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Education and Training Policy Education and Training Policy

Education and Training Policy

Teachers Matter
ATTRACTING, DEVELOPING AND RETAINING EFFECTIVE
TEACHERS
Teachers Matter
Good teachers are the backbone of any education system. That’s why governments are
constantly seeking teacher policies that will help them recruit and retain the best. ATTRACTING, DEVELOPING AND
Most countries are concerned with an ageing teaching workforce and attracting new recruits, RETAINING EFFECTIVE TEACHERS
coupled with the demands of more diverse student populations, higher expectations and new
responsibilities. To be effective, teacher policy must address these issues.

Teachers Matter provides a comprehensive, international analysis of:

• trends and developments in the teacher workforce in 25 countries

around the world;
• research on attracting, developing and retaining effective teachers;
• innovative and successful policies and practices that countries have
implemented; and

TEACHERS MATTER
• teacher policy options for countries to consider.

While documenting many areas of concern about teachers and teaching, the report also
provides positive examples of where policies are making a difference. It spotlights countries
where teachers’ social standing is high, and where there are more qualified applicants than
vacant posts. Even in countries where shortages have been a concern, there are recent signs
of increased interest in teaching, and policy initiatives appear to be taking effect.

Attracting, Developing and Retaining Effective Teachers

The full text of this book is available on line via this link:
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Those with access to all OECD books on line should use this link:
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SourceOECD is the OECD’s online library of books, periodicals and statistical databases. For more information
about this award-winning service and free trials ask your librarian, or write to us at [email protected].

w w w. o e c d . o rg
ISBN 92-64-01802-6

-:HSTCQE=UV]UWU: 91 2005 04 1 P
histo_gen_A_19x27.fm Page 1 Tuesday, May 31, 2005 11:18 AM

Teachers Matter

ATTRACTING, DEVELOPING AND RETAINING

EFFECTIVE TEACHERS

ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT

histo_gen_A_19x27.fm Page 2 Tuesday, May 31, 2005 11:18 AM

ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION

AND DEVELOPMENT

The OECD is a unique forum where the governments of 30 democracies work together to
address the economic, social and environmental challenges of globalisation. The OECD is also at
the forefront of efforts to understand and to help governments respond to new developments and
concerns, such as corporate governance, the information economy and the challenges of an
ageing population. The Organisation provides a setting where governments can compare policy
experiences, seek answers to common problems, identify good practice and work to co-ordinate
domestic and international policies.
The OECD member countries are: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, the Czech Republic,
Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea,
Luxembourg, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, the Slovak Republic,
Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States. The Commission of
the European Communities takes part in the work of the OECD.
OECD Publishing disseminates widely the results of the Organisation’s statistics gathering and
research on economic, social and environmental issues, as well as the conventions, guidelines and
standards agreed by its members.

This work is published on the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD. The
opinions expressed and arguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the official
views of the Organisation or of the governments of its member countries.

Publié en français sous le titre :

Le rôle crucial des enseignants
ATTIRER, FORMER ET RETENIR DES ENSEIGNANTS DE QUALITÉ

© OECD 2005

No reproduction, copy, transmission or translation of this publication may be made without written permission. Applications should be sent to
OECD Publishing: [email protected] or by fax (33 1) 45 24 13 91. Permission to photocopy a portion of this work should be addressed to the Centre
français d'exploitation du droit de copie, 20, rue des Grands-Augustins, 75006 Paris, France ([email protected]).
 FOREWORD – 3

Foreword

Many OECD countries face major difficulties in recruiting enough qualified teachers
to replace the large numbers who will retire in the next 5-10 years. Most countries report
concerns about teacher effectiveness, whether or not they are experiencing teacher
shortages. Furthermore, teachers’ roles are changing, and they need new skills to meet the
needs of more diverse student populations, and to work effectively with new types of staff
in schools and other organisations.
In April 2002, the OECD Education Committee launched an international review of
teacher policy, to help countries share innovative and successful initiatives, and to
identify policy options for attracting, developing and retaining effective teachers. This
publication is the major output from the work, which also generated 25 reports produced
by participating countries, 10 reports by external review teams that visited countries, and
several commissioned research studies. This OECD project provides probably the most
comprehensive analysis ever undertaken of teacher policy issues at international level.
OECD work enables countries to learn from each other. It can also open up issues and
suggest policy options that it may be difficult to raise in national debates. Both features
are evident in this report and the work behind it. The extent of the active engagement of
Member and Partner countries is also clear. The 25 participating countries committed
very substantial resources over a two to three year period and took risks in opening up
their teacher policies to external review and debate. The collaborative approach enabled
countries to learn more about themselves while adding to the broader knowledge base by
accumulating international evidence on the impact of policy reforms, and the
circumstances under which they work best.
The project benefited substantially from the involvement of organisations
representing teachers, school leaders, parents, students, teacher educators, and employers
on national advisory committees, in preparing written submissions, in meeting review
teams and taking part in conferences and workshops.
The project also benefited from the involvement of the Business and Industry
Advisory Committee to the OECD (BIAC) and the Trade Union Advisory Committee
(TUAC) and other international organisations also interested in teacher policy: the
Council of Europe; the European Commission; the European Training Foundation;
Eurydice; the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement
(IEA); the International Labour Organisation (ILO); the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO); UNESCO European Centre for Higher
Education (CEPES); UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP);
and the World Bank.
Appendix 1 to this report details the many people and organisations who have
contributed to the project as National Co-ordinators, authors of country background
reports, authors of commissioned research papers, and members of country review teams.
In all, more than 150 people contributed in one of these roles, and their work has had a

TEACHERS MATTER: ATTRACTING, DEVELOPING AND RETAINING EFFECTIVE TEACHERS – ISBN 92-64-01802-6 © OECD 2005
4 – FOREWORD

major influence on the project. In addition, the establishment of national advisory

committees, the consultative processes used in preparing country background reports and
during country review visits, and the large number of schools and tertiary institutions
visited by review teams meant that the project benefited from inputs by many hundreds
more. We hope that this report adequately reflects all their inputs and adds further to the
collective knowledge base.
Within the OECD the project was carried out by the Directorate for Education’s
Education and Training Policy Division under the leadership of the Division’s Head,
Abrar Hasan. Phillip McKenzie and Paulo Santiago were responsible for the study and
the preparation of this report. Anne Sliwka (University of Mannheim) as a consultant
took the main responsibility for the area of teacher development (Chapter 4) in the report
and Hiroyuki Hase from the OECD Secretariat provided substantial input. Yael Duthilleul
(IIEP), on secondment from the World Bank and as a consultant, contributed to the
conceptual development of the project and took responsibility for two country review
visits. Statistical assistance was provided by the late Catherine Duchêne from the
Education Indicators and Analysis Division. Sabrina Leonarduzzi was responsible for all
the administrative work, workshop organisation and communications with participating
countries. John Coolahan (National University of Ireland, Maynooth) provided special
advice at a key stage of the preparation of this report. Viviane Consoli and Melissa
Peerless provided editorial assistance on this report. A wide range of other colleagues
within the Directorate for Education provided advice at key stages. In particular, close
collaboration was established with developmental work on indicators on teachers and
teaching, and the work by the Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (CERI) on
Schooling for Tomorrow and Formative Assessment: Improving Learning in Secondary
Classrooms.
The OECD intends to maintain the momentum of its work on teachers and teaching
and to build on the teacher policy project and this report.
This report is published under the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the
OECD.

