SOIL MECHANICS

1. Properties of soil 11.Deep foundation

2. Classification of soil 12.Stability of slopes
3. Clay minerals 13.Soil exploration
4. Soil compaction 14.Expansive soils
5. Effective stress & seepage through soils
6. Vertical stresses
7. Consolidation and compressibility
8. Shear strength of soil
9. Earth pressure and retaining walls
10.Shallow foundation
1.Properties of soil
 Rock + organic matter = soil (Pdeogensis)
 Soil is composed of particle formed from the disintegration of particle formed
from the disintegration of rocks.
Soil mechanics termed coined by Dr. Karl Terzaghi in 1925, (Father of soil
mechanics).
 Physical weathering Chemical weathering
1. Erosion of rock by wind, water, glacier 1. Occurs due to chemical action of acid and
etc. alkali present in water, air and glacier.
2. Coarse grained (sand & gravel) 2. Fine grained (clay)
3. Mineral property does not changes. 3. Mineral property changes.
4. Shape may be angular, sub-angular 4. Clay minerals have “Plate like str” having large
rounded, sub-rounded. surface area (surface area per unit mass or
5. Soil formed does not have bond volume)
between the particles and hence they are 5. Surface bonding forces are more predominant
said to have single grain str. in these soil.
Residual and transported soil :
 Soils that remains at the location of its formation are called residual soil and soil that are
transported soil.
 Residual soil has better engineering property than transported soil.
Alluvial deposit → Deposited by river water
Lacustrine deposit → Deposited by still water like lakes
Marine deposit → Deposited by sea water
Aeolian deposit → Transported by wind (Loess soil)
Glacial deposit → Transported by ice.
Colluvial deposit → Transported by gravity (Talus soil)
Marl soil → aquatic life
Tuff → Transported by wind or water
Bentonite soil → volcanic ash
Various types of soil :
1. Bentonite clay :
 High percentage of clay mineral montorillonite.
 Highly plastic, water absorption, high swelling and shrinkage potential.
Due to decomposition of volanish ash, used as drilling mud.
2. Black cotton soil :
 High percentage of clay mineral montorillonite.
 High swelling and shrinkage, low bearing capacity, parent rock in basalt trap
igneous rock.
 Generally dark in colour and cotton grows in this soil easily.
3. Loam
 Mixture of sand, silt and clay, also called garden soils.
4. Indurated clay :
 Hardening of clay due to heat and pressure
 Lithification is a process of conversion of unconsolidated deposit into hard rock
mass by compaction or cementation.
5. Organic clay :
 Mode of soil formation is decomposition by bacteria etc. of the vegetable
matter, plant etc.
 This soil have a characteristic odour and colour and is also called “Cumulus
soil”.
 Muck → organic + inorganic matter [Sewers]
 Peat → Decomposed organic matter, highly compressible & fibrous.
 Humus → Partly decomposed organic matter (top soil) (dead & decade matter)
 Muck + Peat = cumulose soil
6. Laterite soil : Leaching
7. Gumbo soil “ It is dark and highly plastic soil.
Soil-water relationship:
 Soil can be either two-phase or three-phase composition.
 Fully saturated soil and fully dry soil are two phase system
 Partially saturated soil are three phase system.
Where,
Va = volume of air
Vw = volume of water
Vs = volume of solid
V = Total volume of soil mass
Vv = Volume of voids i.e. sum of volume of air and volume of water
Wa = weight of air I.e. equals to zero.
Ww = weight of water
Ws = weight of soil solids
W = weight of soil mass
Wsat = saturated weight of soil mass
Important definitions :
1. Water content (w)
𝑊𝑤
W= ;𝑤 ≥ 0 Generally, fine grained soils have higher water content then
𝑊𝑠
coarse grained soils.
2. Void ration (e)
𝑣𝑣
e= ;𝑒 >0
𝑉𝑠
Individual void sizes are larger in coarse grained soil, but the void ration of fine
grained soil is larger than coarse grained soils.
0.5 < e of sand < 0.7 & e of clay > 0.8.
3. Porosity (n)
The porosity of soil cannot exceed 100%, hence it has a upper limit of 100%
Both porosity and void ratio are measured of denseness (or looseness) of soil.
4. Degree of saturation (S)
𝑣𝑤
S= ;0 ≤ 𝑆 ≤ 1
𝑉𝑣
S = 0 for dry condition
S = 1 for saturated condition.
5. Percentage air voids (na)
𝑣𝑎
na = ;0 ≤ 𝑛𝑎 < 1
𝑉
6. Air content (ac)
𝑣𝑎
Ac = ; 0 ≤ 𝑎𝑐 ≤ 1
𝑉𝑣
(s + ac = 1) and (na = n × ac)
7. Bulk unit weight (𝜸𝒔 )
𝑊 𝑊𝑠 +𝑊𝑤
𝛾𝑡 = =
𝑉 𝛾𝑠 +𝑣𝑊 +𝑉𝑎
𝑘𝑁 𝑁 𝑘𝑔𝑓
Expressed as , &
𝑚3 𝑚3 𝑐𝑚3
𝑊𝑠
(a)Unit weight of solids (𝛾𝑠 ) =
𝑉𝑠
𝑊𝑠
(b)Dry unit weight 𝛾𝑑 =
𝑉
Volume of partially saturated soil will not change on drying.
𝛾𝑑 = constant
 𝑊𝑤 +𝑤𝑠
(C) Saturated unit weight (𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 ) =
𝑉𝑤 +𝑣𝑠
Saturated unit weight of soil will depend upon the water content of the soil.
(D) Submerged unit weight (𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏 )
𝑊𝑠 (𝑠𝑢𝑏)
Archimedes’ principle involved = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 . 𝛾𝑤 =
𝑉
Soil in submerged condition will be in saturated state but soil in saturated
condition need not to be submerged.
𝛾𝑠 + 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 > 𝛾𝑡 > 𝛾𝑑 > 𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏
8. Specific gravity of solids (Gs)
𝛾𝑠
Gs =
𝛾𝑤
 Also known as “Absolute specific gravity” or “Grain specific gravity.
 Unit less quantity and Gfine grained > Gcoarse grained
9. Mass specific gravity of soil (Gm)
𝛾𝑡 𝐺𝑠
(a) For partially saturated soil, 𝐺𝑚 = 𝐺𝑚 =
𝛾𝑤 1+𝑒
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡
(b) For saturated soil, 𝐺𝑚 = 𝐺𝑚 < 𝐺
𝛾𝑤
𝛾𝑑
(c) For dry soil, 𝐺𝑚 =
𝛾𝑤
10. Relative density (Dr) :
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑡
Dr =
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛
It is a parameter used in sandy and gravel.
Can be zero (0 ≤ Dr ≤ 1)
emax = void ratio in loosest state (0.91)
emin = void ratio in dense state (0.35)
enat = Natural state
𝛾𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝛾𝑑𝑛𝑎𝑡 −𝛾𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛
Dr = × 100
𝛾𝑑𝑛𝑎𝑡 𝛾𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝛾𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛
 Relative density Classification
0 – 15 Very Loose
15 – 35 Loose
35 – 65 Medium dense
65 – 85 Dense
85 – 100 Very dense
11. Relative compactness (Rc)
Used for cohesion and cohesionless soil.
𝛾𝑑 1+𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛
Cannot be zero 𝑅𝑐 = =
𝛾𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 1+𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑡
Some important relationship :
𝑊
1. Ws =
1+𝑤
𝑉
2. Vs =
1+𝑒
𝑛
3. e=
1−𝑛
𝑒
4. n=
1+𝑒
5. e.S = wGs
𝐺𝑠 +𝑆𝑒
6. 𝛾𝑡 = 1+𝑒 𝑤
𝛾
𝐺𝑠 +𝑒
7. 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 1+𝑒 𝛾𝑤
𝐺𝑠
8. 𝛾𝑑 = 1+𝑒 𝛾𝑤
𝐺𝑠 −1
9. 𝛾′ = 1+𝑒 𝛾𝑤
𝛾𝑡
10.𝛾𝑑 = 1+𝑤
𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤 (1− 𝑛𝑎 )𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤
11.𝛾𝑑 = 𝑤𝐺𝑠 = 1+𝑤𝐺𝑠
1+ 𝑆
Water content determination
It is the 1st test done in lab after sample is brought from the site.
1. Over drying method :
Simplest and most accurate test
Air dry have hygroscopic water where as over dry soil does not have hygroscopic
water.

𝑊𝑤 𝑊1 −𝑤2
W= =
𝑊𝑠 𝑊2
2. Pycnometer method :
 In thin we get quick result and more suitable for cohesionless soil
 Before calculation of water content (w) using pycnometer method,
We must known Gs of soil.
𝑤2 −𝑤1 𝐺𝑠 −1
w= × −1
𝑤3 −𝑤4 𝐺𝑠
𝑤2 −𝑤1
𝐺𝑠 =
(𝑤2 −𝑤1 )−(𝑤3 −𝑤4)
3. Sand bath method
It is field method and is rapid but not very accurate.
4. Torsion balance method
It is lab method and used for soil which quickly absorbed moisture from the
atmosphere.
5. Calcium carbide method
It is quick method (5 – 7 min)
When water reacts with calcium carbide (caC2), acetylene gas (C2H2) is produced.
caC2 + 2H2O → C2H2 + Ca(OH)2
Instrument used is known as moisture tester.
6. Radiation method
Radioactive stropper are used, neutrons are emitted which are scattered by the
moisture in soil, more is the scattering, more is the moisture present.
7. Alcohol method
Quick method used in field
Should not be used for soil containing calcium compound and organic soil.
Unit weight determination
1. Core cutter method
Field method and used for soft, fine grained soils not for dry, gravely or stony soil.
𝑊2 −𝑊1
𝛾𝑡 =
𝑉
W1 = weight of empty core
W2 = weight of core filled with soil
V = volume of core
It can be used when the surface of soil is exposed and core cutter can be driven.
2. Water displacement method
 It is a lab method
 Suitable for cohesive soil and paraffic wax is used.
 It is used when a undisturbed (chunk) of soil is brought from the field.
3. Sand replacement method
 It is a field method
 Suitable for gravel, sandy and dry soil in which core cutter could not be used.
4. Water balloon method
 In this method, volume of excavated pit is obtain by covering the pit with thin
plastic membrane and nothing down the volume of water used for filling it.
5. Radiation method
It is a quick and non-destructive method, nuclear density meters are used.
Index properties of soil
Those properties of soil which helps to access the engineering behaviour of soil
and hence helps in classification of soil.
Soil grain property is determined from remoulded, disturb sample. This property
depends on grain shape, size etc. and is generally independent of mode of soil
formation.
Soil aggregate property are those property which are depended on the soil mass
as a whose thus represent the collective behaviour of soil and these property are
determined using undisturbed sample preferable in in-situ condition.
 Type of soil Index property
Coarse soil Particle size, relative density, grain shape
Fine soil Atterberg’s limit & consistency
1. Grain shape :
 Coarse grain soil property significantly affected by the grain shape and higher
angularity of grain will lead to higher shear strength
 Shape of bulk grain (coarse grain) is described in terms of these sphericity (s).
𝐷𝑒
S=
𝐿
De = Effective diameter
L = length of the particle
1. Grain size distribution
 It is important for coarse grained soil and fine grained soil properties affected
more by inter particle forces, presence of water etc.
It is used in embankment construction, filter design etc.

