche 911 GT2 RS. The pistons were created through a collaborative kW (700 hp) Porsche
911 GT2between
project RS. The Porsche,
pistons were created and
its supplier through a collaborative
development partner project
Mahle, between Porsche,
and Trumpf, a
its supplier and development partner Mahle, and Trumpf, a company
company specializing in additive technologies [79]. By utilizing generative design and specializing in
additive
additive technologies
manufacturing[79]. By utilizing
techniques, it is generative
now possible design and additive
to produce partsmanufacturing
with complex
techniques, it is now possible to produce parts with complex geometries. B. B. Milner and
geometries. B. B. Milner and others have demonstrated a complex internal structure in an F1
others have demonstrated a complex internal structure in an F1 sports car radiator [43].
sports car radiator [43]. The high-performance drive units of these vehicles require efficient
The high-performance drive units of these vehicles require efficient cooling. Thin fluid
cooling. Thin fluid flow channels with cellular structures enable better heat dissipation
flow channels with cellular structures enable better heat dissipation compared to heat
compared to heat exchangers manufactured using other methods. Figure 8 shows the view of
exchangers manufactured using other methods. Figure 8 shows the view of a radiator
a radiator containing thin channels generated using topology optimalisation and
containing thin channels generated using topology optimalisation and manufactured using
manufactured using additive techniques.
additive techniques.
 geometries. B. B. Milner and others have demonstrated a complex internal structure in an F1
sports car radiator [43]. The high-performance drive units of these vehicles require efficient
cooling. Thin fluid flow channels with cellular structures enable better heat dissipation
compared to heat exchangers manufactured using other methods. Figure 8 shows the view of
Metals 2024, 14, 195
a radiator containing thin channels generated using topology optimalisation9 ofand 20
manufactured using additive techniques.

Metals 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEWFigure 8. Sports car radiator manufactured using L-PBF technology. Reproduced from Reference
10[43].
of 22
Figure 8. Sports car radiator manufactured using L-PBF technology. Reproduced from Reference [43].

Most
Most vehicle
vehicle engines
engines areare equipped
equipped with
with turbochargers,
turbochargers, whichwhich consist
consist of of rotors
rotors that
that
operate
operate under
under difficult
difficult conditions
conditions due
due to
to the
the high
high temperature
temperature of
of the
difficult using traditional machining methods. Additive techniques enable significantthe exhaust
exhaust gas
gas and
and the
the
speed
speed of
of the
the turbocharger
turbocharger shaft.
shaft. The
The complex
complex geometry
geometry of
of the
the rotor
rotor makes
makes its
its manufacture
manufacture
material savings during the production of rotor blade geometries. Jia. D et al. in their work
difficult using traditional machining methods. Additive techniques enable significant
presented the design and fabrication of a specific component using L-PBF techniques. The
material savings during the production of rotor blade geometries. Jia. D et al. in their work
element is shown in Figure 9 [80]. Due to the surface roughness of additive manufactured
presented the design and fabrication of a specific component using L-PBF techniques. The
components, finishing is necessary in many cases. In their work, A. Yaghi et al. performed
element is shown in Figure 9 [80]. Due to the surface roughness of additive manufactured
a process to produce two pieces of a turbocharger rotor with the L-PBF technique and 316-
components, finishing is necessary in many cases. In their work, A. Yaghi et al. performed
L steel. One was subjected to finish machining. Accuracy measurements carried out with
a process to produce two pieces of a turbocharger rotor with the L-PBF technique and 316-L
GOM Inspect ATOS triple scan optical software showed that the component immediately
steel. One was subjected to finish machining. Accuracy measurements carried out with
after printing had dimensional differences of 200 µm compared to the nominal
GOM Inspect ATOS triple scan optical software showed that the component immediately
dimensions. A finishing treatment in the form of a 5-axis milling machine reduced these
after printing had dimensional differences of 200 µm compared to the nominal dimensions.
Avalues by 50%
finishing [81]. In in
treatment somethe cases, theaauthors
form of of the papers
5-axis milling machine carry out simulations
reduced these values on the
by
50% [81]. In some cases, the authors of the papers carry out simulations on the processJ.M.
process of additive manufacturing impellers. Such an exercise was undertaken by of
O Brien et al. In their study, they simulated the manufacturing process
additive manufacturing impellers. Such an exercise was undertaken by J.M. O’Brien et al. of a turbocharger
impeller.
In By using
their study, computerthe
they simulated analyses, they were
manufacturing able of
process to apredict the effects
turbocharger of heat
impeller. By
treatment. According to the calculation results, it reduced the component
using computer analyses, they were able to predict the effects of heat treatment. According s stress values
bythe
to 75% [82].
calculation results, it reduced the component’s stress values by 75% [82].