Barry McGaw
Director for Education
OECD
May 2005

TEACHERS MATTER: ATTRACTING, DEVELOPING AND RETAINING EFFECTIVE TEACHERS – ISBN 92-64-01802-6 © OECD 2005
 TABLE OF CONTENTS – 5

Table of contents

Foreword.......................................................................................................................................3
Executive Summary.....................................................................................................................7
Chapter 1 Introduction: the Focus on Teachers ..................................................................17
1.1. The Growing Focus on Teacher Issues .............................................................................18
1.2. Overview of the Broad Policy Directions .........................................................................19
1.3. Methodology and Country Participation ...........................................................................20
1.4. Organisation of the Report ................................................................................................21
Chapter 2 Why is Teacher Policy Important? .....................................................................23
2.1. Quality Teaching is Vital for Improving Student Learning ..............................................24
2.2. Teachers are Significant in the Labour Force and in School Budgets...............................27
2.3. Teacher Policy Concerns are Intensifying.........................................................................27
2.4. Analysing Teacher Policy .................................................................................................30
2.5. Analysing the Teacher Labour Market..............................................................................33
Chapter 3 Making Teaching an Attractive Career Choice .................................................39
3.1. Concerns about Teaching’s Attractiveness .......................................................................40
3.2. Estimating the Future Demand for Teachers.....................................................................60
3.3. Factors in the Attractiveness of Teaching as a Career ......................................................67
3.4. Priorities for Future Policy Development..........................................................................86
Chapter 4 Developing Teachers’ Knowledge and Skills......................................................95
4.1. Teachers’ Roles are Changing...........................................................................................97
4.2. Implications of Research on Effective Teachers ...............................................................99
4.3. Initial Teacher Education ................................................................................................102
4.4. Certification of New Teachers ........................................................................................114
4.5. Induction Programmes for New Teachers.......................................................................117
4.6. Professional Development...............................................................................................121
4.7. Priorities for Future Policy Development........................................................................131
Chapter 5 Recruiting, Selecting and Employing Teachers ...............................................141
5.1. Teaching and Public Service Employment......................................................................142
5.2. Features of Teachers’ Employment Conditions ..............................................................144
5.3. Teacher Recruitment and Selection.................................................................................150
5.4. Probationary Periods for Beginning Teachers.................................................................155
5.5. Responses to Short-term Staffing Needs.........................................................................157
5.6. Teacher Mobility .............................................................................................................159
5.7. Priorities for Future Policy Development........................................................................161
Chapter 6 Retaining Effective Teachers in Schools...........................................................169
6.1. Concerns about Retaining Effective Teachers in Schools...............................................170
6.2. Factors in Retaining Effective Teachers in Schools........................................................177
6.3. Priorities for Future Policy Development........................................................................204

TEACHERS MATTER: ATTRACTING, DEVELOPING AND RETAINING EFFECTIVE TEACHERS – ISBN 92-64-01802-6 © OECD 2005
6 – TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 7 Developing and Implementing Teacher Policy ................................................213

7.1. Engaging Teachers in Policy Development and Implementation ...................................214
7.2. Improving the Knowledge Base to Support Teacher Policy ...........................................218
Appendix 1 How the Activity was Conducted....................................................................223
Background to the OECD Activity ........................................................................................223
Purposes of the OECD Activity .............................................................................................223
Methodology and Country Participation ................................................................................224
Appendix 2 A Framework for Informing Teacher Policy.................................................233

TEACHERS MATTER: ATTRACTING, DEVELOPING AND RETAINING EFFECTIVE TEACHERS – ISBN 92-64-01802-6 © OECD 2005
 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY – 7

Executive Summary

The Importance of Teacher Policy

Teacher policy is high on national agendas. The far-reaching economic and social
changes underway have made high-quality schooling more important than ever before.
The demands on schools and teachers are becoming more complex. OECD Education
Ministers have committed their countries to the goal of raising the quality of learning for
all. This ambitious goal will not be achieved unless all students receive high-quality
teaching.
All countries are seeking to improve their schools, and to respond better to higher
social and economic expectations. As the most significant resource in schools, teachers
are central to school improvement efforts. Improving the efficiency and equity of
schooling depends, in large measure, on ensuring that competent people want to work as
teachers, that their teaching is of high quality, and that all students have access to high
quality teaching.
This report draws on the results of a major OECD project, Attracting, Developing and
Retaining Effective Teachers, that was conducted over the 2002-04 period. The project
involved the preparation of Country Background Reports, visits to some countries by
external review teams, data collections, commissioned research, and workshops. The fact
that 25 countries took part indicates that teacher issues are a priority for public policy,
and likely to become even more so in future years.
The demands on schools and teachers are becoming more complex. Society now
expects schools to deal effectively with different languages and student backgrounds, to
be sensitive to culture and gender issues, to promote tolerance and social cohesion, to
respond effectively to disadvantaged students and students with learning or behavioural
problems, to use new technologies, and to keep pace with rapidly developing fields of
knowledge and approaches to student assessment. Teachers need to be capable of
preparing students for a society and an economy in which they will be expected to be
self-directed learners, able and motivated to keep learning over a lifetime.
Teacher issues are also currently high on policy agendas because of concerns
expressed by teachers themselves about the future of their profession – whether it is
sufficiently attractive to talented new entrants, and whether teachers are sufficiently
rewarded and supported in their work. As teachers are in daily contact with the students
who potentially form the next generation of teachers, the enthusiasm and morale of the
current teacher workforce are important influences on future teacher supply.
The current timing of the upsurge of interest in teacher policy issues is particularly
important. The fact that the large numbers of teachers who were recruited during the great
expansion period of the 1960s and 1970s are now close to retirement is both a major
challenge and an unprecedented opportunity in most countries. Although large amounts
of experience and skills need to be replaced as teachers retire, a number of countries now

TEACHERS MATTER: ATTRACTING, DEVELOPING AND RETAINING EFFECTIVE TEACHERS – ISBN 92-64-01802-6 © OECD 2005
8 – EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

have a once-in-a-generation opportunity to shape and benefit from substantial changes in

the teacher workforce.
A much larger number of new teachers will enter the profession in the next 5-10 years
than in the past 20 years. The entry of substantial numbers of new teachers with up-to-
date skills and fresh ideas has the potential to substantially renew the schools. There is
also the possibility to free up resources for development as a younger teacher workforce
implies fewer budgetary pressures. On the other hand, if teaching is not perceived as an
attractive profession, and teaching does not change in fundamental ways, there is a risk
that the quality of schools will decline and a downward spiral will be difficult to reverse.

Main Concerns

Although the information is often patchy, there is a lack of long-term data, and not all
countries are in the same position, a broad picture has emerged.

Concerns about the attractiveness of teaching as a career

− About half the countries report serious concerns about maintaining an adequate
supply of good quality teachers, especially in high-demand subject areas.

− There are widespread concerns about long-term trends in the composition of the
teaching workforce, e.g. fewer “high achievers” and fewer males.

− There are concerns about the image and status of teaching, and teachers often feel
that their work is undervalued.

− Teachers’ relative salaries are declining in most countries.

Concerns about developing teachers’ knowledge and skills

− Almost all countries report concerns about “qualitative” shortfalls: whether enough
teachers have the knowledge and skills to meet school needs.

− There are major concerns about the limited connections between teacher education,
teachers’ professional development, and school needs.

− Many countries lack systemic induction programmes for beginning teachers.

Concerns about recruiting, selecting and employing teachers

− There are concerns in most countries about the inequitable distribution of teachers
among schools, and whether students in disadvantaged areas have the quality
teachers that they need.