Particle size Type of soil

> 300 mm Boulder
300 – 80 mm Cobbles
80 mm – 4.75 mm Gravel Coarse grained soil

4.75 mm – 2 mm 𝐶𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑

2 mm – 0.475 mm 𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 ൡ 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑
0.475 mm – 75 𝜇

75 𝜇 – 2 𝜇 Silt Fine grained soil

Less then 2 𝜇 Clay
A. Sieve analysis :
(a) Coarse sieve analysis : It is dry analysis. It is used for gravels. In it, 4 sieves (80,
20, 10, 4.75 mm) are used.
(b) Fine sieve analysis : It can be dry or wet analysis.
 It is used for sand (dry analysis). If size is less than 75 μ, then wet analysis is
used.
It is, seven sieve (2 mm, 1 mm, 600 μ, 425 μ, 212 μ, 150 μ & 75 μ) are used
D60 = Size of the particle such that 60% particle are finer than this size
D10 = effective size of particles (particles which if present along will cause the
same effect as caused by the soil).
D60 > D30 > D10
a → well graded
a & b → similarly graded
c → poorly . uniformly graded coarse grained soil.
d → Gap graded
e → Poorly graded fine soil
𝐷60
1. Co-efficient of uniformity (Cu) =
𝐷10
2
𝐷30
2. Coefficient of curvature (CC) =
𝐷60 ×𝐷10
If, Cu = 1 → soil is perfectly uniformly graded. (curve will be vertical)
Cu > 4 → well graded gravel
Cu > 6 → well graded sand
1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3 → well graded soil
For well graded sand, Cu > 6, 1 ≤ CC ≤ 3
For well graded gravel, Cu > 4, 1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3
Larger the value of Cu, larger is the range of particles in soil.
B. Sedimentation analysis :
 To determine the grain size distribution of the soil fraction finer than 75
 Based on stoke’s law, “ Settling velocity of spherical, fine particle through a
liquid are different for different size”.
(𝛾𝑠 −𝛾𝑤 )𝐷2
𝑉𝑇 =
18𝜇
VT → Terminal setting velocity
D → size of particle
𝜇 → Coefficient of viscosity (Ns/m3)
1 poise = 1 dyne – S/cm2 = 0.1 NS/m2
 Stokes law is applicable for particle size between (0.0002 mm – 0.2 mm)
 D > 0.2 mm ; flow will not be laminar
 D < 0.0002 mm ; Brownian motion starts
 Stokes law is applicable for discrete particle settling, hence concentration is
kept 50 gm (lir (or) less.
Stokes law will not be applicable, if flocculation takes place. Hence, use add
deflocculating agent.
(i)Pipette method :
 Sample is prepared by taking 50 gms of fine grained soil and 1 lir of distilled
water and add deflocculating agent.
 7 gm sodium carbonate (NaCO3) + 33 gm sodium Hexa meta phosphate + 1 ltr
of distilled water
 𝑤𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝐻𝑒 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 ′𝑡′
% finer than D =
𝑤𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑐 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
(i)Hydrometer method :
 Discrete particles and readings measured from top to bottom.
 Meniscus correction : +ve
 Temperature correction : If temp is more than 27oC, it is +ve otherwise -ve
deflocculating agent correction : -ve
Combined correction, C = Cm – Cd ± Ct
Consistency / Atterberg limits
 Used for classification of fine grained soil (specially clay) and water content
influence the consistency of clays.
The boundary water content at which, soil changes its state are called consistency
(or) Atterberg limits, it is determined for soil sample finer than 425 𝜇
WL = Liquid limit water content
WP = Plastic limit water content
WS = shrinkage limit water content
VL = Volume of soil at liquid limit
VP = Volume of soil at plastic limit
Vdry = Volume of soil at shrinkage limit
Naturally existing soil has water content between W2 & WP.
Liquid limit (WL)
 Minimum water content at which soil has a tendency to flow.
 It is the boundary moisture content between the liquid and plastic state, shear
strength of soil is negligible (2.7 kN/m2) and practically offers no resistance to
flow.
1. Casagrande tools, soil is taken and water added and soil in put inside
Casagrande’s apparatus. A grove of 2 mm size is cut and the apparatus is given
blows over a rubber pad.
 Water content at which 25 blows closes the groove is called liquid limit.
Slope of the curve is called flow index (If) and the curve is called flow curve.
 𝑊1 −𝑊2
If = 𝑁2
𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑁1
1
 Flow index ∝
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
 Curve 1 = larger shearing strength
Curve 2 = lower shearing strength
 The apparatus used in Casagrande experiment must be the standardize one,
other wise the result would be erroneous.
 If the rubber pad used is harder than the standardize one, the liquid limit
reported would be lower.
(ii) Cone penetration method
 Soil is mixed with water and a cone is lower to touch the surface of soil and
release the cone penetrates the soil due to its own wait.
 Moisture content a which penetration of the cone is 20 mm is reported as
liquid limit water content (WL)
Plastic limit (WP)
 It is the boundary moisture content between plastic and semi-solid state
 At plastic limit, soil when rolled into a thread of diameter 3 mm starts to
crumble.
 Shear strength @ P.L. = 100 × shear strength @ LL
Plastic limit is always lesser than liquid limit
Shrinkage limit (Ws)
 It is the boundary moisture content between solid and semi-solid state.
 It is the moisture content at which soil is just saturated i.e. the minimum w.c. @
which the soil could be saturated.
 When the water content is reduced below, shrinkage limit, volume of soil does
not change but the colour of soil sample begins to change.
Where,
V1 = Original soil volume
W1 = Original wt. of soil
W8 = dry wt of soil
Vd = dry volume of soil
𝑉1 −𝑉2
×100
𝑉𝑑 𝛾𝑑
 Shrinkage ration (SR) = × 100 =
𝑤1 −𝑤2 𝛾𝑤
𝑉1 −𝑉𝑑
 Volumetric shrinkage (V.S) = × 100
𝑉𝑑
Plasticity index (IP)
IP = WL – WP
If IP value comes out to be-ve, then it will be consider as zero (i.e. sand, gravel)

IP Consistency
0 Non plastic
<7 Low plastic
7 – 17 Medium plastic
> 17 Highly plastic
Ip
0 → sand (non-plastic)
10 to 15 → silt
15 to 100 → clay (alluvial)
200 to 250 → clay (Black)
 Low plastic soil is used for embankment because it is easy to compact
 Soil with large IP & WL = fat clay
Soil with small IP & WL = lean clay
Shrinkage index
IS = WP – Ws
WP = plastic limit water content
Ws = shrinkage limit water content
Consistency index (IC) or relative index :
W = Natural water content
WL = liquid limit water content
WP = Plastic limit water content
𝑊𝐿 −𝑤
IC =
𝑊𝐿 − 𝑊𝑃
Liquidity index :
𝑊 − 𝑊𝑃
IL =
𝑊𝐿 − 𝑊𝑃
Consistency index = 1 at plastic limit and liquidity index = 1 at liquid limit
 𝐼𝑃 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥
Toughness index (It) : It = =
𝐼𝐹 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥
 It indicates the loss of shear strength with increase in moisture content
 It also indicates the shear strength of soil at plastic limit
 For most soil it is between 0 – 3
 It < 1 → friable soil, i.e. easily crushable soil ay plastic limit
For clayey soil, 1 ≤ It ≤ 3
Thixotropy
 Property by virtue of which loss of shear strength or Remoulding can be regain
if the soil is left undisturbed for sometimes.
This increase in shear strength is due to regain of chemical equilibrium due to re-
orientation of water molecule in the adsorbed water layer.
Sensitivity (St) :
𝑈𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
St =
𝑈𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝑞𝑢 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑
St =
𝑞𝑢(𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑑)

St → 1 Gravel and coarse sand, insensitive

2–4 normal sensitive
4–8 Sensitive (silt and clay)
8 – 16 extra sensitive
≥ 16 unstable or quick clay
 Higher the sensitivity, higher is the thixotropic hardening
 Sensitivity can be less than 1 for fissured clay
Activity number (Ac)
𝐼𝑝
Ac =
% 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑖.𝑒.,< 2𝜇 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
Ac < 0.75 → inactive
0.75 < Ac < 1.25 → Normal active
Ac > 1.25 → Active
Black cotton soil is more active.
2. Classification of soil
Soil classification means sorting the soil in group and showing identical behaviour.
Highway research board (HRB) soil classification
 On the basis of grain size distribution (GSD) & plasticity.
 It is suitable for pavement design, soils are given in group A1, A2, …………A8.
 A1 is better than A2 and A2 better A3 and so on
A8 = highly organic soil
A7 = black cotton soil
Group index (GI)
It is found by empirical equation
GI = a.2a + 0.005ac + 0.01bd
a = % passing 75 𝜇 sieve – 35 (a ≤ 40)
b = % passing 75 𝜇 sieve – 15 (b ≤ 40)
c = wL – 40 (c ≤ 20)
d = IP – 10 (d ≤ 20)
 Type of subgrade Group index range of
soil subgrade
Good 0–1
Fair 2–4
Poor 5–9
Very poor 10 – 20

GI values range from 0 to 20.

0 = soil of superior quality
20 = soil of poor quality
IS soil classification system (IS : 1498)
Widely used in India
On the basis of GSD, consistency limits & compressibility characteristics.
1. Gravel (G)
 If more than 50% of soil is retained on 75 𝜇 sieve, the soil is called coarse
grained soil.
 If more than 50% of coarse fraction (> 75 μ) is retained on 4.75 mm sieve, the
soil is designated as gravel
2. Sand (S)
If more than 50% of coarse fraction (>75
3. Silt (m)
 Soil passing 75 𝜇 sieve and identified by
(A) slightly plastic (or) non-plastic behaviour regardless of the moisture content.
(B) Little (or) no strength on air drying
4. Clay (c)
 Soil passing 75 𝜇 sieve and identified by
(A)Shows IP within the range of moisture content
Considerable strength on air drying
5. Organic soil (O)
Dark in colour and pungent smell
6. Peat (Pt)
Organic material with fibrous matter and spongy in consistency.
Prefix & suffix used in soil classifications:
 Soil Prefix Sub Suffix
type group
Gravel G Well W
Sand S graded P
Silt M Poorly M
graded
Clay C C
Silty
Organic O L (i.e. low
Clayey compressibility)
Peat Pt
wL < 35 I (i.e. intermediate
35 < wL < compressibility)
50 H (i.e. High
50 < wL compressibility)
Classification of coarse grained soil:
Case IC% fines < 5%)
(a)GW (well graded gravel)
(b)GP (poorly gravel)
(c)SW (well graded sand)
SP (poorly sand)
 GW GP
More than 50% of coarse fraction retained on
4.75 mm sieve (Otherwise)
If Cu > 4 & 1 < Cc < 3

SW SP
More than 50% of coarse fraction passing 4.75 mm
sieve & retained on 75 𝜇 (Otherwise)
If Cu > 6 & 1 < Cc < 3
Case II (5% < %fines < 12%)
In This case dual symbol are given,
(a)GW – GW (well graded gravel containing silt as fines)
(b)GW – GC (well graded gravel containing clay as fines)
(c)GP – GC
(d)GP – GM
(e)SW – SC
(f)SW – SM
(g)SP – SC
SP – SM
Case III (% fineness > 12%)
1. Gravel
(a)Fineness > 12%, & IP < 4%
GM → Silty gravel
(a)Fineness > 12% & IP > 7%
GC → Clayey gravel
1. Sand
(a)Fineness > 12%, & IP < 4%
SM → Silty sand
(a)Fineness > 12%, IP > 7%
SC → Clayey sand
If IP is between 4 – 7 than again dual symbon is used.
 Classification of fine graved soil
1. First calculate the IP value from IP1 = wL – wP
2. If the limit IP, plot above A line, classify as clay.
If WL < 35, classify as CL
35 < WL < 50, classify as CI
wL > 50, classify as CH.
4. If the limit IP, plot below A line, classify as organic (o) and inorganic (silt) (m).
If wL < 35, classify as ML or OL
35 < wL < 50, classify as MI or OI
WL > 50, classify as MH or OH
U-line IP = (0.9 (WL – 8)
A-line IP = (0.73 (WL – 20)
5. When the limits get plotted on the A-line dual symbol is used and limit plots
between hatched zone i.e. IP between 4 – 7 (CL – ML)
Possible dual symbol are,
CL – ML ML – MI CI – CH

