Student Name: Shahid Khan

Student ID : 0000948579
Description : Introduction to international relations
Program: BS IR
Course code : 9570
Semester: Spring 2025
Assignment no: 01

Q1 Define the term international relations? Discuss it's importance as field of study in modern globalized
world?

Introduction to international relations

International Relations is defined as the study of the relationships between nations, states, and other
actors on the global stage. It involves analyzing the interactions between sovereign entities,
intergovernmental organizations, non-state actors, and multinational corporations. IR is concerned with
understanding the dynamics of power, cooperation, and conflict among these actors, and how they
shape international institutions, norms, and laws.

The field of international relations emerged at the beginning of the 20th century largely in the West and
in particular in the United States as that country grew in power and influence. Whereas the study of
international relations in the newly founded Soviet Union and later in communist China was stultified by
officially imposed Marxist ideology, in the West the field flourished as the result of a number of factors:
a growing demand to find less-dangerous and more-effective means of conducting relations between
peoples, societies, governments, and economies. Studies of international relations started thousands of
years ago; Barry Buzan and Richard Little considered the interaction of ancient Sumerian city-states,
starting in 3,500 BC, as the first fully-fledged international system.Analyses of the foreign policies of
sovereign city states have been done in ancient times, The contemporary field of international relations,
however, analyzes the connections existing between sovereign nation-states. This makes the
establishment of the modern state system the natural starting point of international relations history .

International relations :

International relations (IR,) and also referred to as international studies, international politics or
international affairs.

International relations (IR) is the study of how countries and other global actors interact with each other.
It explores the political, economic, cultural, and social relationships between these actors, encompassing
diplomacy, conflict resolution, and international policy-making. IR is a multidisciplinary field that draws
on various academic disciplines like political science, history, economics, and law. International Relations
Definition: International Relations is defined as the study of the relationships between nations, states,
and other actors on the global stage. It involves analyzing the interactions between sovereign entities,
intergovernmental organizations, non-state actors, and multinational corporations. IR is concerned with
understanding the dynamics of power, cooperation, and conflict among these actors, and how they
shape international institutions, norms, and laws.

Concept of international relation

Diplomacy is a crucial instrument, employing dialogue and negotiation to adjust differences between
states, and is distinct from foreign policy, which sets goals and strategies . Globalization integrates
economies, politics, and cultures through interconnectedness and interdependence, facilitated by
technology and liberal trade policies . International organizations like the UN foster cooperation by
providing forums for bargaining and settling disputes, serving as instruments for states' foreign policies .
The concept of sovereignty, while traditionally implying unrestricted power, is now limited by
international laws and agreements . These concepts shape the interactions and relationships between
states in the international arena .

International Relations and Its Studies

International relations is an academic discipline.In a broader sense, the study of IR, in addition to
multilateral relations, concerns all activities among states such as war, diplomacy, trade, and foreign
policy as well as relations with and among other international actors, such as intergovernmental
organizations (IGOs), international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs), international legal bodies,
and multinational corporations (MNCs).international relations, the study of the relations of states with
each other and with international organizations and certain subnational entities (e.g., bureaucracies,
political parties, and interest groups). It is related to a number of other academic disciplines, including
political science, geography, history, economics, law, sociology, psychology, and philosophy.

International Relations is an interdisciplinary field that draws on economics, political science, sociology,
anthropology, and history. It encompasses a wide range of subfields, including:
1. Diplomacy: The study of negotiations, treaties, and agreements between states.

2. Foreign Policy: The analysis of a state’s actions and decisions regarding its relations with other states.

3. Conflict Resolution: The study of methods and strategies for resolving conflicts between states and
non-state actors.

4. Globalization: The study of the impact of global economic, technological, and cultural trends on
international relations.

5. International Law: The study of rules and norms that regulate the behavior of states and non-state
actors.

Aspects of International Relations:

Interactions between States:

IR examines how nations interact in the global system, including their diplomatic relations, trade
agreements, and military alliances.

Global Actors:

Besides states, IR also considers the roles of international organizations (like the UN), non-governmental
organizations (NGOs), multinational corporations, and even individuals in shaping global affairs.

Multidisciplinary Approach:

IR draws on various fields to understand global phenomena. This includes Political Science: Examining
power dynamics, political systems, and foreign policy decision-making.

History: Understanding past events and their impact on current relationships.

Economics: Analyzing trade, finance, and economic development in an international context.

Law: Exploring international law, human rights, and legal frameworks governing state interactions.

Sociology and Psychology: Understanding social and psychological factors influencing international
behavior.

Importance of IR:

International relations are crucial for fostering peace, cooperation, and understanding between nations,
especially in an increasingly interconnected world. They help address global challenges like climate
change, pandemics, and economic crises through cooperation and diplomacy. Studying international
relations also enhances critical thinking skills and provides a framework for understanding the
complexities of global issues and the interconnectedness of different countries. The significance of
international relations lies in its profound impact on shaping global dynamics and fostering cooperation
among nations in an increasingly interconnected world. Some reasons why international relations is of
utmost importance are:

1. Understanding Global Issues: IR helps us understand the complexities of global issues such as climate
change, terrorism, pandemics, and economic crises.

2. Promoting Peace and Security: By studying IR, policymakers and scholars can develop strategies to
prevent conflicts and promote peace and security.International relations provides the framework for
diplomacy, negotiation, and conflict resolution, helping to prevent wars and promote stability.By
studying the dynamics of international politics, policymakers can develop strategies to address potential
conflicts and promote peaceful resolutions.

3. Advancing Cooperation: IR fosters greater cooperation among states and non-state actors, leading to
better outcomes in areas such as trade, human rights, and sustainable development.

4. Addressing Emerging Challenges: IR enables us to respond effectively to emerging challenges such as

cyber threats, nuclear proliferation, and the rise of new global powers..