− Schools often have little direct involvement in teacher appointments.

− Some countries have a large oversupply of qualified teachers, which raises other
policy challenges.

TEACHERS MATTER: ATTRACTING, DEVELOPING AND RETAINING EFFECTIVE TEACHERS – ISBN 92-64-01802-6 © OECD 2005
 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY – 9

Concerns about retaining effective teachers in schools

− Some countries experience high rates of teacher attrition, especially among new
teachers.

− Teachers express concerns about the effects of heavy workloads, stress and poor
working environments on job satisfaction and teaching effectiveness.

− There are only limited means in most countries to recognise and reward teachers’
work.

− Processes for responding to ineffective teaching are often cumbersome and slow.

The ageing of the teaching workforce is compounding many of the above concerns.
On average, 25% of primary teachers and 30% of secondary teachers are over 50 years
old, and in some countries more than 40% of the teachers are in this age group. Large
numbers of retirements are likely in the next few years.
The analysis shows that teacher quantity and teacher quality issues are clearly
interlinked. School systems often respond to teacher shortages in the short term by some
combination of lowering qualification requirements for entry to the profession; assigning
teachers to teach in subject areas in which they are not fully qualified; increasing the
number of classes that teachers are allocated; or increasing class sizes. Such responses,
which ensure that classrooms are not left without a teacher and that a shortage is not
readily evident, nevertheless raise concerns about the quality of teaching and learning.
At another level, countries that are not facing a shortage of qualified teachers may
still face concerns about whether the quality of the teaching workforce is adequate –
particularly if selection processes do not result in the best applicants securing work as
teachers.
Without strategic policy action there is a risk that the teaching profession could go
into long-term decline. As societies have become wealthier and educational qualifications
have increased and employment opportunities have expanded, teaching’s appeal as a path
to upward social mobility and job security does seem to have diminished. Widespread
concerns about the difficulties faced by many schools, fuelled by often very negative
media reporting, have damaged teaching’s appeal. Expectations and demands on schools
have been increasing, while in many countries resources have not always kept pace.
Resource constraints are a factor in a number of the identified concerns.
But there are positive signs that policies can make a difference, as the examples
provided in the report show. There are countries where teachers’ social standing is high,
and there are more qualified applicants than vacant posts. Even in countries where
shortages have been a concern, there are recent signs of an upturn in interest in teaching,
and policy initiatives appear to be having an effect.

Policy Implications at Two Levels

The quality of teaching is determined not just by the “quality” of the teachers –
although that is clearly critical – but also by the environment in which they work. Able
teachers are not necessarily going to reach their potential in settings that do not provide
appropriate support or sufficient challenge and reward. Policies aimed at attracting and
retaining effective teachers need both to recruit competent people into the profession, and

TEACHERS MATTER: ATTRACTING, DEVELOPING AND RETAINING EFFECTIVE TEACHERS – ISBN 92-64-01802-6 © OECD 2005
10 – EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

also to provide support and incentives for professional development and ongoing
performance at high levels.
Policy initiatives are necessary at two levels. The first concerns the teaching
profession as a whole and seeks to improve its status and labour market competitiveness,
and to improve teacher development and school work environments. The second set of
strategies is more targeted, and focuses on attracting and retaining particular types of
teachers, and attracting teachers to work in particular schools. Table 1 summarises the
main policy directions according to whether they apply to the teaching profession as a
whole, or are more targeted to particular types of teachers or schools.

Table 1. Policy Implications

Policy objective Directed towards the teaching profession as Targeted to particular types of teachers or
whole schools
Making teaching an Improving the image and status of teaching Expanding the supply pool of potential
attractive career choice Improving teaching’s salary competitiveness teachers
Improving employment conditions Making reward mechanisms more flexible
Capitalising on an oversupply of teachers Improving entrance conditions for new
teachers
Rethinking the trade-off between the
student-teacher ratio and average teacher
salary
Developing teachers’ Developing teacher profiles Improving selection into teacher education
knowledge and skills Viewing teacher development as a continuum Improving practical field experiences
Making teacher education more flexible and Certifying new teachers
responsive Strengthening induction programmes
Accrediting teacher education programmes
Integrating professional development throughout
the career
Recruiting, selecting Using more flexible forms of employment Broadening the criteria for teacher selection
and employing Providing schools with more responsibility for Making a probationary period mandatory
teachers teacher personnel management Encouraging greater teacher mobility
Meeting short-term staffing needs
Improving information flows and the monitoring of
the teacher labour market
Retaining effective Evaluating and rewarding effective teaching Responding to ineffective teachers
teachers in schools Providing more opportunities for career variety and Providing more support for beginning
diversification teachers
Improving leadership and school climate Providing more flexible working hours and
Improving working conditions conditions
Developing and Engaging teachers in policy development and
implementing teacher implementation
policy Developing professional learning communities
Improving the knowledge base to support teacher
policy

This is a challenging agenda, but tackling one area without appropriate policy
attention to inter-related aspects will lead to only partial results. Nevertheless, it is
difficult to address all areas simultaneously, and resource constraints mean that trade-offs
are inevitable.

TEACHERS MATTER: ATTRACTING, DEVELOPING AND RETAINING EFFECTIVE TEACHERS – ISBN 92-64-01802-6 © OECD 2005
 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY – 11

Implications for Different Types of Countries

Not all of the policy implications apply equally to all the 25 participating countries. In
a number of cases many of the policy directions are already in place, while for other
countries they may have less relevance because of different social, economic and
educational structures and traditions.
Most teachers are employed in the public sector, but the basic models of public sector
employment differ from country to country. There are two basic models that shape
teacher employment, and which are evident in the participating countries: “career-based”;
and “position-based”. While no country provides a “pure” example of either model, the
distinction is helpful in clarifying teacher employment features.
In career-based systems, teachers are generally expected to stay in the public service
throughout their working life. Initial entry normally occurs at a young age, it is based on
academic credentials and/or a civil service entry examination, and the entry criteria are
usually demanding. Once recruited, teachers are normally allocated to posts according to
internal rules. Promotion is based on a system of grades attached to the individual rather
than to a specific position. Starting salaries are often relatively low, but there is a clear
pathway to higher earnings, and pension schemes are usually relatively generous. France,
Japan, Korea and Spain provide examples of countries with many of the characteristics of
career-based public services. In the main, countries with career-based teaching services
do not have major problems with teacher supply. Most have many more well-qualified
applicants than available vacancies. Public sector employment in such countries tends to
be quite different in character from private sector employment, and on a number of
criteria (average salary, job security and pension benefits) is often judged to be superior.
The concerns in career-based systems tend to be more qualitative in nature, namely
that teacher education is not well connected to school needs, the entry selection criteria do
not always emphasise the competencies needed for effective teaching, teachers lack
strong incentives to continue developing once tenure is obtained, and the strong emphasis
on regulations limits the capacity and incentives for schools to respond to diverse local
needs. There are also concerns that such systems lack appeal to those who are unsure
whether they want to commit early to a lifetime teaching career, or who have gained
experience in other careers. In response, therefore, the major policy priorities in such
countries include forging stronger connections between teachers’ initial education,
selection and professional development, introducing more flexible employment positions,
opening up possibilities for external recruitment, providing local education authorities
and school principals with more scope for personnel decisions, and instituting
management by objectives.
Position-based public services tend to focus on selecting the best-suited candidate for
each position, whether by external recruitment or internal promotion. Such systems
generally allow more open access at a wide range of ages, and entry from other careers is
relatively common, as is movement from teaching to other jobs and later returns to
teaching. Although initial salaries are often attractive, they generally plateau relatively
early in the career. Teacher advancement depends on successfully competing for
vacancies, and the number of higher-level vacancies is usually restricted. Personnel
selection and management in such systems are often decentralised to schools or local
authority offices. Canada, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom are examples of
countries with many of the features of position-based public service employment.