Figure9.
Figure 9. Turbocharger
Turbochargerrotor
rotordirectly
directlyafter
afterL-PBF
L-PBFprocess.
process.Reproduced
Reproducedfrom
fromReference
Reference[80].
[80].

EOS
EOS GmbH,
GmbH, aa company
company based
based in
in Krailling,
Krailling, Germany,
Germany,is is attempting
attempting to to introduce
introduce new
new
materials
materials and
and manufacture
manufacture components
components using
using them.
them. They
They have
haveused
usedAlAl22139
139 aluminum
aluminum
alloy,
alloy,which
whichis known for its
is known forhigh
its temperature strengthstrength
high temperature (up◦ C),
(up to 200 to corrosion
200 °C), resistance,
corrosion
resistance, and tensile strength of up to 500 MPa. By using additive techniques, the
manufacturing time of components was reduced by 88% compared to other techniques
[83]. The unmanned vehicle sector has experienced significant growth. Additive
manufacturing techniques are frequently used to produce small components. J. Gray and
colleagues created a computer model and fabricated the engine head and crankcase of an
Metals 2024, 14, 195 10 of 20

and tensile strength of up to 500 MPa. By using additive techniques, the manufacturing
time of components was reduced by 88% compared to other techniques [83]. The unmanned
vehicle sector has experienced significant growth. Additive manufacturing techniques are
frequently used to produce small components. J. Gray and colleagues created a computer
model and fabricated the engine head and crankcase of an internal combustion engine
for small UGVs. The results are presented in Figure 10. The computed tomography
analysis showed that the low porosity of the material had a direct impact on the favorable
Metals 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEWmechanical properties of the component. The engine underwent tests that demonstrated
11 of 22
nearly identical operating conditions to those of an engine using conventionally made
components [84].

Figure 10. The

The crankcase
crankcase (top)
(top) and
and the
the head
head of the internal combustion engine (bottom)
(bottom) of the
unmanned
unmanned ground vehicle. Reproduced
ground vehicle. Reproduced from Reference [84].
from Reference [84].

3.2.2. Electric Motor Components

Due toto emission
emissionrestrictions
restrictionsfor
forvehicles with
vehicles internal
with combustion
internal combustionengines, hybrid
engines, and
hybrid
electric vehicles are becoming increasingly common. In both cases, an electric
and electric vehicles are becoming increasingly common. In both cases, an electric motor motor is the
primary power source. As a result, additive technologies are also being introduced
is the primary power source. As a result, additive technologies are also being introduced in the
sector
in for thefor
the sector production of components
the production [85]. A [85].
of components paper A by A. Selem
paper by A. et al. describes
Selem the ad-
et al. describes
vantages
the of using of
advantages additive
using techniques in the manufacture
additive techniques in the of electric motorofcomponents
manufacture electric motor[86].
The L-PBF technique allows for easier fabrication of geometries that are more
components [86]. The L-PBF technique allows for easier fabrication of geometries that are favorable to
the electric motor core. This improves heat dissipation during work and
more favorable to the electric motor core. This improves heat dissipation during work and reduces weight,
directly weight,
reduces enhancing device
directly efficiency.
enhancing Figure
device 11 presents
efficiency. an example
Figure 11 presentsof the electric motor
an example of the
core. Designers are continuously seeking new solutions to enhance
electric motor core. Designers are continuously seeking new solutions to enhance the final product. D.
the final
Schuhmann et al. propose mounting an electric motor in the hub of a vehicle
product. D. Schuhmann et al. propose mounting an electric motor in the hub of a vehicle wheel [87].
The authors
wheel intend
[87]. The to use
authors additive
intend techniques
to use to manufacture
additive techniques the housing
to manufacture thefor the motor
housing for
shown in Figure 12 with channel cooling applied. The channels’ structure
the motor shown in Figure 12 with channel cooling applied. The channels structure and geometry
and
enable optimal
geometry enable heat dissipation
optimal during theduring
heat dissipation motor’s operation.
the motor s operation.
 reduces weight, directly enhancing device efficiency. Figure 11 presents an example of the
electric motor core. Designers are continuously seeking new solutions to enhance the final
product. D. Schuhmann et al. propose mounting an electric motor in the hub of a vehicle
wheel [87]. The authors intend to use additive techniques to manufacture the housing for
Metals 2024, 14, 195 the motor shown in Figure 12 with channel cooling applied. The channels structure and
11 of 20
geometry enable optimal heat dissipation during the motor s operation.