CI – MI MI – MH OL – OI

CH - MH CL - CI OL - OH
Field identification tests :
1. Visual inspection : It is carried out wrt size, angularity, grading and texture.
Only particular of coarse grained soil can be seem by naked eye.
2. Dilatancy test (reaction to shaking)
Easy appearance and disappearance of water represents and or silt, while slow
appearance and disappearance represent clay soil.
3. Toughness (consistency near plastic limit)
Resistance to moulding at plastic limit is check. More is the resistance, more
would be the toughness. Non plastic soil cannot be rolled into a thread of 3 mm
at any moisture content.
4. Dry strength (crushing resistance)
If dry strength is more, then clay fraction is more.
5. Organic content and colour
Fresh wet soil having pungent odour and dark in colour represe4nt organic soil.
Some important points
 Only particles of coarse grained soil can be seen by naked eye.
 Best soil for homogeneous rolled embankment dam – GC
 Best soil for core of rolled earthen dam – GW
 Best soil for foundation when seepage not important – GM
 Best soil for foundation when seepage important – GW
 Best soil for road surfacing – GC
3. Clay mineral
 The chemical weathering of rocks result in formation of colloidal size particles
known as clay minerals (2 < 𝜇)
 Most of the clay minerals have “Plate like structure” having high specific surface
(surface area per unit mass) because of large surface area.
 Water content of clay soil is generally more than that of the coarse grained soil.
(A)Tetra hederal or silica sheets
 4 oxygen and 1 silica
 Hexagonal opening at the base and 4 face
Net charge = - 1 (negatively charged)
(B) Octahedral or alumina sheets
 6 OH and 1 Aluminium
 8 face
 Net charge = +1 (Positively charge)
 If atom at the centre is Al, sheet is called gibbsite sheet
If atom at the centre is Mg, sheet is called brucite sheet.
Type of clay minerals
1. Kaolinite
 1 : 1 clay mineral and thickness = 7Ao (1Ao = 10-10 m)
 Hydrogen banding is between 2 layers and is very strong and mineral is stable.
 Least swelling & shrinkage
 Water cannot easily enter between the structural units.
 Least active of the clay minerals
 Little or no isomorphous substitution.
 It is used for making China ware and making anti diarrheal medicine.
Halloysite is a clay mineral of kaolinite group and basic unit is separated by water,
hence, when air dry they get converted to kaolinite group.
2. Montmorillonite (also called smectite)
 2 : 1 clay mineral and thickness = 10oA
 Largest specific surface and high swelling & shrinkage
 Weak Vander wall force between two layers and water can easily enter
between the structural units.
 Montmorillonite is highly active,
Bentonite is a montmorillonite clay derived from volcanic ash. And this clay is
found in black cotton soil.
3. Illite :

 1 : 1 clay mineral and thickness = 10Ao

 Illite has substantial amount of isomorphous substitution in the form of Al in
place of Si.
 K+ bonds the two negative surfaces of silica sheet tightly.
It is common in stiff clays & in lacustrine soft clay.
Clay mineral Grain size Base exchange Ip Dry Active tip
capacity strength

Montmorillon Min Largest Max Max Largest

ite

Illite Intermedi Intermediate Intermedia Intermedia Intermedi

ate te te ate

Kaolinite Max Least min Min Least

Soil structure :
1. Single grained structure (gravitational force)
 Cohesionless soil such as gravel and sand.
 Ex. marble filled in a box.
 Under shock & vibration shows large deformation.
2. Honey combed structure (gravitational and electric force)
 Fine sand and silt
 Soil in loose state under shock & vibration shows large deformation.
Size between 0.02 mm to 0.0002 mm
 Flocculated structure Dispersed structure
 Edge to face interaction  Face to face interaction
 Void maximum  Voids minimum
 Seepage more  Seepage less
 Attractive  Repulsive
 Marine clay  Lacustrine clay
 Low compressibility  High compressibility
 High permeability & shear strength  Low permeability & shear strength
4. Soil Compaction
 Compaction Consolidation
1. Instantaneous phenomenon 1. Time dependent phenomenon
2. Soil always partially saturated 2. Soil is completely saturated
3. Densification die to reduction in the 3. Volume reduction is due to
volume of air voids at a given water expulsion of pore water from voids.
content. 4. Consolidation occurs on account of
4. Specific compaction techniques are a static load placed on the soil.
used.
Advantages of compaction
1. Shear strength, dry density & load carrying capacity increases
2. Permeability & seepage decreases
3. Unwanted volume changes (by frost action, swelling shrinkage) may be
controlled.
∆𝑉 ∆𝐻 ∆𝑒
= = (∆𝑒 = 𝑒𝑜 − 𝑒𝑓 )
𝑉 𝐻 1+ 𝑒𝑜
 Compaction of cohesionless soil (dry & submerged sand) can be compacted by
vibration.
Compaction of cohesive soil (clay & silt) can be compacted by the application of
static pressure.
Proctor test :
 It is a relationship exist between the soil moisture content and degree of dry
density to which the soil can be compacted.
 Maximum dry unit weight obtained is a function of compactive effort and
method of compaction for a particular type of soil.
Compactive effort is a measure of mechanical energy applied to soil mass.
𝛾𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 15 − 20 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 & 𝑂𝑀𝐶 = 10 − 20 %
OMC for soil
Sand = 6 – 10% ;’ silt = 12 – 16%
Silty sand = 10 – 12% ; Clay = 16 – 20%
(I) Std proctor test
Vol = 944 cc ;
Rammer = 2.5 kg ;
Ht of fall = 305 mm ; (12 inch)
25 no. of blows – 3 layers ;
E1 = 594 kJ/m3
(II) Modified proctor test
Vol = 944 cc
Rammer = 4.5 kg
ht. of fall = 457 mm (18 inch)
25 no. of blows – 5 layers
E2 = 2672 kJ/m3
E2 = 4.51 E1
(III) Indian standard test
(A) Light compaction test
Vol = 1000 cc
Rammer = 2.6 kg
ht. of fall = 310 mm
25 no. of blows – 3 layers
E1 = 594 kJ/m3
(B) Heavy compaction
Vol = 1000 cc
Rammer = 4.9 kg
25 no. of flow – 5 layers
E2 = 2703 kJ/m3
E2 = 4.54 E1
Factors affecting compaction :
1. Moisture content
 Lubrication theory : The effect of lubrication is beneficially completed upto
OMC. Beyond OMC, water start occupying the space which could have been
occupied by soil solids. Hence, 𝛾𝑑 starts decreasing beyond OMC.
 Lambe explanation : This theory explains the inverted V-shape of compaction
curve for cohesive soils.
 At a given moisture content, the MDO that can be achieve is when the air voids
are zero. This density is called zero air void ration (or) theoretical maximum dry
density (MDO).
 90% saturation and 10% air void density will not be same, but 100% saturation
and 0% air void density would be same.
 90% saturation and 10% air content density would be same.
S + ac = 1
2. Type of soil
 Poorly graded or uniform sand (SP) may lead to lowest value of dry unit weight
 Heavy clay (CH) with high plasticity have very low dry unit wrt & high OMC.
3. Compactive effort
 For a given type of compaction, the higher the compactive effort, the higher
the maximum dry unit weight and lower is the OMC.
 Degree of saturation (s) at OMC remains almost the same in all cases.
𝑉𝑤 𝑉𝑤 1 𝑉𝑎
S= = = 𝑉 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑂𝑀𝐶
𝑉𝑣 𝑉𝑤 +𝑉𝑎 1+𝑉 𝑎 𝑉𝑤
𝑤

Line of optimum is parallel to ZAV density line.

Effect of compaction on properties of soil
Comparison of dry optimum with wet of optimum compaction
 Property Dry of optimum Wet of optimum
Structure after compaction Flocculated (random) Dispersed (Oriented)
Water deficiency More Less
Permeability More, isotropic Less, Anisotropic (kH > Ke)
Compressibility
At low stress Low Higher
At high stress High Lower
Swell ability High Low
Shrinkage Kiw High
Stress-strain behaviour Brittle; high peak Ductile, no peak,
Higher elastic modulus Lower elastic modulus
Construction pore water pressure Low High
strength (undrained) as moulded, High Much lower
after saturation Somewhat higher Low
If swelling prevented
Sensitivity More Low
Selection of compaction water content
Project Compaction Reason
Core of an earth dam Wet of To reduce permeability and prevent
Homogeneous optimum cracking in core
embankment Dry of To have a stronger soil and to prevent
optimum build-up of high pore water pressure
Subgrade of pavement To limit volume changes
Wet of
optimum
Equipment used in compaction:
Type of equipment Suitability for soil type Nature of project
Rammers or All soils To confined areas such as fills behind retaining
tampers walls, basement walls, etc. Trench fills
Crushed rocks, gravels, Road construction, etc.
Smooth wheeled sands Base, sub-base and embankment compaction
rollers Sands, gravels silts, clayey for highways, airfields, etc. earth dams
Pneumatic tyred soils. Core of earth dams
rollers Not suitable for uniformly Embankment for oil storage tanks, etc.
Graded soil
Sheepsfoot rollers Clayey soil
Vibratory roller Sands
Special technique used for compaction :
1. Vibro floatation method
2. Compaction piles
3. Compaction by pounding
4. Compaction by explosives
5. Tera probe method
5. Effective stress & seepage through
soils
 Effective stress concept basically studying the physical interaction
 Effective stress concept is proposed by Terzaghi. This concept was assumed to
be applied to a fully saturated soil.
 Total stress is a physical parameter because its value can be measured using a
pressure cell.
 Pore water pressure is also called natural stress as it acts on all sides of the
particle and does not allow the particles to press against the adjacent particle
(hydrostatic condition has no shear component).
Pore water pressure at any point can be measure by inserting a piezometer at that
point and noting down the ht. upto which the water rises in the piezometers (h)
 l.l. U = 𝛾𝑤ℎ
 Effective stress is a parameter on which compressibility consolidation,
settlement, shear strength and bearing capacity depends directly. (these
parameter do not depend directly on total stress.
 Because of rise in water table, effective stress decreases.
 Fall in water table, effective stress increases.
Fluctuations of water table above G.L. will not cause change in effective stress.
Effect of capillarity :
 At the level of water table, pressure is atmospheric and above water table
pressure is sub-atmospheric (gauge pressure). Hence, as pore pressure is -ve
(effective stress will be more than the total stress)
 Prediction of capillary rise is not easily possible because of complex nature of
void and the value of capillary rise in cae of soil is calculated using empirical
equation.
𝟎.𝟎𝟑
1. hc =
𝟎.𝟐𝑫𝟏𝟎
 hc + ht of capillary rise ….. ‘m’
D10 = eff. Size of particles in mmm
𝑪
2. hc =
𝒆𝑫𝟏𝟎
hc + in cm
D10 = in cm
E + void nation
C + in a constant
1.cm2 < C < 0.5 cm2
Thus, capillary rise not only depend on the particle size, but also on soil structure
and geological history.
Seepage pressure and seepage force :
 When water is seeping through the soil, the total head is dissipated as viscous
friction producing a frictional drag in the directional of flow is the soil particles.
This drag force result in seepage force on soil mass which acts in the direction of
flow component of this seepage force acting vertically upward will reduce the
vertical effecting stress component from the static value and vice-versa.
The seepage pressure is given by
Ps = h𝛾𝜔
Where, Ps = seepage pressure
𝛾𝜔 = 9.81 kN/m3
Here, h = head loss
And z = length
(ii) Fs = hA𝛾𝜔
Where, Fs = seepage force
(iii) fs = i𝛾𝜔
where, fs = seepage force per unit volume
i = h/l
where, I = hydraulic gradient
Quick sand condition
1. When upward flow is taking place at critical hydraulic gradient, soil, such as
sand looses all its shear strength because eff. Stress become zero, this condition
is called quick sand condition.
𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝐺𝑠 −1
2. icr = =
𝛾𝑤 1+𝑒
icr = critical hydraulic gradient normally for sand ‘Gs’ in b/w 2.6 – 2.7 while ‘e’ is
b/w 0.5 – 0.7
icr ≃ 1
3. Eff. Stress of every point of the soil will become zero @ icr
4. Under quick sand condition, the surface of the sand looks as if it is boiling,
hence the condition is also called boiling sand condition.
5. At critical hydraulic gradient, quick sand condition will occur only in sand
because cohesion it. It is zero.
6. Quick sand condition does not occur in coarse sand. Because the seepage
discharge require to cause quick sand condition is not realized under normal
situation.
7. It is only under the condition when flow through the coarse sand under
artesian pressure that quick sand condition may develop.
Permeability
 In 1D flow through fully saturated soil, discharge as per Darcy’s law (based
upon Navier stokes) is given by
Q = kiA
Where,
Q → discharge
K → coefficient of permeability
ℎ𝐿 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
i → Hydraulic gradient = =
ℎ 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
A → area of cross section perpendicular to flow
 Discharge velocity (superficial velocity)
Vd = ki
 Actual velocity (percolation velocity) (seepage velocity)
𝑉𝑑
Va = n → porosity. Va > Vd
𝑛
 Darcy’s law is valid for laminar flow (Re < 1) & fine grained soil (upto particle
size 0.5 mm)
 Permeability depends on the distribution of particle size, shape and soil
structure. Its unit is unit of velocity.
Coefficient of percolation (kp) is given by
 𝑘
Kp =
𝑛
k = coefficient of permeability
n = porosity
Soil K (cm/s)
Gravel >1
Sand 10-3 to 1
Silt 10-6 to 10-3
Clay < 10-6
Coefficient of permeability
(I) Lab testing
(a) Constant head permeability test
 Used for coarse grained soil
𝑄𝐿
K=
ℎ𝐿 𝐴
(b) Falling head permeability test
 Used for fine grained soil and we used undisturbed sample
𝑎𝑙 ℎ1
K = 2.303 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝐴𝑡 ℎ2
a → area of tube
A → area of simple
(II) Filed testing
(a) Pumping out test
 It is useful for homogenous, course grained deposits.
 K can be found out separately for confined & unconfined aquifer.
2.303𝑄 𝑟2
K= 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 [Unconfined] (dupit’s equation)
𝜋 ℎ22 −ℎ12 𝑟1
2.303𝑄 𝑟2
K= 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 [𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑚′ 𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛]
2𝜋𝐷 ℎ2 −ℎ1 𝑟1
Aquifers : A soil deposit which is pervious in nature and allows extraction of
water. These are of two types unconfined and confined aquifer.
Aquiclude : Aquiclude is a soil formation such as clay which contains water, but
which is not capable of transmitting or supplying adequate quantity of water.
Aquifuse : It is a soil mass of rock or an impervious formation which neither
transmit nor stores any water.
(B) Pumping in test :
 It is economical than the pumping out test.
 Pumping out test gives more reliable values of ‘k’.
Pumping In test give the value of ‘k’ of stratum just close to the whole, where as
pumping out test gives value for a large area around the world.
Factors of permeability
2 𝛾𝑤 𝑒3
K= 𝐶𝑑10 ×
𝜇 1+𝑒
Kozeny carman equation
Allen Hazen’s formula
Where,
K = coefficient of permeability
C = composite shape factor
 1 2
d10 = effective size ∝ (Kcm/sec 𝐶𝑑10 mm)
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
1
 k is more dependent on viscosity (𝜇) then unit wrt (𝛾𝑤 ) and 𝜇 ∝
𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝
 2 clays at the same void ration ‘e’, one having dispersed structure and other
one having flocculated structure have varying permeability. Dispersion causes
the permeability to decrease.
 Cation
(i) Low valency = low permeability
(ii) high valency = High valency = high permeability
 𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎,𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
 K∝
𝐸𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑖𝑟, 𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟
 K does not depend on acceleration due to gravity, duration of flow.
Permeability stratified soil (kH > kV)
𝑘1 𝐻1 +𝐾2 𝐻2 +𝐾3 𝐻3
1. kH =
𝐻1 +𝐻2 +𝐻3
 Flow parallel to the bedding plane
 Horizontal flow
 Parallel permeability (kH) = 2 to 30 times × perpendicular permeability (kv)
 𝐻1 +𝐻2 +𝐻3
2. kv = 𝐻1 𝐻 𝐾
+ 2+ 3
𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3