5.Facilitating Cooperation and Development:

International relations fosters cooperation on issues like trade, human rights, and sustainable
development, leading to positive outcomes for all involved.It enables nations to pool resources, share
information, and work together to address global challenges that no single country can solve alone. .

6. Enhancing Cultural Understanding:

International relations promotes cultural exchange, understanding, and appreciation between different
nations and societies. This can lead to greater tolerance, respect, and collaboration on a global scale.

7. Fostering Economic Growth:

International relations plays a key role in facilitating trade, investment, and economic growth between
countries. It helps create a stable and predictable international environment that encourages economic
activity and development.

8. Developing Critical Thinking Skills:

Studying international relations encourages critical thinking, analysis, and problem-solving skills, which
are valuable in many different fields.It helps individuals understand the complexities of global issues and
develop informed opinions on international affairs.

international relations, the study of the relations of states with each other and with international
organizations and certain subnational entities (e.g., bureaucracies, political parties, and interest groups).
It is related to a number of other academic disciplines, including political science, geography, history,
economics, law, sociology, psychology, and philosophy.

International relation as a modern field of study

In today's interconnected world, International Relations (IR) is crucial for understanding and navigating
the complexities of globalized interactions. It provides a framework for analyzing relationships between
states, international organizations, and non-state actors, fostering cooperation and addressing shared
challenges like climate change, pandemics, and economic crises.International relations are when various
forces collide and interact at different levels: state, military, economic, political, social, and intellectual.
Modern international relations are characterized by dynamic development and unpredictability that
impact relations between countries and all spheres of human life.Modern international relations are
being transformed, and these transformations directly affect the domestic and foreign policies of
various states. There is also an influence on the individual, his worldview, the principles of interaction
with other people, and, in general, on his entire life structure. Independent states develop by interacting
with each other, influencing the development of world politics.

Interdisciplinary Nature:

IR draws on various disciplines, including political science, economics, history, law, sociology, and
anthropology, to understand the complexities of global interactions.

Beyond State-Centric View:

While states remain central to IR, the field also examines the roles of intergovernmental organizations
(IGOs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), multinational corporations (MNCs), and even
individuals.

Contemporary Issues:

Modern IR explores a wide range of contemporary issues, including globalization, international security,
human rights, environmental challenges, and global governance.

Diverse Perspectives:

IR scholarship includes diverse theoretical perspectives, such as positivist/rationalist theories (realism,

liberalism, rational choice) and post-positivist/reflectivist theories (constructivism, critical theory).

Global Focus:

While originating largely in the West, IR is now studied globally, with different regions and countries
contributing unique perspectives and approaches.

Practice and Policy:

IR is not just an academic discipline but also a field of practice, with governments, international
organizations, and other actors engaging in foreign policy and international affairs.

Globalization and International Relations

Globalization has disrupted the nature of the international arena, which is now fully inclusive and
interdependent. As more nations, people and cultures adjust to an ever-changing international
community, diplomats, politicians, and representatives must adapt to the needs of society.
Internationalization links cultures and diplomacy to multiple levels; economic, political, social, and
others (Bamigboye, 2020). It has strengthened the observance and application of international laws,
guidelines, rules, and policies between countries.

Globalization increases worldwide technology, and the readability of fast, effective communication and
consumption of popular products. Globalization links cultures and international relations on a variety of
levels; economics, politically, socially, etc. International relations have used globalization to reach its
goal: of understanding cultures. International relations focus on how countries, people and
organizations interact and globalization is making a profound effect on International
relations.Understanding culture, globalization, and international relations is critical for the future of not
only governments, people, and businesses, but for the survival of the human race. In today’s
increasingly interdependent and turbulent world, many of the leading issues in the news concern
international affairs. Whether it is the continuing impact of globalization, Globalization the process of
continuing integration of the countries in the world is strongly underway in all parts of the globe. It is a
complex interconnection between capitalism and democracy, which involves positive and negative
features, that both empowers and disempowers individuals and groups.From the other hand
Globalization is a popular term used by governments, business, academic and a range of diverse non-
governmental organizations. It also, however, signifies a new paradigm within world politics and
economic relations. While national governments for many years dictated the international political and
economic scene, international organizations such as the World Bank, International Monetary Fund and
the World Trade Organization have now become significant role players. In this “Global Village” national
governments have lost some of their importance and perhaps their powers in favour of these major
international organizations. As a process of interaction and integration among people, companies and
governments of different nations Globalization is a process driven by the International Trade and
Investment and aided by Information technology. This process on the environment on culture, on
political system, on economic development and prosperity, and on human physical well-being in
societies around the world.

Conclusion

In conclusion, International Relations is a dynamic and multifaceted field of study that examines the
interactions between nations, states, and non-state actors on the global stage. With its rich history,
diverse theoretical perspectives, and interdisciplinary approaches, international relations provides a
framework for understanding the complexities of global politics and the ways in which actors interact
and shape the world around them.

As the world becomes increasingly interconnected, the study of International Relations becomes more
important than ever. It helps us understand global issues, promote peace and security, advance
cooperation, and address emerging challenges. By studying international relations, we can gain valuable
insights into the complexities of global politics and develop effective strategies for navigating the rapidly
changing world of international relations.
Q2) Analyze the foundational theories of international relations? Focusing on classical realism and
neorealism?How does these theories address power dynamics among states?

Ans) Theories of international relation

The five main theories of international relations include: realism theory, liberalism theory, Marxism
theory, constructivism theory, and feminism theory.

Realism

Realism is the theory that states are motivated by national interests and that governments act primarily
to maintain their security and influence over other countries. This theory focuses on power and state-to-
state interaction, viewing international politics as a struggle for power among states.Realism, in regard
to international relations, is the approach that emphasizes the self-interest of the state within a
competitive system. The realism approach regards the international community as more or less
competitive, meaning each state acts in its own best interest at the expense of others.