Metals 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 22

Figure 11.
Figure 11. Electric
Electric motor
motor core
core fabricated
fabricated using
using L-PBF
L-PBF technique.
technique. Reproduced
Reproduced from
from Reference
Reference [86].
[86].

Figure
Figure12.
12.The
Theapplication
applicationof
ofAdditive
Additivetechniques
techniquesin inthe
theproduction
productionof
of electric
electric motor
motor components
components
(a) electrical motor mounted in wheel hub; (b) electrical motor housing with integrated
(a) electrical motor mounted in wheel hub; (b) electrical motor housing with integrated cooling; (c)
cooling;
housing with integrated cooling; (d) housing with helix structured cooling channels; Reproduced
(c) housing with integrated cooling; (d) housing with helix structured cooling channels; Reproduced
from
fromReference
Reference [87].
[87].

3.2.3.Drivetrain
3.2.3. DrivetrainComponents
Components
Several studies
Several studies also
alsodiscuss the implementation
discuss the implementation of components and parts
of components manufac-
and parts
tured with additive
manufactured techniques
with additive in vehicle
techniques indrivetrains [88]. Upon
vehicle drivetrains analysis
[88]. Upon of the available
analysis of the
literature,literature,
available a significant number ofnumber
a significant articles of
focuses
articlesonfocuses
gear manufacturing [89–94]. Various
on gear manufacturing [89–
94]. Various machining techniques are commonly used to manufacture gears,generate
machining techniques are commonly used to manufacture gears, which can which cansig-
nificant waste.
generate Additive
significant techniques
waste. Additive cantechniques
significantly reduce
can material consumption
significantly reduce material and
waste compared
consumption andto waste
conventional
compared machining techniques.machining
to conventional Moreover, techniques.
additive manufacturing
Moreover,
allows for
additive the productionallows
manufacturing of gearsforusing high-strength
the production ofmetal
gearsalloys,
using for example 16MnCr
high-strength metal5
steel [90]. By using appropriate structures, it is possible to produce
alloys, for example 16MnCr5 steel [90]. By using appropriate structures, it is possible lightweight gears
to
while still maintaining the required strength properties [95,96]. Additive
produce lightweight gears while still maintaining the required strength properties [95,96]. manufacturing
techniques
Additive can facilitate techniques
manufacturing the production of internal
can facilitate channels,
the productionwhichof may
internalenhance heat
channels,
dissipation and ensure sufficient lubrication of friction surfaces [97,98].
which may enhance heat dissipation and ensure sufficient lubrication of friction surfaces Figure 13 shows
an example
[97,98]. Figure of 13
a gear
showsproduced usingofthe
an example SLMproduced
a gear techniqueusing
and SS-316L
the SLMsteel [89]. Hyundai
technique and SS-
Motors, based in Seoul, Republic of Korea, has started testing for manufacturing
316L steel [89]. Hyundai Motors, based in Seoul, Republic of Korea, has started testing gearbox
for
components using low-alloy steel DM 4140. This material is
manufacturing gearbox components using low-alloy steel DM 4140. This material specifically designed for heat
is
treatment, resulting
specifically designedinfor favorable mechanical
heat treatment, properties
resulting such as mechanical
in favorable high hardness and corrosion
properties such
resistance
as [83]. and corrosion resistance [83].
high hardness
Metals2024,
Metals 2024,14,
14,195
x FOR PEER REVIEW 13
12 of 22
of 20

Figure13.
Figure 13. Example
Example of
of gear
gear produced
producedvia
viaSLM/L-PBF
SLM/L-PBF techniques.
techniques. Reproduced from Reference
Reproduced from Reference [89].
[89].