 Flow perpendicular to the bedding plane

 Vertical flow
Seepage through soil (2D) dimensional flow
1. Soil is fully saturated and Darcy’s law is valid.
2. Soil is homogeneous & isotropic
3. Soil grain and pore fluid are incompressible
4. Steady state condition of LaPlace equation represent 2 set of curve orthogonal
to each other. One set of curve is called flow line and other set of curve is called
equipotential line.
5. Flow lines represent direction of flow.
Equipotential lines joining points having same total head.
Properties of flow nets
1. Flow lines and equipotential lines are orthogonal to each other (for isotropic
and homogeneous soil)
2. Flow lines are drawn in such a way that between any two consecutive flow lines
discharge is same.
3. All flow fields are elementary square i.e. a × b = 1
4. Head loss through successive equipotential one is same
No. of equipotential drop (ND) = No. of equipotential lines – 1
Properties of flow nets
1. Flow lines and equipotential lines are orthogonal to each other (for isotropic
and homogeneous soil)
2. Flow lines are drawn in such a way that between any two consecutive flow lines
discharge is same.
3. All flow fields are elementary square i.e. a × b = 1
4. Head loss through successive equipotential one is same
No. of equipotential drop (ND) = No. of equipotential lines – 1
Use of flow net
1. Seepage calculation
2. Uplift pressure force, as compare to u/s wrt, uplift would be more if D/s cutoff
is provided.
3. Exit gradient & piping,
 Hydraulic gradient at exit will be maximum adjacent to toe of the dam
 When upward exit gradient becomes more than critical gradient, erosion of soil
starts and material below the base of dam are eroded, thus piping (cavity) may
from.
This phenomenon is called piping.
 𝑖𝑐𝑟
FOS =
𝑖.𝑒
icr = critical hydraulic gradient
i.e. = exit gradient
(FOS ≮ 6)
 Provision of D/s cutoff reduces the exit gradient because the size of the flow
field adjacent to the toe increases
 Provision of D/S filter (surcharge filter) also reduces the chances of piping.
Determination of pore water pressure
Method of obtaining flow net :
1. Analytical method
2. Electrical flow analogy
3. Capillary flow analogy
4. Sand model
5. Graphical method
Phreatic line is top flow line which follows the path of base parabola. It is a
stream line. The pressure on this line is atmospheric (zero) and below this line
pressure is hydrostatic.
Flow through non-homogenous section
 While flowing through non-homogenous soil, the direction of flow will abruptly
change.
𝑘1 tan∝1
=
𝑘2 tan∝2
 If K1 > K2, then a1 > a2 ; flow gets deflected towards normal
 If K1 > K2, then a1 > a2; flow gets deflected away from normal
 Seepage pressure taken as -ve when movement of water is in upward direction
and effective stress decreases.
Seepage pressure is taken as +ve when movement of water is in down ward
direction and effective stress increases.
Prevention of erosion
1. Control of seepage and seepage force : By providing cut off wall, increasing
flow path by providing impervious blanket.
2. Use of protective filter
The protective filter should be design in such a way that neither the seepage
pressure builts up in the filter nor loss or particle occur.
Thus, the voids available in the filter should be properly designed and for this
following specification has been given,
 𝐷15 (𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟)
(a)𝐷 (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙) < 5 : This specification ensures no significant invasion
85
of particle from the protected material through the filter. This criteria is upper
limit of grain of size for filter material.
𝐷15 (𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟)
(ii) 4 < : This criteria ensures that the seepage pressure
𝐷15 (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙)
does not built up in the filter. It is the lower limit of particle size in the filters.
𝐷50 (𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟)
(iii) < 25
𝐷50 (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙)
6. Vertical stresses
Vertical stresses due to concentrated load
1. Boussinesq equation
Assumption,
1. Soil is homogenous & isotropic
2. Soil in elastic & semi infinite
3. Soil is weightlen and unstressed before the application of load.
 3𝑄 1
𝜎𝑧𝑃 = 5/2
2𝜋𝑧 2 𝑟 2
1+ 𝑧
 Consider vertical load only.
𝑟
 Vertical stress at a certain depth z is dependent only on ratio and
𝑧
independent of the material i.e. independent of E & 𝜇.
𝑟 𝑄
 When = 0 vertical stress just below the point load 𝜎𝑧𝑝 = 0.4775
2 22
1. Westergaard’s solution :
Assumption,
1. Soil in anisotropic
2. Soil in elastic & semi-infinite
3. Poisson’s ratio (𝜇) = 0
𝑞 1
𝜎𝑧𝑤 = 3/2
𝜋𝑧 2 𝑟 2
1+2 𝑧
𝑟
If < 1.5 ⇒ 𝑘𝐵 > 𝑘𝑤
𝑧
𝑟
If > 1.5 ⇒ 𝑘𝑤 > 𝑘𝐵
𝑧
𝑟
If = 1.5 ⇒ 𝑘𝑤 = 𝑘𝐵
𝑧
Westergaard’s results are more close to field conditions but Boussinesq results are
used for calculation because they provide conservative results.
Vertical stress due to line load :
𝑞 1
𝜎𝑧𝑤 = 3/2
𝜋𝑧 2 𝑟 2
1+2 𝑧
Vertical stress due to strip load
1. Point ‘P’ below the center of the strip.
𝑞
𝜎𝑧 = 2𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝜋
2. Point ‘P’ not below the center of strip.
𝑞
𝜎𝑧 = 2𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽
𝜋
Vertical stress under a circular area
𝜎𝑧 = 𝑞 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃)
𝑧
Where, cos 𝜃 =
𝑟 2 +𝑧 2
New mark’s influence chart:
 Newmark developed influence chart to compute vertical stress, horizontal and
shear stress also due to the uniformly loaded area of any shape, irregular or
geometric, below any point, inside or out side the loaded area.
 It is based on Boussinesq’s equation.
 Similarly, Fenske’s chart is based on westergaard’s equation.
1
𝜎𝑧 = ×𝑞×𝑁
𝑚 ×𝑛
Where, m = no. of concentric circle (generally 10)
n = no. of radial lines (generally 20)
q = Intensity of load
N = Equivalent no. of areas.
Approximate methods of stress distribution for loaded area :
Equivalent point load method :

𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑄3 𝑄4 𝑄5 𝑄6
𝜎𝑧 = 𝐾𝐵1 2 + 𝐾𝐵2 2 + 𝐾𝐵3 2 + 𝐾𝐵4 2 + 𝐾𝐵5 2 + 𝐾𝐵6 2
𝑍 𝑍 𝑍 𝑍 𝑍 𝑍
2. Load distribution method (Trapezoidal method) :
𝜎𝑧 = 𝜎𝑧1 + 𝜎𝑧2 + ⋯
𝑄1
𝜎𝑧 = 𝐾𝐵1 2
𝑍
𝑄2
𝜎𝑧2 = 𝐾𝐵2 2
𝑍
3. Stress isobar method
Area bounded by 0.2q stress isobar.
0.2q = 20% stress isobar
7. Consolidation & compressibility
 When a soil mass is subjected to a compressive force, like all other materials, its
volume decrease.
 It is a gradual reduction in the vol. of a fully saturated soil of law permeability
due to dissipation of excess PWD setup due to increase in total stress.
STotal = Simmediate + Sprimary consolidation + Ssecondary consolidation
 Immediate settlement is expulsion of the air as well as compression of core air
may takes place.
 Primary consolidation is expulsion of excess pore water pressure generated due
to increase in total stress.
 It is time dependent and magnitude of settlement depends upon
compressibility soil, magnitude of stress increase, thickness of soil layer
 Increase in total stress causes increase in effective stress responsible for
primary consolidation.
 Secondary consolidation occurs due to gradual readjustment of clay particles
into a more stable form.
It is more important in peat or organic soil and highly compressible soil
And unimportant for stiff clay and pre consolidation clay
For stiff clay, Stotal = Simmediate + Spirmary
For granular soil, Stotal = Simmediate
Consolidation
1. Increases due to (settlement, shear strength, effective stress, dry unit wrt.
2. Decrease due to (PWD, water content, K, e)
3. Remains same due to (total stress)
4. 1D consolidation means the deformation can occur in vertical direction only,
∆𝑉 ∆𝐻 ∆𝑒
= =
𝑉 𝐻 1+ 𝑒𝑜
For completely saturated soil under 1D consolidation, (Simmediate = 0)
The characteristics of soil during 1D consolidation or swelling can be determined
by means of oedometer test (consolidation test).
Compressibility characteristics
 A soil is said to be normally consolidated when existing effective stress is the
stress it has ever experienced in its stress history.
 The maximum value of stress that the soil has ever experienced is called pre-
consolidation stress (𝜎𝑜 )
ഥ0
𝜎
 Over consolidation ration (OCR) =ഥ
𝜎
 𝜎ത > 𝜎ത0 (normally consolidated), OCR = 1
 𝜎ത < 𝜎ത0 (Cover consolidated), OCR > 1
 NC soil is much more compressible than OC soil
 E-log 𝜎ത
 NC soil (straight line)
OC soil (Convex curvature upwards)
 Over consolidation is due to several factors such as
(a)Erosion of overburden soil
(b)Permanent rise in water table
(c)Melting of Ice sheets after glaciation etc.
1. Compression index (CC)
 It is a dimensionless number
𝑒1 −𝑒2 ∆𝑒
 Cc = ഥ2
𝜎 = ഥ2
𝜎
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ഥ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ഥ1
𝜎1 𝜎