Liberalism

Liberalism is one of the most influential theories in international relations because it emphasizes the
importance of individual rights and freedoms as well as democracy. This theory focuses on how states
can cooperate with each other to create an international society that promotes peace and prosperity for
all individuals regardless of their nationality or status Liberalism aims to create favorable conditions for
long-term peace and harmony by encouraging specific political philosophies. The liberal theory in
international relations is based on the idea of individual sovereignty. It seeks to protect the rights of
individuals and to establish laws for all states regardless of their size or power. The liberal theory in
international relations does not assume that there are any universal values that can be applied
universally to all countries.

Marxism

Marxism is a philosophy of thought that advocates class struggle as the motor force of history. Marxists
believe that capitalism creates the conditions for conflict among countries by creating economic
inequalities among countries and by forcing some countries to compete for resources with others.

Constructivism

Constructivism theory is a theory that states that international relations are constructed through
reciprocal interactions between states. This theory purports that international relations were about
power, not about collective security or economic development.

Feminism
Feminism theory is another theoretical approach to international relations that focuses on gender
inequality and how it affects nations and their relationship with each other.

Realism Theory In International Relations

The realism theory in international relations is a theory that states that the state and its security is the
most important factor of international relations. It has been criticized for being too simple and not
explaining certain factors like culture, religion, or social change. The realism theory has been used to
justify many different policies by both supporters and opponents of the realist viewpoint. It has
influenced some foreign policy decisions in the past, including the Cold War.Realism theory is a political
theory that views international order as a competitive arena where every state focuses on its individual
interests, disregarding what happens with other nations. For this reason, realism theory has been
criticized for being too anarchist.

Realism theory has been applied in various countries such as Germany, China, Russia, and Iran. However,
it was never applied fully in these countries because they were too concerned with their own national
interests. Russia is an example of a country that follows this realism theory. They have always prioritized
their own national interests over others'. This is evident in their foreign policy decisions where they
typically choose to have bilateral relations with other countries rather than multilateral ones. China also
follows this realism theory because of its focus on domestic development rather than international
affairs.

Statism: Realists believe that nation states are the main actors in international politics. As such it is a
state-centric theory of international relations. This contrasts with liberal international relations theories
which accommodate roles for non-state actors and international institutions. This difference is
sometimes expressed by describing a realist world view as one which sees nation states as billiard balls,
liberals would consider relationships between states to be more of a cobweb.

Survival: Realists believe that the international system is governed by anarchy, meaning that there is no
central authority. Therefore, international politics is a struggle for power between self-interested states.

Self-help: Realists believe that no other states can be relied upon to help guarantee the state's survival.

Realism makes several key assumptions. It assumes that nation-states are unitary, geographically based
actors in an anarchic international system with no authority above capable of regulating interactions
between states as no true authoritative world government exists. Secondly, it assumes that sovereign
states, rather than intergovernmental organizations, non-governmental organizations, or multinational
corporations, are the primary actors in international affairs. Thus, states, as the highest order, are in
competition with one another. As such, a state acts as a rational autonomous actor in pursuit of its own
self-interest with a primary goal to maintain and ensure its own security and thus its sovereignty and
survival. Realism holds that in pursuit of their interests, states will attempt to amass resources, and that
relations between states are determined by their relative levels of power. That level of power is in turn
determined by the state's military, economic, and political capabilities. Some realists, known as human
nature realists or classical realists,believe that states are inherently aggressive, that territorial expansion
is constrained only by opposing powers, while others, known as offensive/defensive realists believe that
states are obsessed with the security and continuation of the state's existence. The defensive view can
lead to a security dilemma, where increasing one's own security can bring along greater instability as the
opponents builds up its own arms, making security a zero-sum game where only relative gains can be
made.

Neorealism

Neorealism or structural realism is a development of realism advanced by Kenneth Waltz in Theory of

International Politics. It is, however, only one strand of neorealism. Joseph Grieco has combined neo-
realist thinking with more traditional realists. This strand of theory is sometimes called "modern
realism".

Waltz's neorealism contends that the effect of structure must be taken into account in explaining state
behavior. It shapes all foreign policy choices of states in the international arena. For instance, any
disagreement between states derives from lack of a common power (central authority) to enforce rules
and maintain them constantly. Thus, there is constant anarchy in the international system that makes it
necessary for states to obtain strong weapons to guarantee their survival. Additionally, in an anarchic
system, states with greater power have a tendency to increase their influence further. According to neo-
realists, structure is considered an extremely important element in IR and is defined in a twofold
manner as:

1) the ordering principle of the international system, which is anarchy,

2) the distribution of capabilities across units. Waltz also challenges traditional realism's emphasis on
traditional military power, instead characterizing power in terms of the combined capabilities of the
state.

Waltz's version of neorealism has frequently been characterized as "Defensive Realism", whereas John
Mearsheimer is a proponent of a different version of neorealism characterized as "Offensive Realism.

Neorealism theory in international relations

Neorealism or structural realism is a theory of international relations that emphasizes the role of power
politics in international relations, sees competition and conflict as enduring features and sees limited
potential for cooperation. The anarchic state of the international system means that states cannot be
certain of other states' intentions and their security, thus prompting them to engage in power politics.
For neorealists, social norms are considered largely irrelevant. This is in contrast to some classical
realists which did see norms as potentially important. Neorealists are also skeptical of the ability of
international organizations to act independently in the international system and facilitate cooperation
between states.

Power dynamics and balancing of power in international relation

In international relations (IR) theories, power dynamics play a central role in shaping state behavior and
interactions. Theories like realism emphasize the pursuit of power and security as primary drivers for
states, while liberalism highlights cooperation and interdependence. Constructivism focuses on how
shared ideas and norms shape state identities and interests, influencing power dynamics. The dynamics
of power play a central role in shaping the interactions and behaviors of states within the international
system. The balance of power, often regarded as a core concept in international relations (IR), influences
not only the survival and strategies of states but also the broader geopolitical order. Looking into this
perspective, this research article aims to evaluate the multifarious nature of power in international
relations by deeply examining how it is conceptualized, contested, and deployed across different
theoretical frameworks.