3.2.4.
3.2.4. Other
Other Components
Components
Eplus3D
Eplus3D (China, Hangzhou)
Hangzhou)has hascreated
createda aprototype
prototype exhaust
exhaust system
system component
component for
for
the the Ford
Ford Mustang.
Mustang. The designers
The designers aimed aimed to improve
to improve the vehicle’s
the vehicle performance
s performance and reduceand
reduce
engine engine noise.
noise. The The internal
internal structure structure
ensuresensures
adequateadequate
exhaustexhaust
gas flowgas flow without
without causing
causing
excessive resistance, resulting in no loss of power to the drive unit. This allows forallows
excessive resistance, resulting in no loss of power to the drive unit. This higher
for higher
speeds speeds
while while
driving driving
[83]. [83]. caliper
The brake The brake caliper
of the of the
Bugatti Bugatti
Chiron Chiron
sports sports car
car provides an
provides
example an example
of the use ofof the usetechniques
additive of additive[99].
techniques [99]. Theiscomponent
The component is made of
made of high-strength
high-strength
titanium alloy titanium
Ti6Al4alloy
V and Ti6 Alhas
4 V and
been hastested
been tested
underunder actualoperating
actual operating conditions,
conditions,
demonstrating
demonstratingits itshigh
highresistance
resistanceto to the
the high
high temperatures
temperaturesthatthat occur
occur during
during proper
proper brake
brake
operation. In their work, M. Lien et al. demonstrated the benefits of additive
operation. In their work, M. Lien et al. demonstrated the benefits of additive techniques techniques
and
and optimized
optimizedtopology
topologyfor forthe
thefabricated
fabricatedcomponents.
components.TheyTheyusedusedthe
the example
exampleof of aa brake
brake
caliper to showcase these advantages [100]. The implemented optimization
caliper to showcase these advantages [100]. The implemented optimization methodology methodology
can
can reduce
reducethe
thetotal
total weight
weight ofof calipers
calipers byby approximately
approximately668 668g,g, resulting
resultingininaa 41.6%
41.6% weight
weight
reduction compared to traditionally produced parts. Additionally, the maximum caliper
reduction compared to traditionally produced parts. Additionally, the maximum caliper
displacements in the y-axis were reduced by 50% and 17.5% for the front and rear calipers,
displacements in the y-axis were reduced by 50% and 17.5% for the front and rear calipers,
respectively. Although the manufactured calipers have not been tested yet, they are
respectively. Although the manufactured calipers have not been tested yet, they are
expected to outperform their commercial counterparts. The weight reduction has a positive
expected to outperform their commercial counterparts. The weight reduction has a
impact on the car’s performance, as well as generating lower fuel consumption, resulting
positive impact on the car s performance, as well as generating lower fuel consumption,
in reduced vehicle operating costs and less environmental impact. The parts from Figure 14
resulting in reduced vehicle operating costs and less environmental impact. The parts
were manufactured using the SLM technique and high-strength titanium alloy Ti6 Al4 V.
from Figure 14 were manufactured using the SLM technique and high-strength titanium
Metal additive manufacturing (MAM) enables the production of designs created using
alloy Ti6Al4V.
CAD programs in the field of generative design. These solutions feature irregular model
geometries that provide favorable properties while minimizing the weight and material
consumption [101]. Numerous publications have addressed the topic of generative design
and additive manufacturing [102–108]. Artificial intelligence (AI) is a major contributor to
the field. The mathematical algorithms used by software at the component design stage
make it possible to optimize the geometry and compensate for structural defects that have
a significant impact on the strength properties of components. Similarly, T. Briard et al.
proposed a scheme for producing an automobile seat belt holder [109]. The publication
by E. Bassoli et al. is an example of DfAM (design for additive manufacturing). In this
publication, the authors aimed to optimize the topology of an electric motor handle and
manufacture it [110]. The component’s stiffness needed to be increased while maintaining
Metals 2024, 14, 195 13 of 20

Metals 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 22

its required strength and weight. Figure 15 displays the successive stages of manufacturing
the component using the AlSi10 Mg material and SLM 250 device in the given process.