∆𝐻 ∝ 𝐶𝑐
 Cc is signifies only for normally consolidated (NC) soil.
 It is not a function of effective stress
(a)Cc = 0.009 (wl – 10) [undisturbed soil]
(b)Cc = 0.007 (wL – 7) (remolded / disturbed soil]
(c)Cc = 0.4 (e0 – 0.25) [undisturbed soil of medium sensitivity]
(wl = % liquid limit)
(eo = initial void ration)
1. Coefficient of compressibility (av)
∆𝑒
𝑎𝑣 = (m2/kN)
∆ഥ
𝜎
Av decreases with increases in effective stress.
1. Coefficient of volume compressibility (mv) :
∆𝑉/𝑉 ∆𝐻/𝐻0 ∆𝑒/1 +𝑒𝑜
Mv = = =
∆ഥ
𝜎 ∆ഥ
𝜎 ∆ഥ
𝜎
∆𝑒
1+ 𝑒0 𝑎𝑣
Mv = = … (m2/kN)
∆ഥ
𝜎 1+𝑒0
Compression modulus (Ec) is inversely proportional to (mv)
1
Ec =
𝑚𝑣
Computation of settlement
∆𝑒
1. ∆𝐻 = 𝐻 × 1+𝑒0
𝑎𝑣
2. ∆𝐻 = 1+𝑒0
. ∆𝜎.
ത𝐻 = 𝑚𝑣 ∆𝜎.
ത 𝐻
𝐶𝑐 ഥ0 +∆ഥ
𝜎 𝜎
3. ∆𝐻 = 1+𝑒0
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ഥ𝑜
𝜎
4. ∆𝐻 = settlement due to OC stage + settlement due to NC stage
𝐶𝑟 ഥ0 +∆ഥ
𝜎 𝜎 𝐶𝑐 ഥ0 + ∆ഥ
𝜎 𝜎
∆𝐻 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ഥ + 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ഥ0
1+ 𝑒0 𝜎0 1+ 𝑒𝑜 𝜎
Time rate of consolidation
 The rats of consolidation is directly related to the rate of dissipation of excess
pore water pressure (PWP).
 In order to predict the time rote of consolidation. A mathematical theory was
proposed by Terzaghi for 1D consolidation.
Assumptions
1. Soil is homogenous & fully saturated
2. Soil particles and water are incompressible
3. Compression and pore water flow are 1D and strains are small.
4. K, mv, av are constant throughout the soil
5. Darcy’s law is valid at all hydraulic gradient
6. There is an unique relationship independent of time between the void ration
and effective stress (i.e. secondary consolidation has been neglected)
−𝑎𝑣
∆𝑒 =
∆𝜎
av = constant over the stress increment
k = cvmv𝛾𝑤
1
Unit of Cv = m2/sec and Cv ∝
𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡,𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥
Coefficient of consolidation (Cv) is a soil parameter governing the time rate of consolidation
and Cv can also be calculated for Oedometer test.
Solution of consolidation equation
The progress of consolidation can be plotting a series of curves of Ue (excess pore water
pressure) against z for different values of ‘t;, such curves are called Isochrone.
The slope of isochrone at any depth gives the hydraulic gradient and also indicates the
direction of blow.
The initial excess PWP is normally uniform for thin layers of clay, however for thick layer the
initial excess PWP distribution may even be triangular.
1. Drainage path ration (Z) :
𝑍
Z=
𝐻
Z = depth of any point from top of clay layer
H = maximum distance water has to travel to reach the drainage space or the
length of longest drainage path.
1. Time factor (Tv) :
That time required to reach a particular degree of consolidation is proportional to
square of length of drainage path and inversely proportional to Cv.
𝐶𝑣 𝑡
Tv =
𝐻2
𝐻2
t∝
𝐶𝑣
tsingle = 4 × tdouble
2. Degree of consolidation (Uz)
𝑢𝑖 −𝑢𝑧
Uz =
𝑢𝑖
Uz = Degree of consolidation at depth ‘z’
Ui = initial excess PWP
Uz = excess PWP at depth ‘z’
Average degree of consolidation (U) is a function of (Tv)
𝜋
For U ≤ 60%, Tv = U2
4
For U > 60%, Tv = 1.781 – 0.933 log (100 – U%)
For T50 = 0.196 & T90 = 0.848
𝑇50
= 0.23
𝑇90
Degree of consolidation different formula
∆𝒉
1. U = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
∆𝑯
∆ℎ = settlement at any stage
∆𝐻 = settlement at the end of consolidation
𝒆𝟎 −𝒆
2. U =
𝒆𝒐 −𝒆𝒇

Eo – initial void ratio

e = void ratio at any stage in between
ef = final void ratio at the end of a stress increments.
 𝒖𝒊 −𝒖
1. U =
𝒖𝒊 −𝒖𝒇

ui = initial pore water pressure

u = pore water pressure at any stage in between
uf = pore water pressure at the end of stress increment
Determination of coefficient of consolidation (cv)
a. Casagrande’s method / logarithm of time filling method
Time for 50% consolidation is noted.
 𝑇50 𝐻 2
𝐶𝑣 =
𝑡50
T50 = 0.196
a. Taylor’s method / square root of time filting method
Time for 90% consolation is noted.
 𝑇90 𝐻 2
Cv =
𝑡90
T90 = 0.848
Taylor method is more suitable compared to casagrande’s method.
8. Shear strength of soil
 Shear strength is the capacity to resist shear stress. It governs the bearing
capacity of soil, stability of slopes and earth pressure retaining str.
 Shear strength is categories into,
(a)Friction strength takes into account the particle to particle friction and also the
interlocking particles.
(b)Cohesion strength takes into account
(i) True cohesion is basically due to electrostatic attraction.
(ii) Apparent cohesion is due to -ve pressure in the particle which causes
attraction between the particles.
For NC soil, residual stress us slightly less than peak stress and for OC soil, the
difference between peak & residual stress is large.
Whatever be the nature of loading on soil, failure on soil occurs by shearing, it
never occurs by crushing of particles.
Mohr’s hypothesis :
Shear stress on failure plane at failure reaches a value which is a unique function
of normal stress on that plane.
𝜏𝑓𝑓 = 𝑓(𝜎𝑓𝑓 )
𝜏𝑓𝑓 = Shear stress on failure pane at failure. (it is also called shear strength)
𝜎𝑓𝑓 = Normal stress on failure plane at failure.
Coulomb’s hypothesis

𝜏𝑓 = 𝐶 + 𝜎 tan 𝜙
C & 𝜙 are total stress parameter
𝜏𝑓 = 𝐶 + 𝜎ത tan 𝜙
C’ & 𝜙 are effective stress parameter
Where,
𝜎ത = (𝜎 − 𝑢) = effective stress
𝜎 = total stress
U = pore water pressure
C & 𝜙 are known as shear strength parameters of soil.
C & 𝜙 are not the inherent properties of soil. These are related to the related to
the type of test and the condition under which these are measured.
Based on Mohr & coulomb criteria
𝜎1 = Major principle stress
𝜎3 = minor principle stress
𝜙
Failure plane (Qf) = 45 +
2
𝜙
i.e. the failure plane makes an angle of 45 + degree with the major principal
2
plane.
At failure,
𝜎1𝑓 −𝜎3𝑓
 Radius (R) =
2
𝜙 𝜙
 𝜎𝑖𝑓 = 2
𝜎3𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑛 45 + + 2 𝑐 tan 45 +
2 2
𝜙 𝜙
 𝜎𝑖𝑓 = 2
𝜎1𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑛 45 + − 2 𝑐 tan 45 +
2 2
Angle of obliquity (𝜹) is defined as the angle between resultant stress on a plane
and normal stress on the plane.
𝜏
𝛿=
𝜎
Shear failure in cohesionless soil, occurs on the plane of maximum obliquity.
(𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜙)
Drainage condition Effective stress approach used, long term
stability

Undrained condition (+ve Total stress approach used, short term stability
PWP)

Undrained condition (-ve Effective stress approach used, long term

PWP) stability
Direct shear test

 Vertical load is applied first then horizontal load is applied.

 Failure plane is predefined (Horizontal plane)
 Magnitude of shear load is measured by proving ring.
 Shear and vertical deformation are measured during test using dial gauge
 Shear and normal stress are found out by dividing the shear and normal load by normal
area of specimen.
 Drainage cannot be controlled (PWP = 0)
 Used for sand and gravel and cannot be used for clays.
 Effective stress Total stress
It is quick, inexpensive and simple and easy to prepare sample.
Disadvantages :
1. Drainage condition cannot be controlled and PWP cannot be measured.
2. Failure plane is always horizontal and pre-determined.
3. Non-uniform stress distribution shear on shear plane, failure starts at edge &
progresses towards centre.
4. Area of specimen under normal & shear does not remain content.
Direction of principal planes are not known at evert stages of the test.
Triaxial test :

 Most widely used shear strength and suitable for all types of soil.
 Drainage is best controlled. Undrained = Sand & drained =
 The triaxial cell is filled with water and specimen is scaled inside a rubber
membrane. Cell pressure is applied called confining pressure (𝜎𝑐 )
 With cell pressure held constant, addition axial stress is applied gradually until
sample fails at additional axial stress value of (𝜎𝑜 ).
 Horizontal plane becomes major principal plane with major principal 𝜎𝐼𝑓 =
𝜎𝑜 + 𝜎𝑐′
 In triaxial test axial strain and deviator stress are determined.
Unconfined compression test :
 No confining pressure (I.e. cell pressure) is applied.
 Special case of triaxial test (𝜎3 = 0)
 Cohesive soil
𝑞𝑢
 𝜏𝑓 = 𝐶𝑢 =
2
Where, 𝜏𝑓 = undrained shear strength
𝜎1 = axial stress at failure
qu = unconfined compressive strength
Test is also used to find out sensitivity of clay soil. Ither than fissured clay
𝑞𝑢 (𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑)
Sensitivity =
𝑞𝑢 (𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑑)
Normally, for clay sensitivity is 1 – 8, for flocculated marine clay, sensitivity 10 –
80.
Vane shear test
 In plastic cohesive soil which is very sensitive, obtaining undisturbed specimen
is difficult. Shear strength of such soil may be significantly affected during
sampling & handing.
 For such soil Vane-shear test can be done in field. Vane shear test is sometime
also done in lab.
 Maximum torque applied is the total shear resistance.
Actual shear stress variation over the failure surface,
 𝑇
𝜏𝑓 = ℎ 𝑑 [when both top & bottom end shear the soil]
𝜋𝑑 2 +
2 6
𝑇
𝜏𝑓 = ℎ 𝑑 [when one end shear the soil]
𝜋𝑑 2 +
2 12

h → height of vane used in shearing.