TEACHERS MATTER: ATTRACTING, DEVELOPING AND RETAINING EFFECTIVE TEACHERS – ISBN 92-64-01802-6 © OECD 2005
12 – EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

A number of such systems face teacher recruitment problems, especially for teachers
in areas like mathematics, science and information and communication technology (ICT).
Although the conditions of public sector employment in such countries tend to be similar
to private sector employment, the public sector often lacks the capacity and flexibility to
compete on private sector terms. Such systems also often find it difficult to retain a core
of experienced teachers beyond the 30 to 40-year-old age bracket. Schools in such
countries therefore often have high staff turnover, especially in disadvantaged areas.
Because position-based systems rely less on regulation than career-based systems in
assigning staff to schools, they often have greater disparities among schools in terms of
teacher qualifications and experience.
In response to such concerns, the policy priorities in countries with position-based
teaching services include a greater emphasis on system-wide criteria for staff selection,
performance evaluation, and building career pathways. Because local authorities play
such a critical role in personnel management, and tailoring school programmes to meet
local needs, such countries also need to place comparatively greater emphasis on the
selection and training of principals and other school leaders. Because the processes of
teacher selection and management tend to be more market-like in position-based systems,
schools in disadvantaged or unpopular locations need to be provided with significantly
more resources to enable them to compete for quality teachers, and there needs to be
much more differentiation in salaries and working conditions in order to attract the types
of teachers that are in short supply. Uniform salaries and conditions are likely to result in
an oversupply of some types of teachers, and shortages of others.

Common Policy Directions

Despite the major differences between the career-based and position-based public
service traditions, they share some common policy directions.

Emphasising teacher quality over teacher quantity

There is now substantial research indicating that the quality of teachers and their
teaching are the most important factors in student outcomes that are open to policy
influence. There is also substantial evidence that teachers vary markedly in their
effectiveness. Differences in student performance are often greater within schools than
between schools. Teaching is a demanding job, and it is not possible for everyone to be
an effective practitioner and to sustain that over the long term. However, the general
approach to teacher selection and employment has tended to regard teachers as largely
interchangeable and to focus on the numbers of teachers rather than on the qualities that
they have or could develop.
Key ingredients in a teacher quality agenda include more attention to the criteria for
selection both into initial teacher education and teaching employment, ongoing evaluation
throughout the teaching career to identify areas for improvement, recognising and
rewarding effective teaching, and ensuring that teachers have the resources and support
they need to meet high expectations. A strong conclusion from the project is that teachers
are highly motivated by the intrinsic benefits of teaching – working with children and
young people, helping them to develop, and making a contribution to society – and that
system structures and school workplaces need to ensure that teachers are able to focus on
these tasks.

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 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY – 13

In its most radical form, a greater emphasis on teacher quality could see teachers’
work being redesigned to focus more on professional and knowledge-based components,
with perhaps fewer teachers being employed, but with more other people being employed
to do those parts of teachers’ current work that do not require teachers’ professional
skills, and teachers being paid substantially more to attract and retain the best possible
candidates.

Developing teacher profiles to align teacher development and performance with

school needs
There is widespread recognition that countries need to have clear and concise
statements of what teachers are expected to know and be able to do, and these teacher
profiles need to be embedded throughout the school and teacher education systems. The
profile of teacher competencies needs to derive from the objectives for student learning,
and provide profession-wide standards and a shared understanding of what counts as
accomplished teaching.
The teacher profiles need to encompass strong subject matter knowledge, pedagogical
skills, the capacity to work effectively with a wide range of students and colleagues, to
contribute to the school and the profession, and the capacity to continue developing. The
profile could express different levels of performance appropriate to beginning teachers,
experienced teachers, and those with higher responsibilities. A clear, well structured and
widely supported teacher profile can be a powerful mechanism for aligning the elements
involved in developing teachers’ knowledge and skills, and for providing a means of
assessing whether teacher development programmes are making a difference.

Viewing teacher development as a continuum

The stages of initial teacher education, induction and professional development need
to be much better interconnected to create a more coherent learning and development
system for teachers. A statement of teacher competencies and performance standards at
different stages of their career will provide a framework for the teacher development
continuum. As part of this there needs to be a clear set of expectations about teachers’
own responsibilities for their ongoing development, and a structure of support to facilitate
their growth.
A lifelong learning perspective for teachers implies that in most countries much more
attention will need to be focused on supporting teachers in the early stages of their career,
and in providing the incentives and resources for ongoing professional development. In
general, there could be better value from improving induction and teacher development
throughout teachers’ careers rather than increasing the length of pre-service education.

Making teacher education more flexible

In a number of countries people need to make decisions about becoming a teacher
early in tertiary education. This can lock them into a specific career path despite the
possibility that their interests may change, and they may eventually find themselves
teaching only after completing a programme of study that has prepared them for little
else. Such structures can also deny opportunities to enter teaching to other tertiary
students later in their studies, or to mid-career people in other occupations who decide
they would find greater satisfaction as teachers.

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A more flexible system of teacher education would provide more routes into the
profession, including: post-graduate study following an initial qualification in a subject
matter field; opportunities for those who started in schools as paraprofessionals or
teachers’ aides to gain full qualifications that build on their experience in schools; and
possibilities for mid-career changers to combine reduced teaching loads and concurrent
participation in teacher preparation programmes. The system should involve close
linkages with schools, including providing more direct support to beginning teachers
early in their career. Such changes, which are already being introduced in a number of
countries, help to concentrate teacher education resources on the people who will put
them to best use.

Transforming teaching into a knowledge-rich profession

One of the main challenges for policy makers facing the demands of a knowledge
society is how to sustain teacher quality and ensure all teachers continue to engage in
effective ongoing professional learning. Research on the characteristics of effective
professional development indicates that teachers need to be active agents in analysing
their own practice in the light of professional standards, and their own students’ progress
in the light of standards for student learning. Teaching remains largely unchanged as
other forms of work have been dramatically transformed. Many other professionals
commence their working lives with a sense that they are entering a role that has been
shaped by past research and that will be transformed during their working lives by future
research. That is an excitement that teaching has not yet offered. There are signs of
change in some countries, with teachers developing a research role alongside their
teaching role; with teachers engaging more actively with new knowledge; and with
professional development focused on the evidence base for improved practice.

Providing schools with more responsibility for teacher personnel management

Successful enterprises often say that personnel selection is the most important set of
decisions that they make. In the case of teaching, the evidence suggests that all too often
the selection process follows rules about qualifications and seniority that bear little
relationship to the qualities needed to be an effective teacher. The sheer size of school
systems in many countries means that the process of teacher selection is often highly
impersonal and it is hard for teachers to build a sense of commitment to the schools
where they are appointed – or for the schools to build a sense of commitment to them.
The school is emerging as the key agency within the education system for improving
student learning, which implies that schools need to have more responsibility – and
accountability – for teacher selection, working conditions, and development. However, to
exercise these responsibilities effectively, it is clear that many schools will need more
skilled leadership teams and stronger support. In particular, schools serving
disadvantaged communities, which often face major difficulties in attracting and retaining
skilled teachers, will need substantially more resources to make working in such schools
a viable career choice. The successful decentralisation of personnel management requires
that central and regional authorities play a strong role in ensuring an adequate and
equitable distribution of teacher resources throughout the country. Externally determined
performance standards are also necessary to ensure that greater school involvement in
personnel management does not worsen inequalities among public schools.