Metals 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 22

Figure
Figure14.
14.Test carcar
Test brake components
brake mademade
components using using
SLM technique. Reproduced
SLM technique. from Reference
Reproduced [100].
from Reference [100].

Metal additive manufacturing (MAM) enables the production of designs created

using CAD programs in the field of generative design. These solutions feature irregular
model geometries that provide favorable properties while minimizing the weight and
material consumption [101]. Numerous publications have addressed the topic of
generative design and additive manufacturing [102–108]. Artificial intelligence (AI) is a
major contributor to the field. The mathematical algorithms used by software at the
component design stage make it possible to optimize the geometry and compensate for
structural defects that have a significant impact on the strength properties of components.
Similarly, T. Briard et al. proposed a scheme for producing an automobile seat belt holder
[109]. The publication by E. Bassoli et al. is an example of DfAM (design for additive
manufacturing). In this publication, the authors aimed to optimize the topology of an electric
motor handle and manufacture it [110]. The component s stiffness needed to be increased
while maintaining its required strength and weight. Figure 15 displays the successive stages
of manufacturing the component using the AlSi10Mg material and SLM 250 device in the given
process.

Figure
Figure 15.
15.Process
Processof manufacturing electric
of manufacturing engine
electric bracket:
engine (a) original
bracket: bracket bracket
(a) original load cases,
load(b)cases,
geometry from the topology optimalization process, (c) final geometry, (d) part in
(b) geometry from the topology optimalization process, (c) final geometry, (d) part in SLMSLM 125 machine
software, (e) stock part after L-PBF process, (f) finished part. Reproduced from Reference [110].
125 machine software, (e) stock part after L-PBF process, (f) finished part. Reproduced from Refer-
ence [110].
Continuous technological development has led to the implementation of numerous
new solutions. Divergent 3D, based in Torrance, CA, USA, has designed a car for the
future. The vehicle, named ”Chinger 21C”, is based on components manufactured using
80% additive techniques [83]. The project developers focused on using a generative design
for the vehicle s components. The authors suggest that additive techniques will become
the primary method of manufacturing components due to their numerous benefits.
Metals 2024, 14, 195 14 of 20

Continuous technological development has led to the implementation of numerous

new solutions. Divergent 3D, based in Torrance, CA, USA, has designed a car for the
future. The vehicle, named ”Chinger 21C”, is based on components manufactured using
80% additive techniques [83]. The project developers focused on using a generative design
for the vehicle’s components. The authors suggest that additive techniques will become the
primary method of manufacturing components due to their numerous benefits. Supporting
this idea, attachment parts for the drive unit and accessories were fabricated. Additionally,
N. Zhao et al. demonstrated the design of a Nissan brand sensor mount using additive
manufacturing [111]. This mount controls the proper traction of a car while it is on the
road. The use of generative design and additive manufacturing techniques resulted in
a 42% weight reduction compared to conventional manufacturing methods. BMW is
currently developing a roof attachment for the i8 Roadster. Through generative design, the
component’s geometry has been optimized to ensure stable and secure attachment to the
remaining body components. By use modern design and manufacturing techniques, the
weight of the component was reduced by 44% compared to a component produced using
conventional methods [112].
Analyzing the examples of using additive techniques to manufacture vehicle com-
ponents, Table 2 lists the main advantages and weaknesses of the techniques in question
compared to other manufacturing techniques.

Table 2. Main benefits (+) and weaknesses (−) of additive manufacturing processes compared to
conventional manufacturing processes.