Q3) Trace the historical development of modern state system. Discuss the concept of sovereignty and
legitimacy and how they are impacted by globalization ?

Ans) The modern state is a contingent historical development, born in blood--not a permanent or
inevitable feature of human society.The modern state, characterized by defined territory, sovereignty,
and a centralized government, evolved primarily from European experiences and spread globally
through conquest, colonialism, and decolonization. Its development involved shifts from feudal systems
to centralized, bureaucratic structures, with the concept of the state as a distinct entity separate from
the ruler taking hold over time. Key events like the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 and the subsequent rise
of nationalism further shaped the modern state system.

Early Influences and Origins:

Pre-Modern States:

The foundations of the modern state can be traced back to earlier forms of political organization,
including Greek and Roman city-states, and subsequent kingdoms and empires.

The Rise of the Nation-State:

The concept of a nation-state, where a state is identified with a nation or people, gained prominence in
Europe, particularly after the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. This treaty established the principle of state
sovereignty, a cornerstone of the modern state system.

European Transformations:

The English Civil War, the French Revolution, and the Industrial Revolution significantly impacted the
development of the modern state in Europe by challenging existing power structures and fostering ideas
of popular sovereignty and national identity.

The modern state system, characterized by sovereign, independent states, has evolved over centuries,
with its roots in the European experience and its spread through conquest, colonialism, and
decolonization. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 is often cited as a key moment, establishing the
principle of state sovereignty and non-interference in domestic affairs. This system then spread globally,
particularly after decolonization following World War II.

Ancient Roots:

The concept of a state can be traced back to ancient Greece with city-states and later to the Roman
Empire.

Westphalian System:

The Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 is considered a foundational moment, establishing the principle of
state sovereignty and non-interference in the internal affairs of other states.

Expansion and Transformation:

European Dominance:

European states expanded their power through colonialism, bringing the state system to other parts of
the world.

Decolonization:

After World War II, many former colonies gained independence, leading to the spread of the modern
state system globally.

Evolution of the State:

The modern state has evolved over time, with different forms of governance emerging, including
parliamentary systems, presidential systems, and hybrid models.

Elements of a Modern State:

* Population: A group of people inhabiting a defined territory.

* Territory: A defined geographical area with recognized borders.

* Government: A political entity with the authority to govern the population within the territory.

* Sovereignty: The state's supreme authority and independence from external control.

In the context of Pakistan:

Pakistan is a federal parliamentary republic, meaning it has a government with three branches
(executive, legislative, and judicial) and operates under a constitution. The executive branch, led by the
Prime Minister, is accountable to the Parliament, which is made up of the Senate (upper house) and the
National Assembly (lower house). The judicial branch, headed by the Supreme Court, is responsible for
interpreting and applying the law.
Characteristics

Territoriality:

Modern states are defined by their clearly delineated geographical boundaries, distinguishing them from
earlier, less territorially defined polities.

Sovereignty:

The concept of sovereignty, the supreme authority within a territory, is central to the modern state.

Centralization of Power:

Modern states tend to have centralized systems of administration and governance, with power
concentrated in a central authority.

Bureaucracy:

Modern states are characterized by complex bureaucratic structures, with specialized institutions and
officials responsible for carrying out various state functions.

Nationalism:

The rise of nationalism, a sense of shared identity and belonging among a population, played a crucial
role in the formation and consolidation of modern states.

Spread and Evolution:

Colonialism and Decolonization:

European colonialism played a significant role in spreading the modern state system to other parts of
the world. The process of decolonization, particularly after World War II, led to the establishment of
numerous new nation-states in Asia and Africa.

Global Dominance:

The modern state system, with its emphasis on territoriality, sovereignty, and centralized governance,
has become the dominant form of political organization globally.

Ongoing Development:

The modern state continues to evolve, facing new challenges and adapting to changing global dynamics.

The origin of the modern state can be traced back to these instances of European conflicts and
geographical changes in the range of the 1500s to the 1600s, as they classify the moments citizens put
the needs of the state over their financial interests and entrusted the state with greater powers to
govern them. It begins by defining the state. Second, it explores the origins of the state in the transition
from the medieval to the modern world. Third, it examines the concept of sovereignty, especially as it
was enunciated in early modern political thought. Fourth, it surveys different historical explanations of
how the sovereign state triumphed over alternative forms of political society. Finally, it surveys some of
the continuing debates about the morality and utility of the modern state

Characteristics of the Modern State

Modern states are complex entities with many facets. Some are huge, some are tiny, some are powerful,
and some are quite weak. They all share four key charac-teristics, though, that we can use to identify
modern states and distinguish them from other types of political entities: a claim over territory, external
and internal sovereignty, a claim to legitimacy, and bureaucracy.

Territory
The first characteristic of the modern state is so obvious that you might overlook it. A state must have
territory, an area with clearly defined borders to which it lays claim. In fact, borders are one of the
places where the state is “seen” most clearly via the signs that welcome visitors and the immigration
officers who enforce bor-der regulations.The size of modern states varies enormously, from Russia, the
geographically largest at 6,520,800 square miles, to the seventeen states with territories of less than 200
square miles each.

Sovereignty

Sovereignty, in simple terms, means supreme and independent power within a defined territory. It's the
authority that a state or government has to govern itself, make laws, and exercise control over its
citizens and resources without being subject to the authority of any other entity.