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Developing and Implementing Teacher Policy

The issues raised in the report go to the heart of teachers’ work and careers, and the
success of any reform requires that teachers themselves are actively involved in policy
development and implementation. Unless teachers are actively involved in policy
formulation, and feel a sense of “ownership” of reform, it is unlikely that substantial
changes will be successfully implemented. On the other hand, stakeholder groups should
not be able to exercise a veto over education reforms that are mandated through
democratic political processes. To do so would be to risk losing the public support on
which education so critically depends. It is difficult to find the right balance, but open and
ongoing systematic dialogue and consultation are fundamental to the process.
There are also institutional arrangements that can make a difference. Several countries
have developed Teaching Councils that provide teachers and other stakeholder groups
with both a forum for policy development and, critically, a mechanism for profession-led
standard setting and quality assurance in teacher education, teacher induction, teacher
performance and career development. Such organisations seek to obtain for teaching the
combination of professional autonomy and public accountability that has long
characterised other professions such as medicine, engineering and law. This would
involve teachers having greater say in the criteria for entry to their profession, the
standards for career advancement, and the basis on which ineffective teachers should
leave the profession.
The need to more actively engage the teaching profession extends beyond reasons of
politics and pragmatism. One of the main challenges for policy makers facing the
demands of a knowledge society is how to sustain teacher quality and ensure all teachers
continue to engage in effective modes of ongoing professional learning. Policy has a key
role to play in helping teachers to develop professional learning communities within and
beyond schools.
In many countries there are extensive research gaps concerning teachers, their
preparation, work and careers. Such research is important not only for improving the
knowledge base for teacher policy, but also as a way of introducing new information and
ideas to schools and ensuring that teachers engage more actively with new knowledge.
There is a particular lack of research which compares teachers’ working conditions and
careers with those in other professions. Much of the data and research used in teacher
policy formulation is largely self-referential, and comparative information on other
careers would help provide a perspective on trends and findings in regard to teachers – as
well as ideas for change.
Policy formulation would also benefit from more extensive monitoring and evaluation
of innovation and reform. Countries are finding that they can capitalise more on the
diversity within their systems by testing policy reforms on a pilot basis, with volunteer
schools and regions, before widespread implementation. Identifying the factors involved
in successful innovations, and creating in other schools the conditions for their
dissemination, mainstreaming and sustainability, are central to an effective
implementation strategy.

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Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION: THE FOCUS ON TEACHERS

Summary
The OECD has made a major international study of policies for attracting, developing and
retaining effective teachers in schools. Drawing on the experiences of 25 countries around
the world, and extensive data and research, the OECD project has analysed the key
developments affecting teachers and their work, and developed policy options for
countries to consider.
Significant long-term questions are being raised about the need for school systems to
become much more competitive in recruiting skilled and motivated people as teachers,
and how to improve the effectiveness of teachers’ work. This chapter discusses why
teacher policy is high on national agendas, describes the methodology used in the project,
and highlights the main policy challenges that countries now face.
The project focuses on teacher policy issues in 25 countries: Australia; Austria; Belgium
(Flemish Community); Belgium (French Community); Canada (Quebec); Chile;
Denmark; Finland; France; Germany; Greece; Hungary; Ireland; Israel; Italy; Japan;
Korea; Mexico; the Netherlands; Norway; the Slovak Republic; Spain; Sweden;
Switzerland; the United Kingdom and the United States.
There are some striking differences among countries in their approaches to teacher
recruitment, teacher education, teacher pay and working conditions, teacher employment,
evaluation and career structures. International analysis provides countries with an
opportunity to learn more about themselves by examining their experiences against those
of other countries, as well as building up evidence on the impact of different approaches
to teacher policy. The report provides many examples of innovative and promising
teacher policy developments from around the world.
A much larger number of new teachers will enter the profession in the next 5-10 years
than in the past 20 years. The entry of substantial numbers of new teachers with up-to-
date skills and fresh ideas has the potential to substantially renew the schools. However,
if teaching is not perceived as an attractive profession, and teaching does not change in
fundamental ways, there is a risk that the quality of schools will decline. There are high
stakes in teacher policy.

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1.1. The Growing Focus on Teacher Issues

Teacher policy is high on national agendas. The far-reaching economic and social
changes underway have made high-quality schooling more important than ever before.
The demands on schools and teachers are becoming more complex. OECD Education
Ministers have committed their countries to the goal of raising the quality of learning for
all. This ambitious goal will not be achieved unless all students receive high-quality
teaching.
All countries are seeking to improve their schools, and to respond better to higher
social and economic expectations. Schooling provides the foundations for learning
throughout life, and for individual and national development. As the most significant
resource in schools, teachers are central to school improvement efforts. Improving the
efficiency and equity of schooling depends, in large measure, on ensuring that competent
people want to work as teachers, that their teaching is of high quality, and that all students
have access to high-quality teaching. Meetings of OECD Education Ministers have
underlined the critical importance of teachers and their work for the quality of schooling.
However, many countries have an ageing teaching force, and are finding it difficult to
attract well-qualified new entrants into teaching, or to retain them for long once they start.
Some other countries still benefit from a plentiful supply of people wishing to become a
teacher, and have relatively low rates of teacher turnover. Nevertheless, there can be
quality concerns when teacher shortages are not readily apparent. All the participating
countries report concerns in ensuring that teachers are well prepared for the demands of
more diverse student populations, higher social expectations of schools, expanding fields
of knowledge, and new types of responsibilities. Teacher policy needs therefore to
address both quantity and quality issues, not least because in many respects they are
closely intertwined.
Teacher issues are also currently high on policy agendas because of concerns
expressed by teachers themselves about the future of their profession – whether it is
sufficiently attractive to talented new entrants, and whether teachers are sufficiently
rewarded and supported in their work. As teachers are in daily contact with the students
who potentially form the next generation of teachers, the enthusiasm and morale of the
current teacher workforce are important influences on future teacher supply.
The current timing of the upsurge of interest in teacher policy issues is particularly
important. The fact that the large numbers of teachers who were recruited during the great
expansion period of the 1960s and 1970s are now close to retirement is both a major
challenge and an unprecedented opportunity in most countries. Although large amounts
of experience and skills need to be replaced as teachers retire, a number of countries now
have a once-in-a-generation opportunity to shape and benefit from substantial changes in
the teacher workforce. A much larger number of new teachers will enter the profession in
the next 5-10 years than in the past 20 years. The entry of substantial numbers of new
teachers with up-to-date skills and fresh ideas has the potential to substantially renew the
schools. As well, there is scope to free up resources for development as a younger teacher
workforce implies fewer budgetary pressures. Such changes would contribute to the
realisation of the “re-schooling” scenario whereby schools make a vital contribution to
community development and enjoy high levels of public trust (OECD, 2001). On the
other hand, if teaching is not perceived as an attractive profession, and teaching does not
change in fundamental ways, there is a risk that the quality of schools will decline and a
downward spiral will be difficult to reverse. This unwelcome prospect has been termed

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the “meltdown scenario” under which teacher shortages turn into a real staffing crisis
(OECD, 2001). There are high stakes in teacher policy.