Here, 𝜏𝑓 = shear strength = Ca (undrained cohesion)
𝑞𝑢
From UC test, Ca =
2
𝐶𝑢 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑
Sensitivity =
𝐶𝑢 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑑
 Lab size Field size
Height of vane (H) 20 mm 10 – 20 cm
Dia of vane (D) 12 mm 10 cm
Thickness of vane (t) 0.5 – 1 mm 2 – 3 cm
Type of triaxial test
The triaxial test is performed in two stages
1st stage 2nd stage
1. Drainage allowed (consolidated) 1. Volume change allowed (drained)
2. Drainage not allowed 2. No volume change allowed
(unconsolidated) (undrained)
1. Consolidated drained test (CD test)
 Drainage is allowed in both stages.
 PWP does not build up at any stage.
 We get effective stress parameter in this case
 Sandy and gravel soil
 Also known as show test
 In NC soil, Mohr failure envelope passes through origin but in OC soil it does not
passes through origin.
Check the long term stability.
1. Consolidated undrained test (CU test)
 1st stage = drainage is permitted (24 hrs) and 2nd stage = drainage is not
permitted and volume change not allowed (2 hrs)
 This test gives total stress parameter because unless drainage is permitted,
stress does not become effective.
 Effective stress parameter can be calculated if pore water pressure is measured
in the triaxial apparatus.
 Radius of total stress circle & effective stress circle will be same if deviator
stress approaches pore water pressure.
 To check stability under sudden unloading such as dewatering or draw down
condition.
 To check stability of an embankment that has lives some of its life & is now
being unloaded.
3. Unconsolidated undrained test (UU test)

 Drainage is not permitted during 1st and 2nd stage.

 Total stress analysis is performed as it is undrained test.
 It is a quick test (15 mins)
 Suitable for soil of low permeability and when loading is very fast
Used in rapid construction and short term stability construction
Soil liquefaction
In loose saturated sand under undrained condition, the strength would be
significantly less. When the strength almost become zero, the condition is called
liquefaction.
Generally occurs during pile driving, vibration of machine, explosive blasting,
earth quake shock etc.
1. Occurs generally at high frequency of vibration and the increases in PWP in
cumulative under successive cycle of loading.
Pore pressure coefficient
Pore pressure coefficient are used to express the response of PWP to changes in
total stress under undrained condition. Thus, it enables the determination of
initial excess PWP developed.
∆𝑢 = 𝐵[∆𝜎3 + 𝐴 (∆𝜎1 − ∆𝜎3 )]
∆𝑢 = ∆𝑈1 + ∆𝑈2
∆𝑢2 ∆𝑢1
A= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = ….. (0 to 1)
𝐵𝜎𝑑 ∆𝜎3
 B = 1 (saturated soil) & B = 0 (dry soil)
 For NC clays, A = 1
 For OC clays, A = 0.3 to -0.2
Like B,A is not constant & depends on type of soil, stress condition etc.
Stress path
 It is the locus of all points depicting a specific stress – stress strain as loading
gradually through various stages.
 Stress path may be drawn in terms of total stress, effective stress.
 The horizontal distance between the two path is the value of pore water
pressure at stress
 For hydrostatic loading condition, shear stress is always zero and Mohr circle
gets plotted as a point. Hence, stress path is horizontal.
 Stress path for constant confining stress, is a straight line inclined at 45o
9. Earth pressure and Retaining walls
Earth pressure is the lateral force exerted by the soil on any structure retaining
that soil. Earth pressure can be
1. Earth pressure @ rest, wall does not move.
2. Active earth pressure, wall moves away from the soil
Passive earth pressure, wall moves towards the soil
Earth pressure @ rest :
 It is possible to evaluate earth pressure at rest using the theory of elasticity.
 Soil mass is homogenous, isotropic and semi-infinite,𝜖 and 𝜇 is constant
throughout the depth.
Earth pressure @ rest (Po) = ko × 𝜎𝑧
Ko = coefficient of earth pressure @ rest
𝜇
Ko =
1− 𝜇
For cohesionless soil, Ko =1 - sin 𝜙
 Active Earth Pressure Passive earth Pressure
1. Wall moves away from the soil, 1. Wall moves towards the soil, block has
block has a tendency to more a tendency to more upwards and
downwards and outwards. Here, stress inwards. Hence, shear stress is mobilized
is mobilized in upward inclined in downward inclined direction.
direction
2. Pp = kp𝜎ത𝑧 + 2𝑐 𝑘𝑝
2. Pa = ka 𝜎ത𝑧 − 2𝑐 𝑘𝑎 1+sin 𝜙 𝜙
3. kp = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 45 + ቀ𝑘𝑎 =
1−sin 𝜙 𝜙 1−sin 𝜙 2
3. ka = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 45 −
1+sin 𝜙 2
𝜙
4. Failure plane inclined at 45 +
2
Earth pressure theories
1. Rankine’s theory (1857)
 Soil is semi-infinite, homogenous, isotropic, dry & cohesionless.
 Soil is in a state of plastic condition at the time of active and passive pressure
generation.
 Backfill soil is horizontal and back of wall is vertical & smooth.
Various cases of earth pressure
(a)Cohesionless soil on a vertical smooth wall
Paz = ka𝛾 & ppz = kp𝛾z
1 1
Fa = ka𝛾H2 & Fp = kp𝛾H2
2 2
(B) Submerged cohesionless soil on vertical smooth wall
Active earth pressure per unit length of wall,
Paz = ka𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑧 + 𝛾𝑤 𝑧
Force due to active earth pressure per unit length of wall
1
Fa = 𝑘𝑎 𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝐻 2 +𝛾𝑤 𝐻 2
2
In all case, passive earth pressure FP replacing Fa and Kp replacing Ka.
(C) Partially submerged cohesionless soil on vertically smooth wall

At point (1), Pa = Ka𝛾𝑡 𝑍

At point (2), Pa = Ka 𝐾𝑎 𝛾𝑡 𝐻1 + 𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏 (𝑍−𝐻1 ) + 𝛾𝑤 (𝑍 − 𝐻1 )
Water pressure due to hydrostatic condition is same in all direction. Hence,
hydrostatic pressure is not multiplied by ka.
(D) Backfill with two different soils
(1) 𝑃𝑎1 = 𝐾𝑎1. 𝛾1 𝑍
(2) 𝑃𝑎2 = 𝐾𝑎1. 𝛾1 . 𝐻1 (At depth H1 in first soil)
(3) 𝑃𝑎3 = 𝐾𝑎2. (𝛾1 𝐻1 ) (at depth H1 in second soil)
(4) 𝑃𝑎4 = 𝐾𝑎2. [𝛾1 𝐻1 + 𝛾2 𝑍 −𝐻1 ]
(5) Pa5 = 𝐾𝑎2 [𝛾1 𝐻1 + 𝛾2 𝐻2 ]
Similarly passive earth pressure can be calculated.
(E) Soil with inclined backfill
Pa = Ka 𝛾𝑧 cos 𝛽
cos 𝛽− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽−𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜙
Ka =
cos 𝛽+ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜙

cos 𝛽+ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝛽−𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜙

Kp =
cos 𝛽− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜙
1
Fa = . 𝐾𝑎 . 𝛾𝐻 2 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽
2
𝐻
@ from bottom
3
(F) Active earth pressure on cohesive soil
 Rankine’s theory was given for cohesion less soil but later to C – 𝜙 soil.
Consider a vertical smooth retaining wall, retaining a C – 𝜙 soil.
 Pa = Ka𝜎𝑧 − 2𝑐 𝑘𝑎
2𝑐
 Pa = 0 @ z = zo =
𝛾 𝑘𝑎
(depth of tension crack) (zo)
 Critical depth (max possible depth),
4𝑐
 Hc = 2zo =
𝛾 𝑘𝑎
 When tension crack developed consider active earth pressure corresponds to
area under “fde”.
 When tension crack are not developed consider active earth pressure
corresponds to area under “hgef”/
 In passive case, Pp = kp 𝛾𝑧 + 2𝐶 𝑘𝑎
2. Coulomb’s theory (1776)
 The backfill in dry, cohesion less, homogenous end isotropic soil
 Back of wall and backfill can be inclined.
 There would be the friction b/w the wall and the soil
Failure plane is assumed to be plane surface and sliding wedge is assumed to be a
rigid body.
 Trial wedges will have forces like (w), (R) and (P). The direction of all there will
be known.
 In Rankine theory we assumed a plastic equilibrium to have developed
throughout the soil mass at failure.
 By assuming various trial wedges at different trial angle 𝜆, the value of P will be
calculated.
 Highest value of P is for active earth pressure while lowers value of P is for
passive earth pressure.
 Rankine earth pressure theory overestimate the active EP and underestimate
the passive EP.
 For RW design use work on active E.P. theory
 Bridge abutment & basement wall are designed for earth pressure @rest and
sheet pile designed as passive EP.
 Due to compaction, Pa decreases & Pp increases and presence of WT increases
Pa and reduces Pp.
 There are 2 graphical methods to determine active and passive earth pressure
according to coulomb’s theory.
(A)Rehbonn’s method
(B)Culmenn’s method
Flexible retaining wall
 The RW that we have discussed in the EP theory were rigid retaining str.
Flexible retaining str. Are used to support the soil temporarily after the
excavation.
1. Cantilever sheet pile
In case of cantilever sheet pile, the stability is provided by passive earth pressure
develop ques the embedded depth.
2. Anchored bulk head :
In case of anchor bulk head, the depth of embedment is reduced due to
resistance provided by the anchorage (D’ < D)
3. Coffer dam
It is a temporary str. Usually constructed in a river, lake etc. to keep the working
area dry for construction.
Sheet pile wall in granular soil (C = 0)
 For checking the stability (or) finding out the depth of embedment required, we
use a simplistic approach in which pressure at the back of wall be assumed as
active and passive in front of sheet pile wall will be assumed as passive
throughout the depth.
Sheet pile wall in cohesive soil (𝝓 = 0)
Earth pressure distribution in case of anchored bulk head:
10. Shallow foundation
A shallow foundation transmits the structured load to soil strata at relatively
smaller depth.
𝐷𝑓
As per Terzaghi, it is the one for which ≤1
𝐵
𝐷𝑓
1. 𝐵
≤ 1 = shallow foundation
𝐷𝑓
2. 1 < 𝐵
≤ 15 = moderately foundation
𝐷𝑓
3. 𝐵
≤ 15 = deep foundation
Df = depth of footing
B = width of footing
 Type of shallow foundation
1. Strip footing
If L > > > B, the foundation is called strip footing (or) continuous footing and it is
used below the wall.
2. Isolated (spread) footing :
When the footing is supported only on 1 column.
3. Confined footing
When the footing is supported more than 1 column
4. Mat or raft foundation
If a single slab is supporting all the column of the building we call it mat if raft
foundation
5. Strap footing or beam
 It joins the 2 footing and it is not design to share the load of the buildings.
 The choice of particular type of footing depend upon,
(a)Magnitude of the load
(b)Nature of sub-soil strata & nature of super structure
Functional criteria like erosion, presence of plant roots, frost heave etc.
General requirements of shallow foundation
1. For satisfactory performance, foundation must be safe against shear failure.
This is called bearing capacity criteria.
2. Settlement of foundation should be within permissible limit, specially
differential settlement, settlement criteria
3. Foundation must be located at such a depth that it is not affected by seasonal
vol. changes by the presence of adjoining str.
4. Clay is having small shear strength hence shear failure criteria is governing in
case of clay, settlement criteria is governing in sand soil.
Except when sand in loose & footing is narrow
Basic terminology
1. Gross pressure or gross loading intensity (qg)
𝑃
qg = + 𝛾𝑡 𝐷𝑓
𝐵2
2. Net pressure or net loading intensity (qn)
If the foundation has done backfill,
𝑃
qn = − 𝛾𝑡 𝐷𝑓
𝐵2
𝑃
If the foundation has done backfill, qn =
𝐵2
3. Ultimate bearing capacity (qu)
The maximum gross intensity of loading that the soil can support before it fails
in shear is called ultimate bearing capacity.
4. Net ultimate bearing capacity (qnu)
The maximum net intensity of loading at the base of footing that the soil can
support before it fails in shear is called net ultimate bearing capacity.
5. Net safe bearing capacity (qns)
𝑞𝑛𝑢
qns =
𝐹𝑂𝑆
6. Gross safe bearing capacity (qs)
𝑞𝑛𝑢
qns = + 𝛾𝑡 𝐷𝑓
𝐹𝑂𝑆
7. Safe bearing pressure (qps)
The maximum net intensity of loading that can be allowed on-soil. Such that the
settlement does not exceed the permissible value.
No FOS is used while dealing with settlement
8. Allowable bearing pressure (qanet)
 Qanet is also called allowable bearing capacity by IS code. It is the maximum net
intensity of loading that can be apply on soil with no possibility of shear failure
(or) excessive settlement.
 Qanet = min (qns, qps)
 (Calculation of bearing capacity)
Analytical Building codes Filed test methods
methods
General shear Rankine’s method Standard
failure Bell’s theory penetration test
Punching shear Prandtl method Plate load test
failure Static cone
Terzaghi method
Local shear penetration
Skempton’s method
failure
Meyor’s method
Hensen’s
recommendations
Analytical method is based on shear failure criteria.
1. General shear failure
 Brittle type shear stress curve
 Dense sand, stiff clay (OC soil) with low compressibility.
 Failure pattern is well defined
 Tilting of foundation
∝ > 36o & DR > 70%
2. Local shear failure
 Failure plane is generally not well defined.
 Failure surface does not reach upto the ground and only slide heaving occurs.
 No tilting of foundation occurs and failure is not sudden.
 ∝ < 29o & 30% DR < 70%
3. Punching shear failure
 Relatively high compression of soil and failure is generally not divinely defined
 No heaving, no tilting and ultimate bearing capacity is not well defined occurs
in loose sand and large settlement occurs.
 Deep foundation have generally punching shear failure.
∝ < 29o & DR < 30%
 Parameter General shear Local shear
Failure Failure
1. Friction angle (𝜙) >36o < 28o
2. Strain of failure ≤5o ≥ 15o
3. S.P.T. number > 30 <5
4. Relative density > 17% <20%
5. Void ratio < 0.55 > 0.75
6. Unconfined > 100 kN/m2 < 80 kN/m2
Compressive strength
Terzaghi bearing capacity failure
Assumptions
1. Strip footing, homogeneous soil, base footing is rough
2. Shallow foundation, general shear failure, ground is horizontal
Shear strength is governed by Mohr’s coulomb criteria.
 Zone I = zone of elastic equilibrium
 Zone II = radial shear zone (shape of logarithmic spiral)
𝜙
 Zone III = Rankine’s passive zone 45 − with horizontal.
2
 For strip footing, qu = CNc + qNq + 0.5 B𝛾𝑁𝛾
 qnu = CNc + q(nq – 1) + 0.5 B𝛾𝑁𝛾
Nc, Nq & Nr are function of (𝜙) only. Bearing capacity factors increases as the value
of 𝜙 increases.
For clayey soil (𝜙 = 0)
Nc = 5.7 ; Nq = 1; Nr = 0
Qnu = 5.7C
For local shear failure condition (𝜙 < 29o)
2 2
Cm = 𝑐 and tan 𝜙𝑚 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙
3 3
For square footing, qnu = 1.3 CNc + q(Nq-1) + 0.4 B𝛾𝑁𝛾
For circular footing, qnu = 1.3 CNc + q(Nq-1) + 0.3 D𝛾𝑁𝛾
For rectangular footing,
𝐵 𝐵
(B < L) 𝑞𝑛𝑢 = 1 + 0.3 𝐶𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞 𝑁𝑞−1 + 1 − 0.2 0.5 B𝛾𝑁𝛾
𝐿 𝐿
Load carrying capacity in order; square > circular > strip footing.
Effect of water table on B.C. of soil
For strip footing, qnu = CNc + q(Nq-1) + 0.5 B𝛾𝑁𝛾
Case I : When water table below depth D = (Df + B)
Case II : When water table is between depth D = [Df to (Df + B)]
1
qnu = C.Nc + 𝛾𝑡 . 𝐷𝑓 𝑁𝑞 − 1 + 2 𝑥𝛾1 + 𝐵 − 𝑥 𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏 . 𝑁𝛾
Case III : When water table is in zone from depth (0 to DF)
1
qnu = C.Nc + [𝛾𝑡 . 𝑦 + 𝐷𝑓 − 𝑦 𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏 ]. (𝑁𝑞 −1) + 2 𝐵. 𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏 . 𝑁𝛾
Another way : (W.T. correction) in case of granular soil,
1
qnu = C.Nc + 𝐷𝑓 . 𝛾𝑡. 𝑁𝑞 − 1 . 𝑅𝑤 + 2 . 𝐵. 𝛾𝑡 . 𝑁𝛾 (𝑅′𝑤 )
𝐷𝑤 𝐷𝑤 𝐷′𝑤 𝐷′𝑤
Rw = 0.5 1 + 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 0 < ≤ 1 and Rw’ = 0.5 1 + 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 0 < <1
𝐷𝐹 𝐵 𝐵 𝐵
The rise of water table in cohesionless soils upto ground surface reduces the Net
ultimate bearing capacity by 50%
Skempton bearing capacity (for clayey soil)
It is applicable for saturated clay with 𝜙𝑢 = 0
𝑈𝐶𝑆
qnu = CNC where, C =
2
UCS = unconfined compression strength.
𝐷𝑓
Nc is a function of shape of footing & ratio.
𝐵
It can be applied to deeper footing.
(a)Strip footing
𝐷𝑓 𝐷𝑓 𝐷𝑓
Nc = 5 1 + 0.2 , < 2.5 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 ≥ 2.5, 𝑁𝑐 = 7.5)
𝐵 𝐵 𝐵
(a)Square circular footing
𝐷𝑓 𝐵 𝐷𝑓
Nc = 5 1 + 0.2 1+ 0.2 , < 2.5
𝐵 𝐿 𝐵
𝐷𝑓 0.2𝐵
For ≥ 2.5, 𝑁𝑐 = 7.5 1 +
𝐵 𝐿
Meyerhof’s approach
It can be apply to any depth of footing.
Shear strength of soil above the base of footing is taken into account.
1
qu = C.Nc [ic Sc dc] + q.Nq[iq Sq dq] + 𝐵. 𝛾. 𝑁𝛾 [𝑖𝛾 . 𝑆𝛾 . 𝑑𝑦 ]
2
Where, s : d : I are empirical correlation factor for shape, depth and inclination of
loading.
Nc, Nq, 𝑁𝛾 are used in mayerhoff approach is different from then in Terzaghi.
Although they are function of 𝜙 only.
For clayey soil, (𝜙 = 0), (Nc = 5.14; Nq = 1; 𝑁𝛾 = 0
Hensen and Vesic recommendation
Hensen & Vesic formula are similar to except that the value of Nc, Nq, 𝑁𝛾 would be
different.
IS code method
qnu = CNc Sc ic dc + q (Nq-1) Sq iq dq + 0.5 B 𝑁𝛾 𝑆𝛾 𝐼𝛾 𝐷𝛾 w’
W’ = W.T. correction factor
Bearing capacity based on field test
1. Standard penetration test
 It is suitable for granular soil.
 Split-spoon sampler is allowed to penetrate into the soil by applying impact
load 65 kg (or 63.5 kg) having free fall of 75 cm.
 No reading is taken for penetration of 150 mm depth.
 Further for 300 mm (reading taken) and no. of blows required to penetrate the
sampler to this 300 mm is the SPT n. value.
 The next test is carried out at level 750 mm below the previous test reference
level.
Area ratio = 110%
(a)Over burden corrections
 It is necessary because the N-value will have effect on it due to confinement of
soil at various depth.
350
N1 = ഥ +70
× 𝑁𝑜
𝜎
𝜎ത = effective stress (kN/m2)
N1 = correction N-value of overburden
No = observed SPT N-value
Overburden correction will not be applied if 𝜎ത > 280 kN/m2.
(a)Dilatancy correction
 It is applied to already corrected value.
 Saturated fine sand and silt (required only if N1 > 15)
𝑁1 −15
 N2 = 15 +
2
This correction becomes more significant to fine sense sand.
2. Plate load test
 IS 1888 : 1992 and used for cohesionless soil.
 Used to calculate
1. Ultimate bearing capacity of soil.
2. Allowable bearing pressure corresponding to a particular. Permissible
settlement of foundation.
3. Settlement of foundation itself.
 Circular or square bearing plates of mild steels are used, of thickness not less
than 25 mm and varying in size from 300 mm to 750 mm (300, 450, 600, 750)
are used. Smaller size plates are used in dense or stiff soils where as larger
plates are being used in loose or soft soils.
 Plate load test is the short duration test. Hence, settlement is only Immediate
settlement. However, in cohesive soil settlement is actually long term
settlement. Hence, settlement of clay cannot be predicted by this test.
 Double tangent technique (B.C. of soil) when peak is not identified.
In granular soil,
𝑞𝑢𝑓 𝐵𝑓
=
𝑞𝑢𝑝 𝐵𝑝
2
𝑆𝐹 𝐵𝑓 (𝐵𝑝 +0.3)
=
𝑆𝑃 𝐵𝑝 (𝐵𝑓 +0.3)

Bp & Bf in ‘m’
In clay soil,
quf = qup
𝑆𝐹 𝐵𝑓
=
𝑆𝑃 𝐵𝑝

Bf = width of footing
Bp = width of plate
quf = ultimate bearing capacity of footing
qup = Ultimate bearing capacity of plate
3. Static cone penetration test
 Particularly for soft, silts and fine to medium sand particles.
 The cone will be 10 cm2 in area with an apex angle of 60o
Continuous record penetration
Settlement of foundation :
Stotal = Simmediate + Spirmary consolidation + Ssecondary consolidation
𝑞𝑛 𝐵(1−𝝁2 )𝐼𝑓
Si =
𝐸𝑆
Si = Immediate elastic settlement
qn = Net foundation pressure
B = width of foundation
𝜇 = Poisson ration
E = Modulus of elasticity of soil
If = Influence factor
It depends on the shape and rigids of the structure.
(Si)rigid = 0.8 × (si) flexible
Foundation pressure (or) contact pressure
1. For flexible footing (uniform pressure distribution)
(A) In clay

(B) In granular soil

1. For rigid footing (non-uniform pressure distribution)
(A)In clay

(B) In granular soil

Settlement
Total settlement Differential
(mm) settlement
Isolated footing 65 40
on clay 40 25
Isolated footing 65-100 40
on sand
40-65 25
Raft on clay
Raft on sand
11. Deep Foundation
Pile is a small dia. shaft which can be driven or installed into ground, where as
piers and well foundation are large dia. shafts, constructed by excavation and
sunk to the required depth.
Classification of piles
1. Cased on material : Timber piles, steel piles, concrete piles, compaction piles.
2. Based on method of installation : Driven piles, bored and cast-in-situ piles,
driven and cast-in-situ piles, jack piles and screw piles.
3. Based on function or action : Load bearing piles, tension or uplifts piles,
compaction piles, anchor piles, fender piles, sheet piles, batter piles.
4. Based on displacement of soil
(a)Displacement pile : It large volume of soil is laterally displaced during driving.
(b)Non-displacement pile : do not displace the soil significantly during installation.
In loose sand (3.5D) & clay (2D)
5. Based on mode of transfer of liquid
(a)End bearing piles : Use to transfer load through the pile tip to a suitable
bearing stratum, passing soft or water.
(b)Friction piles : Used to transfer loads to a depth in a frictional material by
means of skin friction along the surface area of the pile and it is also known as
floating piles.
Combined end bearing & friction piles : Used to transfer load through the
combined action of end bearing and friction along the surface area of pile.
Static pile load formula :
Qu = Qpu + Qf
Qpu > > > Qf (point bearing pile) & Qpu < < < Qpf (friction pile)
Qu = ultimate pile load capacity
Qpu = ultimate point bearing capacity
Qf = frictional capacity
Driven pile in sand
Qpu = qp At
Qp = point bearing resistance
Ab = area of base pile
Qf = fsAs
Fs = frictional resistance
As = surface area of pile
Qp = qNq + 0.5 B𝛾𝑁𝛾
𝜎ത = eff. Stress at the base of the pile
 In case of sand 𝜎ത is taken corresponding to a depth of
(a)15D for loose to medium sand
(b)20D for dense sand
fs = ks 𝜎ത𝑎𝑣𝑔 tan 𝛿
 Pile material 𝜹 K
Loose sand Dense sand
1. Steel 20o 0.5 1
2. Concrete ¾𝜙 1 2
3. Timber 2/3 𝜙 1.5 4
As per IS code 𝜹 is taken as ‘𝜙’ and value of ‘K’ is adopted between 1 to 3.
Piles in clay
qp = CuNc & Fs = ∝ Cu
Nc = 0 (as per skempton)
∝ = adhesion factor
Cu = average over the length of pile
For soft to very soft clay, (∝ = 1) & very stiff clay (∝ = 0.3).
Ultimate load capacity of pile group
𝑢𝑔
𝜂=
𝑛 ×𝑄𝑢
𝜂 = Group efficiency
Qu = Single pile in group
Minimum spacing of pile as per IS code,
(a)S = 2.5d (point bearing piles)
(b)S = 3d (friction piles)
S = 2d (loose sand & filled deposite)
Pile capacity using dynamic pile formula
It is based on the penetration resistance imported to pile driving. Work done =
Energy imported
Qu.S = WH
1. Engineering news formula
Where,
𝑊𝐻
Qallowable =
𝐹𝑂𝑆 𝑆+𝐶
6 = FOS ; W = wt of mass drop
H = ht of free fall (in cm)
S = Settlement per blow in (cm)
C = empirical factor
C = 2.5 cm (for drop hammer)
C = 0.25 cm (for single acting stream hammer)
1. Modified hilly formula (IS. Code)
𝑊.ℎ.𝜂
Ultimate driving resistance (R) = 𝐶
𝑆+ 2