The word sovereignty is derived from the Latin word “superanus“, which means supreme or paramount.
Sovereignty is the most important element of the state. It confers legal status on the state’s actions. It’s
sovereignty that allows the state to exercise legitimate control over all the laws, rules, policies, and
decisions

Internal Sovereignty:

This refers to a state's supreme authority within its own borders, meaning it has the right to make and
enforce laws, administer justice, and control its territory. That is, to be the sole authority within a
territory capable of making and enforcing laws and policies. They must defend their internal sovereignty
against domestic groups that challenge it, just as they must defend it externally. Internal challenges
typically take the form of a declaration of independence from some part of the state’s territory and
perhaps even civil war. States rarely are willing to accept such an act of defiance. From the American
Civil War in the 1860s to Ukraine in the face of a Russian-supported secession movement, most states
use all the means in their power to preserve their sovereignty over their recognized territories.

External Sovereignty:

This refers to a state's independence from external control, meaning it is not subordinate to any other
state or international organization in matters of foreign policy and international relations. that is,
sovereignty relative to outside powers, a state must be able to defend its territory and not be overly
dependent on another power. Governments that lack sovereignty are not truly modern states. Examples
include the Japanese-backed and controlled state Manchukuo (Manchuria) from 1932 to 1945, the
collaborationist Vichy government in France during World War II, and all colonial states; although they
had a local government and clearly defined territory, they were not sovereign states because their most
crucial decisions were subject to external authority.

Theories of Sovereignty:

There are different perspectives on the origins and nature of sovereignty, including the divine right of
kings (where rulers are seen as divinely appointed), the social contract theory (where sovereignty is
derived from the consent of the governed), and the idea of a sovereign state as the ultimate authority in
international relations.

Significance of Sovereignty:

Statehood: Sovereignty is a defining characteristic of a state, distinguishing it from other political entities
or organizations.

National Identity: Sovereignty often serves as a symbol of national pride and independence.

International Relations: Sovereignty plays a crucial role in the relationships between states, as it shapes
the rules and norms of international law and diplomacy.

Historical context:

The concept of sovereignty has evolved over time, from the absolute power of monarchs to the modern
concept of popular sovereignty, where the people are considered the ultimate source of authority. Key
figures like Jean Bodin, a 16th-century French writer, and Thomas Hobbes, an English philosopher, made
significant contributions to the development of the concept of sovereignty. Sovereignty can generally be
defined as supreme authority. Sovereignty entails hierarchy within a state as well as external autonomy
for states. In any state, sovereignty is assigned to the person, body or institution that has the ultimate
authority over other people and to change existing laws. In political theory, sovereignty is a substantive
term designating supreme legitimate authority over some polity.

Legitimacy

Legitimacy, in a general sense, refers to the rightfulness or justification of a power or authority. It's the
perception that a power or rule is acceptable, proper, and deserving of obedience. Essentially, it's the
belief that a powerholder has the right to exercise authority. Legitimacy theory is a business concept
relating to the behaviors and perceptions of businesses, other organizations, and larger social
institutions within a society. This theory involves the idea of a social contract linking people with
organizations and institutions.

Rightful Authority:
Legitimacy implies that a power or authority is based on a valid or justifiable foundation, rather than
mere force or coercion.

Acceptance and Obedience:

A legitimate power is typically recognized and accepted by those subject to it, leading to voluntary
compliance with rules and regulations.

Legitimacy can be based on different factors, such as:

Traditional Legitimacy: Based on long-standing customs and traditions.

Charismatic Legitimacy: Based on the perceived exceptional qualities or charisma of a leader.

Legal-Rational Legitimacy: Based on a system of laws and rules, where authority is derived from legal
processes.

Theoretical Implications

It is easy to identify attempts to create legitimacy but difficult to assess whether these efforts are
successful. The difficulties arise in part because there are no good behavioral indicators that distinguish
decisively between legitimate rule and illegitimate rule, and in part because of the incentives that exist
to represent one’s power as legitimate. The first issue is easily seen when we analyze compliance.
Russell Hardin describes the problem: “The fundamental, modal relationship of citizens to their
governments most of the time is acquiescence” but this does not tell us whether they are acquiescing
out of legitimacy or some other motivation (Hardin 2007). As Weber noted, “the merely external fact of
the order being obeyed is not sufficient to signify” that it is seen as legitimate (Weber 1978, 946).
Compliance with rules is not evidence that the rules are seen as legitimate, and non compliance is not
evidence against legitimacy.

Importance:

Legitimacy is crucial for the stability and effectiveness of any system of rule, including governments,
organizations, and even social structures. Without legitimacy, power is often maintained through force,
which can lead to instability and conflict. A government's legitimacy can be based on its democratic
process, while a police force's legitimacy can be based on public trust and perceived fairness.

Globalization has a complex and multifaceted impact on both state sovereignty and legitimacy. While it
can strengthen states by fostering economic growth and interdependence, it can also erode their
authority and control by increasing international obligations and the influence of non-state actors. The
concept of legitimacy, closely tied to the ability of a state to govern effectively and meet the needs of its
citizens, can be both strengthened and weakened by globalization depending on the specific context and
the state's response.

Impact on Sovereignty:
Erosion of Control:

Globalization, through international trade, financial flows, and the activities of multinational
corporations, can limit a state's ability to control its economy, borders, and cultural exchanges.

Rise of International Organizations:

International organizations and agreements can set standards and norms that states are expected to
follow, potentially reducing their autonomy in decision-making.

Transformation, not Elimination:

Some scholars argue that globalization doesn't necessarily weaken sovereignty but rather transforms it,
with states adapting by participating in international cooperation and finding new ways to exert
influence.

Impact on Legitimacy:

Economic Benefits:

Globalization can lead to increased economic growth, job creation, and access to goods and services,
potentially enhancing the legitimacy of a government by improving living standards.

Challenges to Governance:

However, globalization can also exacerbate inequalities, leading to social unrest and potentially
undermining a government's legitimacy if it is perceived as failing to protect its citizens or address the
negative consequences of globalization.

Need for Adaptation:

States need to adapt to the challenges of globalization by strengthening their institutions, promoting
inclusive growth, and addressing social inequalities to maintain public trust and legitimacy.

Q4) compare the traditional balance of power theory with modren applications in today's multipolar
world. Provide relevant examples?