1.2. Overview of the Broad Policy Directions

This report is concerned with policies that contribute to attracting, developing and
retaining effective teachers in schools. The report draws on a major OECD study of
teacher policy conducted in collaboration with 25 countries around the world
(see Appendix 1). The fact that so many countries took part indicates that teacher issues
are a priority for public policy, and likely to become even more so in future years.
The report aims to provide a comprehensive international analysis of:
− Trends and developments in the teacher workforce.

− Evidence on the key factors in attracting, developing and retaining effective teachers.

− Innovative and successful teacher policies and practices.

− Teacher policy options for countries to consider.

− Priorities for future work at national and international levels.

The report identifies policy initiatives being undertaken at two levels. The first
concerns the teaching profession as a whole and includes measures to ensure that society
values teachers’ work, that teaching is seen as exciting and worthwhile, and that teachers’
training and work environments are improved. The second is more targeted, and
recognises that that there is not a single, uniform labour market for teachers. Rather, there
is a set of different labour markets distinguished by type of school (primary, secondary,
vocational and so on) and individual characteristics (such as gender, age, previous work
experience, academic ability and subject specialisation). Such initiatives are focusing on
the factors that attract and retain particular types of people into teaching, and teachers to
work in particular schools.
The quality of teaching is determined not just by the “quality” of the teachers –
although that is clearly critical – but also by the environment in which they work. Able
teachers are not necessarily going to reach their potential in settings that do not provide
appropriate support or sufficient challenge and reward. Policies aimed at attracting and
retaining effective teachers need both to recruit competent people into the profession, and
also to provide support and incentives for professional development and ongoing
performance at high levels.
Not all of the findings and policy implications apply equally to each country.
Countries have different social, economic and educational structures and traditions, and
are at different stages of policy development. To reflect this, the report attempts to
identify the key priorities for countries facing different circumstances. Nevertheless,
despite the diversity of country situations, some broad common directions can be
identified, and these are elaborated in the chapters that follow. In part these policy
initiatives have been compelled by the need for school systems to become much more
competitive in recruiting skilled and motivated people as teachers, but they also reflect
judgements that the quality of teaching and learning will improve as a result. Significant

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long-term questions are being raised about how to make teaching more enjoyable and
interesting, and how to improve the effectiveness of teachers’ work.

1.3. Methodology and Country Participation

The project was based on volunteer countries working collaboratively with each other
and with the OECD Secretariat. It involved examining country-specific issues and policy
responses in attracting, developing and retaining effective teachers, and placing these
experiences within a broader, international framework to generate insights and findings
relevant to countries as a whole. Appendix 1 details the processes involved, the country
reports and other documents that have been produced and the large number of
organisations and people who contributed to the project and to the preparation of this
report.
The project involved two complementary approaches: an Analytical Review strand;
and a Country Review strand. The Analytical Review strand used several means –
Country Background Reports, literature reviews, data analyses and commissioned papers
– to analyse the factors that shape attracting, developing and retaining effective teachers,
and possible policy responses. All 25 participating countries were involved in this strand.
In addition, nine countries also chose to host a Country Review, which involved external
review teams undertaking an intensive case study visit whose conclusions were then
reflected in a Country Note.
The countries taking part in the project were:1
− Analytical Review strand (25 countries, involving 26 background reports): Australia;
Austria; Belgium (Flemish Community); Belgium (French Community); Canada
(Quebec); Chile; Denmark; Finland; France; Germany; Greece; Hungary; Ireland;
Israel; Italy; Japan; Korea; Mexico; the Netherlands; Norway; the Slovak Republic;
Spain; Sweden; Switzerland; the United Kingdom and the United States.
− Country Review strand (9 countries involving 10 review visits): Austria; Belgium
(Flemish Community); Belgium (French Community); Germany; Hungary; Italy;
Korea; Spain; Sweden and Switzerland.

The collaborative approach provided countries with an opportunity to learn more

about themselves by examining their experiences against those of other countries. There
are some striking differences among countries in regard to their teacher workforces, as
illustrated by several indicators from OECD (2004):
Age: in Germany and Italy more than 50% of lower secondary teachers are aged 50
years or older, whereas less than 10% of Korean teachers are in this age group.
Gender: in the Czech Republic and Hungary females comprise more than 80% of
lower secondary teachers, while only 40% of Japanese lower secondary teachers
are female.

1
However, to the extent they are covered by the OECD Education Database, OECD countries which did not take part in the
project are still considered in the analysis and feature in the report’s figures and tables.

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 1. INTRODUCTION: THE FOCUS ON TEACHERS – 21

Teacher education: in Italy it takes an average of 8 years of tertiary education to train

as an upper secondary teacher compared to 4 years in Australia and England.
Salaries: in Korea a primary teacher with 15 years experience earns around 2.7 times
GDP per capita (a broad measure of average income), while in the Slovak
Republic an equivalent teacher earns only around 0.55 times GDP per capita.
By documenting such differences among countries, and trying to understand their
causes and consequences, comparative analysis can help to raise questions about long-
established practices, as well as help accumulate evidence on the impact of different
policy approaches.

1.4. Organisation of the Report

The report has six further chapters. Chapter 2 provides the rationale for the study, and
outlines the framework that was used, including the ways in which the key areas of
teacher policy are interconnected. Chapters 3 to 6 are concerned with the main issues
driving the project: attracting competent people into the teaching profession (Chapter 3);
developing teachers’ skills and knowledge (Chapter 4); recruiting, selecting and
employing teachers (Chapter 5); and retaining effective teachers in schools (Chapter 6).
Each of these chapters discusses the trends and developments that are giving rise to
policy concerns, the main factors involved, examples of innovative policy responses,
evidence on policy impact, and options for countries to consider. Chapter 7 discusses
ways to build teacher, education union and other stakeholder involvement in policy
development and implementation, the major gaps in the research and information base,
and priorities for future work. Appendix 1 details the process by which the project was
conducted, and the range of outputs in addition to this report. Appendix 2 provides an
indicators framework for informing teacher policy and assesses the current availability of
data at both national and international levels.
The following chapters provide many examples of country initiatives in teacher
policies and programmes. A number of particularly innovative and promising initiatives
are highlighted in self-contained boxes that provide more detail on the reforms.
Nevertheless, due to space constraints, it has not been possible to provide all of the
necessary detail, and readers are encouraged to consult the relevant Country Background
Reports, Country Review reports, and research studies. All the documents produced
through the project are listed in Appendix 1 and available from
www.oecd.org/edu/teacherpolicy.

References

OECD (2001), Schooling for Tomorrow: What Schools for the Future? Centre for
Educational Research and Innovation, OECD, Paris.
OECD (2004), Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators 2004, OECD, Paris.

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 2. WHY IS TEACHER POLICY IMPORTANT? – 23

Chapter 2

WHY IS TEACHER POLICY IMPORTANT?

Summary
This chapter provides the rationale for analysing teacher policy, and the framework used
to study its main components and the ways they are interconnected.
Teachers are important because of their impact on student learning. The research
indicates that raising teacher quality is perhaps the policy direction most likely to lead to
substantial gains in school performance. However, there are many important aspects of
teacher quality that are not captured by indicators such as qualifications, experience and
tests of academic ability. The teacher characteristics that are harder to measure, but which
can be vital to student learning need to be more prominent in teacher preparation and
employment.
Teachers’ importance is reflected in the size of the teacher workforce. Teaching is the
largest single employer of graduate labour and, on average, 64% of current expenditure
on schools is allocated to teachers’ compensation. Teacher policies affect many people,
and can have substantial implications for school budgets.
Teacher policy concerns have intensified in recent years due to the profound economic
and social changes underway and the imperatives for schools to provide the foundations
for lifelong learning. All school systems have been engaged in major curriculum reforms,
and have placed stronger emphases on gender equality within schools, the incorporation
of information and communication technology, and greater integration of students with
special needs. Such developments require re-examination of the role of teachers, their
preparation, work and careers.
A key challenge is to understand the complex range of factors – societal, school system
level, and school level – that are giving rise to teacher policy concerns. It is important to
identify the ways that these factors interact, and those which are potentially open to
policy influence. Understanding the operations of the teacher labour market is particularly
important. Key aspects include the factors shaping teacher demand and supply, the
responsiveness of teachers to incentives, the trade-offs governments face in defining the
number of teachers needed, and the mechanisms that assign teachers to schools.