+ −
better working conditions lower dimensional accuracy
mass customization and personalization lower surface quality
reduced time to market more expensive part manufacturing
flexibility for design changes limited part dimensions
possibility to produce more complex parts high requirements for input metals
shorter process and assembly chains higher failure tests
fewer spare parts higher specific energy demand
no need for complex tooling need for support structures
on-demand manufacturing
higher material efficiency
improved remanufacturability
less waste production
weight reduction

4. Discussion
After a thorough analysis of scientific publications, it has been identified that metal
additive manufacturing techniques have been used to produce various vehicle compo-
nents. Metal additive manufacturing techniques are employed in the manufacturing of
components for a range of applications, including internal combustion engines, electric
motors, power transmission systems, and other vehicle parts. The most common materials
used in these cases are various types of steel (316 L, Maraging M300, 16MnCr5 , 20MnCr5 ,
42CrMo4 ), aluminum alloys (AlSi10 Mg) or titanium alloys (Ti6 Al4 V). These techniques are
also used in the electric industry with pure copper or its alloys (CuCP, CuCrZr). While
additive techniques have numerous advantages for producing vehicle components, it is
important to consider their disadvantages as well. One major drawback is the high cost of
the machines and materials, typically powders, used in these technologies. Additionally,
the size of the working chambers in PBF machines limits the maximum dimensions of the
components that can be produced. While there is a wide variety of materials available,
it is important to note that not all of them are suitable for atomization. One of the main
drawbacks of this technology’s material structure is its inherent porosity, which is a result of
the closed gas vapors used in the process. Furthermore, cracks may occur due to incorrect
melting temperatures, and the structure may appear rough. Porosity and cracks can be
Metals 2024, 14, 195 15 of 20

removed through heat treatment, and roughness can be eliminated by machining, such as
lathing or milling.
One of the fastest growing trends related to adventurous techniques is their combina-
tion with systems based on artificial intelligence (AI). A number of scientific publications
report on the possibility of better predicting the properties of parts manufactured using
additive techniques as early as the modelling stage and in preparation for the printing
process. Complex computer simulations make it possible to prepare the printing process
accordingly. The field of generative design is well suited to the issue. The shape and geom-
etry of the parts are based on irregular shapes that provide good mechanical properties
with low material consumption and weight. In many cases, additive techniques are the
only available option for producing these designs. AI makes it possible to generate all
sorts of out-of-the-box component geometries, which in most cases can only be produced
using additive techniques. Appropriate geometry optimization makes it possible to achieve
the intended properties of the components resulting in low material consumption. The
combination of MAM and AI techniques opens up a wide range of possibilities in terms of
the design, manufacture and implementation of new construction solutions and represents
a major development path for incremental technology issues.

5. Conclusions
1. Additive techniques enable the production of components with intricate geometries
that are often impossible to manufacture using other conventional techniques. This
includes components with internal cellular structures designed in the CAD software
like Solidworks, CATIA (Dassault Systemes, Vélizy, France).
2. Additive techniques enable the creation of the manufacturing topology optimization
model, for example with software like Fusion 360 (Autodesk, San Francisco, CA,
USA). This results in significant material savings while maintaining appropriate
mechanical properties.
3. Additive manufacturing is associated with Industry 4.0 due to its ability to produce
a component using a single machine, for example the EOS company (Krailling, Ger-
many) or SLM Solutions Group AG (Lubeka, Germany). The direct operation of large
and complex machines is avoided to ensure human safety.
4. In the additive manufacturing process using powdered material, a small amount of
waste is generated, in contrast to other manufacturing techniques like milling. Any
unused powder can be reused in subsequent processes, provided it has been properly
sieved and dried. This reduces the cost per element.
5. Additive techniques enable the production of parts using a variety of metals and
alloys, ranging from steel and its variants to aluminum, copper, and their alloys, as
well as high-strength titanium alloys or Inconel.
6. Typically, items produced through additive manufacturing exhibit a high strength-to-
weight ratio. Thus, additive techniques are widely used in the mechanical industry
to produce components such as pistons, crankshafts, valves, spur gears, camshafts,
brake calipers, seat belts mount, movable roof mounts, etc.
7. Additive techniques have been found to offer advantages over conventional methods
for producing single-piece components with complex geometries.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, B.S.; Methodology, B.S.; Software, B.S.; Validation, B.S.;
Resources, B.S.; Data curation, B.S.; Writing—original draft, B.S.; Writing—review and editing, L.Ś.
and K.G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was financed by the Military University of Technology, Gen. S. Kaliskiego St.,
00-908 Warsaw, Poland, under research project: UGB 708/2024.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Metals 2024, 14, 195 16 of 20

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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