Ans) Meaning of power theory

Power theory encompasses various perspectives on how power operates in social, political, and
economic contexts. It explores the sources, dynamics, and consequences of power, examining how
individuals and groups exert influence, control resources, and shape outcomes. Different theories offer
distinct frameworks for understanding power, including structural, relational, and individualistic
approaches.

The Power Theory, also known as the Force Theory, proposes that the state originated from the
subjugation of a weaker group by a stronger group through conquest and warfare. This theory suggests
that the state's foundation lies in the exercise of power and the imposition of one group's will upon
another.

Core Idea:
The theory posits that the state emerged from a situation where a dominant group, through military or
other forms of force, established control over a territory and its inhabitants.

Historical Context:

Proponents of this theory often point to historical examples of empires being built through conquest
and the establishment of new political orders by force. The theory can be used to justify the state's
existence by suggesting that the strong have a natural right to rule and that might makes right. However,
it's also been criticized for its association with violence, injustice, and the suppression of individual
freedoms.

Relationship to Other Theories:

The Power Theory contrasts with theories like the Social Contract Theory, which emphasizes voluntary
agreement and consent as the basis for the state, according to Study.com. It also differs from the Divine
Right Theory, which attributes the state's origin to divine will, according to eGyanKosh.

Understanding Social Relationships:

Theories of power, like those developed by Weber, French & Raven, Lukes, and Foucault, help analyze
how power operates in various social contexts, including workplaces, political systems, and
interpersonal relationships.

Analyzing Decision-Making:

These theories can be used to examine how decisions are made, who holds influence, and how power
dynamics shape outcomes in different situations.

Exploring Power Structures:

Power theories help to understand how power is distributed, maintained, and challenged within
societies, including concepts like hegemony, elite power, and pluralism.

Applications in HRM:

Power theories are relevant to human resource management, impacting areas like employee value,
performance management, training, compensation, and diversity training.

Political Science:

In political science, power theories help analyze international relations, state power, and the influence
of various actors on political processes.
Engineering:

Power Systems Analysis:

In electrical engineering, power theory is fundamental to understanding and analyzing power systems,
particularly in the context of non-sinusoidal currents and voltages common in industrial networks.

Power Conditioning and Filtering:

The instantaneous power theory (p-q theory) is used in the design and understanding of power
conditioning devices like FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission System) compensators and active filters.

Theories related to power:

1. Defining Power:

Influence and Control:

Power is often defined as the ability to influence or control the behavior of others, even against their
resistance.

Resource Control:

Power can stem from control over valuable resources, such as wealth, information, or social status.

Capacity for Action:

Power can also be understood as the capacity to bring about desired changes or achieve specific goals.

2. Theories of Power:

Structural Power:

This perspective emphasizes the role of social structures, institutions, and systems in shaping power
dynamics. For example, the structure of the economy or political system can create inequalities and
influence who holds power.

Relational Power:

This approach focuses on the relationships between individuals and groups, highlighting how power is
exercised and negotiated within those relationships. For instance, a manager's power over employees or
a government's power over its citizens.

History of power theory

Early theories of power in organizations drew from classical management approaches (Fayol, Taylor)
emphasizing formal authority and hierarchyMax Weber's bureaucratic theory highlighted the
importance of rational-legal authority in modern organizationsElton Mayo's Hawthorne studies in the
1920s and 1930s revealed the significance of informal social dynamics and influence in the workplace
French and Raven's (1959) seminal work identified five bases of power: reward, coercive, legitimate,
referent, and expertPfeffer and Salancik's (1978) resource dependence theory shifted focus to the
external environment and inter-organizational power dynamicsMintzberg's (1983) work on
organizational configurations and power centers expanded understanding of internal power structures
and coalitions.

Traditional power theory, rooted in classical realism (e.g., Thucydides, Machiavelli, Hobbes), and later
neorealism (e.g., Kenneth Waltz)

Multipolar world, multiple states have significant power and influence. Unlike the bipolar Cold War (USA vs
USSR) or unipolar 1990s-2000s (USA-dominant), today’s world features multiple centers of power.

Transition to a Multipolar World

Multipolarity is a distribution of power in which more than two states have similar amounts of power.

A multipolar world is characterized by the presence of multiple centers of power, rather than a single superpower
(unipolarity) or two (bipolarity).

Current global powers include:

USA (economic and military leader)

China (economic rise and global infrastructure projects)

Russia (military and regional influence)

European Union (economic bloc)

India, Brazil, etc. (emerging regional power)

Key concepts in traditional power theory:

Hard power: Military and economic force.

Balance of power: States align to prevent any one power from dominating.

Spheres of influence: Regional dominance by a powerful state.

Comparison of traditional power theory with modren multipolar world

Traditional Power Theory revolves around the idea of dominance by one or two superpowers in a
hierarchical global structure. Historically, power was concentrated, such as during the Cold War, when
the world was largely bipolar with the United States and the Soviet Union leading opposing blocs.
Military strength was considered the primary indicator of power, and economic influence was mostly
centralized within Western-led institutions like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank.
Alliances during this period were fixed and ideologically driven NATO and the Warsaw Pact being prime
examples. Global governance was heavily influenced by Western powers, with limited participation from
developing countries.

In contrast, the modern multipolar world is defined by the emergence of multiple influential states,
including not only the USA and China but also Russia, the European Union, India, Brazil, and others.
Power is now more decentralized and multifaceted, extending beyond military might to include
economic strength, technological innovation, and cultural influence. The nature of alliances has also
evolved, becoming more flexible and interest-based rather than ideologically rigid. Institutions of global
governance are under increasing pressure to adapt and represent the growing voice of the Global South.
Conflicts in the modern world tend to be more complex, involving cyber warfare, economic competition,
and regional disputes rather than direct military confrontations. This shift from a unipolar or bipolar
world to a multipolar one reflects the dynamic and interconnected nature of 21st-century geopolitics.