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This chapter provides the rationale for analysing teacher policy, and outlines the
framework used to study its main components and the ways they are interconnected. The
term “policy” is used because in most countries the large majority of teachers are either
employed within the public sector, or employed by schools which receive at least part of
their funding from government. (Box 2.1 defines what is meant by a “teacher” in
international studies.) On average across OECD countries, over 90% of all expenditure on
primary and secondary schools is from public sources (OECD, 2004a). Public
expenditure on schools amounts to 3.5% of GDP on average, or just under 10% of public
expenditure overall. As is detailed below, teacher salaries are the largest component of
spending on schools. In addition, governments generally shape the organisation of
schools and the main features of teachers’ education and their working conditions.

2.1. Quality Teaching is Vital for Improving Student Learning

Student learning performance varies widely among students of a similar age. The
2000 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) study of reading literacy
among 15-year-olds, for example, found that in OECD countries as a whole 10% of
students were capable of performing highly sophisticated reading tasks, such as managing
information that is difficult to find in unfamiliar texts, and accommodating concepts that
may be contrary to expectations (OECD, 2001a). On the other hand, 18% of students
performed at literacy level 1 or below; that is, they were capable at best of only being
able to make a simple connection between information in the text and common, everyday
knowledge. Their poor literacy skills mean that such students are likely to struggle in
their schooling, and to face considerable difficulties in making the transition to
employment or further study. In some countries the difference between 15-year-old
students in the top and bottom bands of reading performance is equivalent to the effect of
several years of additional schooling.
Student learning is influenced by many factors, including: students’ skills,
expectations, motivation and behaviour; family resources, attitudes and support; peer
group skills, attitudes and behaviour; school organisation, resources and climate;
curriculum structure and content; and teacher skills, knowledge, attitudes and practices.
Schools and classrooms are complex, dynamic environments, and identifying the effects
of these varied factors, and how they influence and relate to each other – for different
types of students and different types of learning – has been, and continues to be, a major
focus of educational research.
Conducting research on the factors that influence student learning is challenging on
conceptual, methodological and data grounds (Vignoles et al., 2000). Researchers have
been compelled to use data sets and methodologies that provide only limited measures of
learning and partial indicators of the range of influences on student learning. The results,
interpretations and policy implications of such research are frequently contested. Caution
is needed when generalising research results from one time or place to another, and
especially across national boundaries. Much of the research is from the United States, and
schooling there differs in many significant respects from other countries, including in
governance, financing and policies on curriculum and assessment.

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 2. WHY IS TEACHER POLICY IMPORTANT? – 25

Box 2.1. Definition of a “teacher”

Unless indicated otherwise, the term “teacher” as used in this report is based on the
definition adopted by the OECD’s Indicators of Education Systems (INES) project in its data
collections, which provide much of the data used in this report.
A teacher is defined as a person whose professional activity involves the transmission of
knowledge, attitudes and skills that are stipulated to students enrolled in an educational programme.
This definition does not depend on the qualification held by the teacher nor on the delivery
mechanism. It is based on three concepts:
1. Activity, thus excluding teachers without active teaching duties – although teachers
temporarily not at work (e.g. for reasons of illness or injury, maternity or parental
leave, holiday or vacation) are included.
2. Profession, thus excluding people who work occasionally or in a voluntary capacity in
educational institutions.
3. Educational programme, thus excluding people who provide services other than
formal instruction to students (e.g. supervisors, activity organisers, etc.).
Teaching staff refers to professional personnel directly involved in teaching students,
including classroom teachers; special education teachers; and teachers who work with students
as a whole class in a classroom, in small groups in a resource room, or in one-to-one teaching
inside or outside a regular classroom. Teaching staff also includes chairpersons of departments
whose duties include some amount of teaching (i.e. at least 0.25 of full-time equivalent), but it
does not include non-professional personnel who support teachers in providing instruction to
students, such as teachers’ aides or other paraprofessional personnel.
Also, in general, school principals, vice principals and other administrators without
teaching responsibilities in educational institutions, as well as teachers without active teaching
responsibilities for students in educational institutions, are not classified as teachers.
The data reported on teachers’ salaries are for full-time classroom teachers only.
In vocational and technical education, teachers of the “school element” of apprenticeships
in a dual system are included in the definition. Trainers in the “in-company element” of a dual
system are excluded.
Full-time and part-time teachers
The classification of educational personnel as “full-time” and “part-time” is based on a
concept of working time. The stipulation of full-time employment is usually based on “statutory
hours” or “normal or statutory working hours” (as opposed to actual or total working time or
actual teaching time). Part-time employment refers to individuals who have been employed to
perform less than the amount of statutory working hours required for a full-time employee.
A teacher who is employed for at least 90% of the normal or statutory number of hours of
work for a full-time teacher over the period of a complete school year is classified as a full-time
teacher. A teacher who is employed for less than 90% of the normal or statutory number of
hours of work for a full-time teacher over the period of a complete school year is classified as a
part-time teacher.
More detailed information on these general definitions and conventions is provided in
Education at a Glance, OECD Indicators 2004. (See also www.oecd.org/edu/eag2004)

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Bearing these caveats in mind, three broad conclusions emerge from research on
student learning. The first and most solidly based finding is that the largest source of
variation in student learning is attributable to differences in what students bring to school
– their abilities and attitudes, and family and community background. Such factors are
difficult for policy makers to influence, at least in the short-run.
The second broad conclusion is that of those variables which are potentially open to
policy influence, factors involving teachers and teaching are the most important
influences on student learning. In particular, the broad consensus is that “teacher quality”
is the single most important school variable influencing student achievement (see the
reviews by Santiago, 2002; Schacter and Thum, 2004; and Eide et al., 2004). The effects
of differences in teacher quality are substantial. For example, the work by Rivkin et al.
(2001) indicates that moving from being taught by an average teacher to one at the 85th
percentile of teacher quality would lead to students improving by more than 4 percentile
rankings in the given year, an effect which they estimate is roughly equivalent to the
effect on learning of reducing class size by 10 students. Sanders and Rivers (1996)
estimate that teacher effects are not only large – students of the most effective teachers
(the highest quintile) have learning gains four times greater than students of the least
effective teachers (lowest quintile) – but cumulative over time. Having a succession of
effective teachers can substantially narrow the average achievement gap between students
from low-income and high-income families, and low-performing students benefit more
from more effective teachers. Rockoff (2004), who used a particularly rich data set to
follow the same group of teachers over a 10-year period, estimated that differences
among teachers explain up to 23% of the variation in student test score performance that
is potentially open to policy influence.
The third broad conclusion from the research, which is somewhat more contentious,
concerns the indicators or correlates of teacher quality. Most of the research has
examined the relationship between measures of student performance, most commonly
standardised test scores, and readily measurable teacher characteristics such as
qualifications, teaching experience, and indicators of academic ability or subject-matter
knowledge. Such research generally indicates that there is a positive relationship between
these measured teacher characteristics and student performance, but perhaps to a lesser
extent than may have been expected. For example, Hanushek’s reviews (2002, 2003) of
studies of the United States find that overall there are no clear systematic effects of
characteristics such as teacher education or teacher experience on student achievement,
although there is some reasonably strong support for the effects of teachers’ academic
ability (as measured by teacher test scores). Other researchers have challenged some of
these conclusions. In their meta-analyses, Greenwald et al. (1996) and Hedges and
Greenwald (1996) found that variables such as teacher education, teacher experience and
teacher ability show strong relations with student achievement. The review by Gustafsson
(2003) also suggests that there are important relations between different indicators of
teacher competence and student achievement, including teacher education, experience,
measured knowledge and skills, and in-service training.
A possible explanation for the lack of consistently clear and strong effects of
commonly measured characteristics of teacher quality is that research studies are often
faced with little variation in some of these characteristics (e.g. formal qualifications) for
the teachers sampled from a given school system. In addition, for most of these
characteristics, a “threshold effect” is likely to apply: teachers need a certain level of
qualifications or experience to be effective, but further attainments beyond those levels