Where,
W = wt. of hammer (Tonnes)
h = Ht. of fall (cm)
S = final set per blow (Last one) [c.m.]
C = Total elastic compression per Blow.
C = Elastic compression of pile + elastic compression of soil + elastic compression
of Dolly
𝜂 = Efficiency of blow. Depends on the coeff. Of restitution
Negative skin friction (Down drag)
It is a phenomenon which occurs when a portion soil layer surrounding a pile
settles more than the pile.
A negative skin friction can be reduced either by providing a casing around the
pile or by providing a bitumen coating around the precast pile.
Under reamed pile
 It is suitable for expansive soils.
 The under reamed pile are bored, cast-in-situ concrete piles with a bulb at its
bottom, In double under reamed pile, there are two bulbs.
 The diameter of the bulb is taken 2 to 3 times shaft diameter.
 The vertical spacing between the two bulbs should not be less than 1.5 times
for bulb diameter up 30 cm. For larger diameter piles, the minimum spacing is
1.25 times the bulb diameter.
 Minimum horizontal spacing of piles should be 2 times the bulb diameter under
normal loading. The maximum spacing should not exceed 2.5 m to a avoid pile
cap problem.
Pile load test : Divides into Initial test & Routine test.
 Initial test are carried out on test pile to assess the allowable load or to check
the settlement at working load.
 Where as routine test are carried out on working piles for the assessment of
settlement under working laod.
 Pile load test provide very useful results for design for cohesionless soil.
Types of pile load test
(a)Vertical load / compression load test
(b)Lateral laod test
(c)Pull out test
(d)Constant rate of penetration test
(e)Cyclic load test is carried out when it is required to determine, skin friction and
end bearing separately for a pile load on a single pile
Out of all the above test generally vertical load test is carried out as an initial &
routine test.
Settlement of pile groups
Settlement of pile group is generally greater than the settlement of individual pile
to same loading.
1. Settlement of pile groups in clay
Case 1 : When pile is embedded in uniform clay deposit
 2 𝐻
𝜎ത0 = 𝐿 + × 𝛾𝑡
3 2
𝑃
∆𝜎ത = 𝐻 𝐻
𝐵+ 2 𝐿+ 2

𝐶𝑐 ഥ𝑜 +∆ഥ
𝜎 𝜎
∆𝐻 = . 𝐻. 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ഥ
(1+𝑒𝑜 ) 𝜎𝑜
Case 2 : When piles are driven into strong stratum through an overlaying weak
stratum.
𝐶𝑐 ഥ𝑜 +∆ഥ
𝜎 𝜎𝑜
∆𝐻 = . 𝐻. 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ഥ𝑜
(1+𝑒𝑜 ) 𝜎
Case 3 : In case of bored piles or end bearing piles resting on firm stratum
𝐶𝑐 ഥ𝑜 +∆ഥ
𝜎 𝜎𝑜
∆𝐻 = . 𝐻. 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ഥ𝑜
(1+𝑒𝑜 ) 𝜎
𝜎ത𝑜 = effective stress @ A
2. Settlement of pile group in clay
𝑆𝑔 4𝐵+2.7 2
Group settlement Ratio = =
𝑆𝑖 𝐵+3.6
Sg = Group settlement at the same load of pile group
B = Size of pile group in (meter)
Si = settlement of individual pile calculated from the pile load test.
12. Stability of slopes
 Slope failure occurs when the forces causing failure are greater than the
shearing resistance develop along the critical surface of failure.
Assumptions
1. Any slope stability problem is a two-dimensional one.
2. The shear parameters of the soil are constant along any possible slip surface.
In problems involving seepage of water, the flow net can be constructed and the
seepage forces can be determined.
Stability of infinite slope
𝜏𝑓 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
FOS = =
𝜏 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
1. Cohesionless soils,
tan 𝜙
(C = 0) (Dry case) FOS =
tan 𝛽
For FOS > 1; 𝛽 < 𝜙;
For FOS = 1; 𝛽 = 𝜙;
 𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙
(Submerged case) (Seepage) FOS =
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 tan 𝛽
𝐶+ 𝜎 tan 𝜙
2. Cohesive soils (C - 𝜙 soils) FOS =
𝜏
𝐶+ 𝛾𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙
FOS =
𝛾𝑧 cos 𝛽 sin 𝛽

3. Critical height (Hc) of slope for which F = 1 (i.e. 𝜏𝑓 = 𝜏)

𝐶
Hc =
𝛾𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽(tan 𝛽−tan 𝜙)
4. Stability number,
𝐶 𝐶
Sn = = = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽(tan 𝛽 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙)
𝛾𝐻𝑐 𝛾𝐹𝑐 𝐻
Theoretical value of stability number (Sn) is 0.5 but practically it is in the range of
0.26.
Stability of finite slope
Stability analysis is generally done either using total stress analysis (or) effective
stress analysis.
Total stress analysis is used for immediately after construction check, eff stress
analysis is used for long time after construction stability check.
(A)Various method based on total stress analysis
 Swedish circle method
 Friction circle method
 𝜙𝑢 = 0 analysis
(B) Various method based on effective stress analysis
 Taylor’s method
 Bishop’s method
1. Swedish circle method (method of slices)
This method is suitable for both C-
(A) Purely cohesive

𝐶𝑅 2 𝜃
FOS =
𝑊𝑑
(B) Cohesive frictional soil

𝐶𝑅 𝜃+∑𝑁 tan 𝜙
FOS =
∑𝑇
2. Friction circle method
 Failure surface is assumed as circular arch.
 This method is based on the assumption that the resultant force R on the
rupture surface is tangential to a circle of radius 𝛾 = 𝑅 sin 𝜙 which is concentric
with the trial slip circle.
 Friction is assumed to be fully mobilized.
𝐶
 FC = and
𝐶𝑚
tan 𝜙 tan 𝜙
F𝜙 = =
tan 𝛽 tan 𝜙𝑚
3. Taylor’s stability number (Sn)
This method is based on effective stress approach & in this method a
dimensionless parameter, Taylor’s stability No. is define,
𝐶
Sn =
𝛾𝑡 𝐻𝐹𝑐
+to fine the stability No. we use stability chart corresponding to 𝜙 & 𝛽 value.
Sn = f(𝛽, 𝜙)
Once, Sn is known, FOS can be calculated.
13. Soil Exploration
The field and laboratory studies carried out for obtaining the necessary
information about the soil characteristics including the position of ground water
table.
1. Preliminary stage ⟶ In this stage we do geological study of site and the site
reconnaissance.
2. Detailed stage ⟶ Detailed site investigation is foiled by preliminary stage.
Methods of boring
1. Auger boring
 It is preferred for shallow foundation, Highways & borrow pits.
 It is done on partially saturated sands, silts and medium to stiff clays.
Hand operated augers (upto 6m) & power driven Augers (upto 15 m)
2. Wash boring
 It cannot be used efficiently in hard soils, rocks and soil containing boulders.
 Undisturbed sample cannot be taken
3. Percussion boring
 Gravel and Boulder are suitable
4. Rotary boring
 Dense sand and dense clay
 Except rocks
 Bentonite used
 Least disturbed samples
Soil sample
Disturbed sample are those in which natural soil structure get modified or
destroyed during the sampling operation.
Representative samples are being used for identification purpose where as non-
representative samples are of no use.
Undisturbed sample are those in which original soil structure is preserved as well
as mineral properties have not undergone any change,
(A) Inside clearance
𝐷3 −𝐷1
𝐶𝑖 = × 100 (1 to 3%)
𝐷1
a. Outside clearance
𝐷2 −𝐷4
CD = × 100 (0 to 2%) (Co > Ci)
𝐷4
 𝐴2 −𝐴1
a. Area ration = Ar = × 100 <20 stiff clay < 19 sensitive clay
𝐴1
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
b. Recovery ration : of sampling tube
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
= 1 good recovery
< 1 compressed
> 1 swelled
Good quality of sampler should have low area ratio and low outside clearance.
 Samplers types :
 Thin wall samplers (IS : 2132 – 1972) is used for obtaining undisturbed samples.
 Thick wall sampler is used for obtaining disturbed samples.
 Piston sampler are useful for saturated sand and soft and well soils which
cannot be sampled by open drive sampler.
 Rotary sampler (double walled tube sampler) are useful for hard cohesive soil &
rocks. The rock quality can be estimated by using the core recovery ratio
termed as rock quality designation (RQD)
Field test
The field tests commonly used in subsurface investigation are
1. Geophysical methods
2. Penetration test
3. Pressure meter test
4. Vane shear test
5. Plate load test
14. Expansive soils
The soil which has tendency to increase in volume in presence of water and
decrease in volume in absence of water are called as Expansive soils or swelling
soils.
Black cotton soil is one of the best example of expansive soil
Identification of expansive soils
1. Free swell test
In this test 10cm3 of dry soil sample is passed through 425 mm sieve, into a 100
cm3 graduated cylinder filled with water.
The volume of swelled soil is observed on the graduated circle after 24 hours.
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒−𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Free swell % = × 100
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
 Mineral present in Free swell
clay (%)
Montmorillonite 1200 – 2000
Kaolinite 80
Illite 30 – 80
2. Differential free swell test
 In this test two sample of dry soil weighing 10 gm each, passing through 425
mm sieve are taken.
 One of these sample is poured into a 50 cm3 graduated cylinder containing
distilled water
 Their volume are noted after 24 hours.
𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟−𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑒
DFS = × 100%
𝑆𝑂𝑖𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑒

Degree of expansiveness DFS, Per cent

Low Less than 20

Moderate 20 to 35
High 35 to 50
Very high Greater than 50
Shallow foundations are not advisable in soil having high and very high DFS.
3. Plasticity index, shrinkage limit and colloidal content
 Higher the plasticity index, higher will be the swelling index.
 Lower shrinkage limit, soil will starts swelling at low water content
Higher the colloidal content, higher will be the possibility of expansion.
Plasticity Swelling
index potential
0 to 15 Low
10 to 35 Medium
20 to 40 High
> 35 Very high
Soil stabilization
It is the process by which the strength and stability of a soil mass is improved and
increased.
1. Mechanical stabilization
 Improving soil properties by changing its gradation.
 It includes compacting and densification of soil matter by application of
mechanical energy using roller, rammers, vibration technique.
 No chemicals are added and used for base course of roads.
2. Lime stabilization
 It is one of the cheapest soil stabilization methods
 Generally added in the range of 5% to 10%
 Different type if line hydrated high calcium lime, monohydrated dolomite lime,
calcite quick lime, dolomite lime.
3. Chemical stabilization
Used to reduced the permeability of soil, increase bearing capacity and improve
shear strength.