Applications of Traditional Power Theory in the Modern Multipolar World

Traditional international relations theories, like realism and liberalism, offer frameworks for
understanding and navigating a multipolar world, although their application can be complex and
contested. Realism, particularly its neorealist variant, suggests multipolarity can lead to instability due to
increased balancing behavior and the potential for miscalculations in alliances. Conversely, some realist
perspectives argue multipolarity can foster stability through a balance of power, where multiple actors
deter aggression. Liberalism, with its emphasis on cooperation and institutions, suggests that
international organizations and norms can mitigate the risks of conflict in a multipolar world. However,
the effectiveness of these institutions may be challenged by the diffusion of power and the potential for
great powers to bypass or undermine them.However, the effectiveness of liberal approaches in a
multipolar world is debated. Critics argue that great powers may be less willing to abide by international
law or institutions when they perceive their interests are at stake. The rise of non-state actors and
transnational challenges also adds complexity.

a. Balance of Power: USA–China–India Triangle

Traditional View: States form alliances or build capacity to prevent dominance.

Modern Example: India’s growing defense partnerships with the US and Quad (Japan, Australia, US,
India) are aimed at balancing China's regional ambitions in the Indo-Pacific.

b. Hard Power and Military Posturing

Traditional View: Military strength deters rivals and ensures survival.

Modern Example: Russia's invasion of Ukraine in 2022 is a classic use of hard power to assert regional
dominance and challenge NATO expansion.

c. Economic Power as Strategic Leverage

Traditional View: Economic power supports military capabilities and political influence.
Modern Example: China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) – infrastructure investments in Africa, Asia, and
Europe to expand influence. Countries receiving Chinese investment often align more closely with
Beijing in the UN and other international forums.

Western sanctions on Russia – use of economic tools to punish military aggression, showing the
enduring relevance of economic power.

d. Spheres of Influence

Traditional View: Powerful states seek dominance over regions.

Modern Example:Russia asserting influence in Central Asia and Eastern Europe (e.g., Belarus, Georgia).
China increasing its presence in South China Sea and influencing Southeast Asian nations.

e. Realpolitik Diplomacy

Traditional View: Foreign policy driven by national interest, not morality.

Modern Example: US–Saudi relations: Despite human rights concerns, the US maintains strong ties with
Saudi Arabia for energy and regional security. India balancing relations with Russia and the West during
the Ukraine crisis prioritizing strategic autonomy.

Conclusion
In conclusion, traditional theories offer valuable insights into the complexities of a multipolar world, but
their application is nuanced and contested. While realism highlights the potential for instability and
conflict, liberalism emphasizes the role of cooperation and institutions in mitigating these risks. The
actual dynamics of a multipolar world will likely be shaped by a combination of these factors, as well as
the specific characteristics of the actors involved and the context of their interactions. While traditional
power theory was shaped in a simpler world order, its principles still guide state behavior in today's
complex multipolar environment. States continue to use military, economic, and strategic alliances to
navigate global competition but now they must also contend with new actors, technologies, and values
shaping power in the 21st century.

Q5) Discuss the concept of national interest and it's role in shaping the foreign policy. How does the
Islamic perspective of national interest is differ from conventional views?

Ans) National interest

The meaning of national interest is survival—the protection of physical, political and cultural identity
against encroachments by other nation-states”—Morgenthau.

National Interest means: “The general, long term and continuing purpose which the state, the nation,
and the government all see themselves as serving.” —Charles Lerche and Abdul

Concept of National interest

The concept of national interest refers to the goals and ambitions of a sovereign state, encompassing its
security, economic well-being, and social well-being. It's a fundamental concept in international
relations, shaping a nation's foreign policy and actions on the world stage. National interest is not static;
it evolves with changing circumstances and perceptions of a nation's leaders and citizens.

The national interest is a concept that refers to the goals, values, and objectives that a nation seeks to
advance and protect. The national interest is often used to guide the foreign policy of a country, as it
provides a framework for determining which actions and decisions are in the best interests of the
nation.The national interest can be influenced by a variety of factors, including economic considerations,
national security, and the promotion of values such as democracy and human rights. Different
governments and political actors may have different views on what constitutes the national interest,
and the national interest can change over time as a country’s circumstances and priorities change.

The national interests, a key concept of international relations, encompass the political interests,
security interests, economic interests, cultural interests and other interests of a country. With the state
sovereignty at the core, a country's political interests embody the bulk of its national interests with
national security being the most fundamental of the national interests. The concept of national interests
reflects one's fundamental perception of the composition of national interests, its importance, its
purpose, its values and ways to realize these values. As an integral part of strategic thinking, the concept
of national interests, once formed, will exert great impact on the making and implementation of
national strategies. From a cognitive viewpoint, the concept of national interests is deeply influenced by
the way of thinking, cultural traditions, values, ideologies and other characteristics of the subject.

Core Components

Security:

Protecting the nation's territory, citizens, and way of life from external threats, including military
aggression and terrorism.

Economic Prosperity:

Promoting economic growth, trade, and stability to improve the living standards of its citizens.

Social Wellbeing:

Fostering a stable and cohesive society with shared values, culture, and identity.

Dynamic and Evolving:

National interest is not a fixed concept. It is shaped by historical context, political ideologies, and the
global environment.

Interplay with Foreign Policy:

National interest guides a nation's foreign policy decisions, influencing its alliances, trade agreements,
and responses to international events.

Power and Influence:

National interest often involves the pursuit of power and influence in the international system to
protect and advance a nation's goals.

Moral Considerations:

Debates exist about the role of morality in defining and pursuing national interest, with some arguing
for a balance between national interests and universal values.

Sub-national Interests:

National interest can be seen as a combination of various sub-national interests, including economic,
social, and cultural interests.

Example: A country might prioritize maintaining its military strength to deter potential aggressors, thus
safeguarding its national security. Another country might focus on expanding its trade relationships to
boost its economy and create jobs, reflecting its economic interests. A nation might promote its cultural
heritage and values on the international stage to enhance its global standing and influence. In essence,
the concept of national interest is a complex and multifaceted one, driving a nation's actions and
shaping its role in the world.

Types of national interests in International Relations

There are many different types of national interests that a country may seek to advance and protect.
Some examples of national interests include:

Economic interests: These can include promoting economic growth, protecting domestic industries, and
securing access to natural resources, markets, and other economic opportunities.

National security interests: These can include protecting the country from external threats such as
military aggression, terrorism, and cyber attacks, as well as maintaining a strong military and intelligence
capabilities.

Political interests: These can include promoting democratic values, protecting human rights, and
supporting stable and effective governance within the country and around the world.

Cultural interests: These can include preserving and promoting the country’s cultural heritage, language,
and traditions.

Environmental interests: These can include protecting the country’s natural resources and promoting
environmental sustainability.
Humanitarian interests: These can include providing assistance to other countries in need, such as in the
aftermath of natural disasters or conflicts.Strategic interests: These can include securing access to key
transportation routes, such as sea lanes, or maintaining a presence in key regions of the world.

National interest plays a central role in shaping a nation's foreign policy. It acts as the primary driver and
guiding principle for a state's interactions with other countries and international actors, influencing
decisions on everything from trade and diplomacy to security and defense. In foreign policy, the national
interest is often balanced against the interests of other nations and international organizations. For
example, a country may seek to promote its own national interest by negotiating trade agreements or
by forming alliances with other countries, but it may also need to consider the interests of other nations
and the impact of its actions on the international community. All nation-states, whether big or small,
developed or developing, rich or poor place their national interest at the forefront when formulating
their foreign policies

Influence of national interest on foreign policy:

1. Defining Objectives and Priorities: National interest provides a framework for establishing the goals
and priorities of a state's foreign policy. It helps determine which issues are most important and what a
country is willing to pursue or defend through its interactions with other nations.

2. Guiding Resource Allocation: By prioritizing national interests, states can allocate their resources
(economic, military, diplomatic) more effectively, avoiding overextension and focusing on areas where
they have the greatest stake.

3. Establishing Constraints and Criteria: Clearly defined national interests can act as a constraint on
government actions, preventing foreign policy from being driven solely by domestic political
considerations. It also provides a benchmark against which the public can evaluate the government's
foreign policy decisions.

4. Ensuring Continuity and Adjustment: National interests can help ensure a degree of continuity in
foreign policy while also allowing for necessary adjustments as circumstances change. This is crucial for
maintaining a stable and predictable international presence.

5. Influencing International Relations: A nation's perception and pursuit of its national interest can
significantly shape its relationships with other states, impacting alliances, conflicts, and cooperation.

Foreign policy is the tool to realize the national interest. The foreign policy of makers define and
articulate the national interest, in relations to national interests of other nations and prevailing global
conditions norms and institutions. For example, if a country perceives high threat perception, its foreign
policy will concentrate in addressing the same. India ‘s threat perceptions are high with respect to China
and Pakistan and foreign policy will have to take this factor in to account. Similarly other component of
national interests are defined and put into practice though foreign policy. America’s geographical
location, away from the crisis zones of Europe during the two world war made her secure and
concentrate on economic development.

Islamic and conventional views on national interest differ fundamentally in their

guiding values, aims, and ethical foundations
An Islamic perspective, national interest (maslaha) is viewed as a concept that must be aligned with
Islamic principles and values, rather than being pursued solely for its own sake. This means that while
maintaining national security, promoting economic development, and ensuring the well-being of citizens
are important, these goals should be achieved in a way that is consistent with Islamic law (Sharia) and
ethical guidelines. National interest should be pursued in a manner that does not contradict the
fundamental principles of Islam. While focusing on national interest, Islam also emphasizes the
importance of global responsibility and cooperation among Muslim nations, promoting peace and
justice in the international arena. In essence, the Islamic perspective on national interest is not simply
about maximizing power or wealth, but about pursuing the well-being of the nation in a way that is
consistent with Islamic values and principles.

In the Islamic perspective, national interest is understood within the framework of Islamic principles,
which may differ from conventional Western views. While both perspectives acknowledge the
importance of a nation's well-being, Islam emphasizes ethical conduct, justice, and the broader interests
of the Muslim ummah (community), often prioritizing long-term goals over immediate gains.
Conventional views, on the other hand, tend to focus more on secular, nationalistic interests and power
politics.

Conventional approaches to national interest are often rooted in secular ideologies and prioritize the
interests of the nation-state as a sovereign entity. National interest is frequently defined in terms of
power, security, and economic advantage, often leading to a focus on self-interest and competition with
other nations. Decisions are often made based on practical considerations and immediate needs, with
less emphasis on long-term moral or ethical implications. Conventional views often derive legitimacy
from national sovereignty and power, while Islamic views emphasize divine guidance and moral
principles. Conventional views tend to be more narrow, focusing on the state's immediate needs,
whereas Islamic perspectives encompass the broader interests of the ummah and future generations.
Islamic perspectives place a greater emphasis on ethical and moral considerations in decision-making,
while conventional views may prioritize pragmatic and strategic interests. Conventional views often
separate religion from politics and national interest, while Islamic perspectives integrate religious
principles into all aspects of life, including governance.

"The Islamic view of national interest, rooted in moral and collective welfare, stands in contrast to
conventional approaches that often prioritize political and economic self-interest."

Conclusion:
The Islamic perspective on national interest offers a distinct approach, emphasizing ethical conduct,
justice, and the interconnectedness of the Muslim ummah. While acknowledging the importance of a
nation's well-being, it prioritizes long-term goals and moral considerations over purely pragmatic and
self-interested calculations. Understanding the nuances of both conventional and Islamic perspectives is
crucial for analyzing the complexities of international relations and the role of religion in shaping
national policies.