TEACHERS MATTER: ATTRACTING, DEVELOPING AND RETAINING EFFECTIVE TEACHERS – ISBN 92-64-01802-6 © OECD 2005
 2. WHY IS TEACHER POLICY IMPORTANT? – 27

may be progressively less important for student performance. (Research on the effects of
teacher education and professional development is discussed further in Chapter 4.)
A point of agreement among the various studies is that there are many important
aspects of teacher quality that are not captured by the commonly used indicators such as
qualifications, experience and tests of academic ability. The teacher characteristics that
are harder to measure, but which can be vital to student learning, include the ability to
convey ideas in clear and convincing ways; to create effective learning environments for
different types of students; to foster productive teacher-student relationships; to be
enthusiastic and creative; and to work effectively with colleagues and parents.
Overall, the research results indicate that raising teacher quality is vital for improving
student achievement, and is perhaps the policy direction most likely to lead to substantial
gains in school performance (Hanushek, 2004). However, the findings also indicate that
policy initiatives need to take into account the substantial variation in effectiveness that
exists among teachers with similar, readily measured, characteristics. In particular, in
light of the lack of strong evidence linking teacher credentials such as qualifications and
experience to student results, alternative indicators of teacher quality are crucial.
Nonetheless, the more measurable characteristics provide fundamental information on the
quality of teaching workforces. Where there are actual or looming shortages in the
numbers of teachers with given characteristics, there must at least be a risk that teacher
quality is reduced.

2.2. Teachers are Significant in the Labour Force and in School Budgets

The size of the teaching workforce is considerable. On average in OECD countries

teachers constitute about 2.6% of the total labour force (see Table 2.1) and teaching is the
largest single employer of graduate labour. In Australia in 2002/03, for example, there
were almost 300 000 people employed as school teachers, which was around 60% more
than the number working as nurses and twice the number of accountants (Centre of Policy
Studies, 2004).
The large number of teachers is reflected in expenditure on schools. On average,
around 64% of current expenditure on schools is allocated to teachers’ compensation
(see Table 2.1). This is equivalent to around 5% of total public expenditure, or around 2%
of GDP, on average. Teacher policies affect many people, and can have substantial
implications for school budgets, as well as graduate employment in general and
employment in the public sector in particular.

2.3. Teacher Policy Concerns are Intensifying

Teacher policy concerns have intensified in recent years due to the profound
economic and social changes underway and the imperatives for schools to provide the
foundations for lifelong learning. As Coolahan (2002) has argued, when society is
undergoing profound and accelerating change, particular pressures emerge to improve the
alignment between the education system and these changing societal needs. The teaching
profession is a key mediating agency for society as it endeavours to cope with change and
upheaval. But the teaching profession needs to have the skills, knowledge and training to
cope with the many changes and challenges that lie ahead. The teaching profession must
adapt a great deal so that it can act in a constructive manner within a fast-changing
society if it is to retain the confidence of society.

TEACHERS MATTER: ATTRACTING, DEVELOPING AND RETAINING EFFECTIVE TEACHERS – ISBN 92-64-01802-6 © OECD 2005
28 – 2. WHY IS TEACHER POLICY IMPORTANT?

Table 2.1. Classroom teachers as a percentage of the total labour force and compensation of
teachers as a percentage of current expenditure on schools

Compensation of teachers and all school staff as a

percentage of current expenditure on educational
Classroom teachers in primary and
institutions from public and private sources, for primary,
secondary education as a
secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education
percentage of the total labour force,
(2001)
based on head counts (1999)
Compensation of
Compensation of all staff
teachers
Australia1 2.3 58 75
Austria 2.6 71 79
Belgium m 77 87
Belgium (Flemish Community)a 3.6 68 82
Canadab 1.7 62 78
Chilec,d m m 61
Czech Republic 2.1 49 65
Denmark 2.8 53 78
Finland2 2.4 55 67
France 2.7 m 79
Germany 1.9 m 85
Greecec m m 91
Hungaryc 3.6 m 75
Iceland 3.3 m m
Irelandc 2.8 77 83
Israel m m 78
Italy3,c 2.9 64 81
Japan 1.5 m 88
Korea 1.4 62 70
Luxembourg 2.9 81 91
Mexicoc 2.5 81 94
Netherlands 2.8 m 78
New Zealand 2.6 m m
Norway 3.7 m 83
Polandc m m 76
Portugal m m 94
Slovak Republic m 62 79
Spain 2.7 76 86
Sweden 2.8 49 65
Switzerlandc 2.3 72 85
Turkeyc 2.0 m 95
United Kingdom 2.4 53 74
United Statesb,c 2.2 56 81

Country mean 2.6 64 80

Country Notes: Notes indicated by numbers refer to the first column while notes indicated by lowercase letters refer to the
second and third columns.

1. The number of teachers is expressed in full-time equivalents.

2. The data include teachers only in educational institutions in the regular education system and exclude sports institutes, music
and folk schools, and military vocational institutes.
3. Slightly underestimated because teachers working in programmes such as regional vocational education are not included.
a. Year of reference 2000.
b. Post-secondary non-tertiary education not included.
c. Public institutions only.
d. Year of reference 2002.
Symbol : m Data not available.
Sources : Data in first column: OECD (2001b, Table D2.4); Data in second and third columns: OECD (2004a, Table B6.3).

TEACHERS MATTER: ATTRACTING, DEVELOPING AND RETAINING EFFECTIVE TEACHERS – ISBN 92-64-01802-6 © OECD 2005
Exploring the Variety of Random
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^m^ "SN FRANÇAISE DE SAINT = D0 MI NGUE. 223 brut,

329 cafeteries, 2 hattes , un entrepôt, 3 indigoteries , une
cotonnerie une cacaotiêre & 67 places à vivres. Le terrain ne jouit
pas en général d'une' haute réputation ; dans quelques lieux c'eft
une terre fort légère j dans d'autres lafurface touche prefque à une
efpèce de tuf argileux, furtout lorfqu'on approche du fommet des
montagnes. Il faut cependant excepter ies hauteurs de la Montagne-
Noire & du Joli-Trou /où il fe trouve des parties très-fertiles.
Cependant la culture des vivres donne , dans cette paroilTe , des
produits fi . abondans , que plufieurs fucreries de la plaine y ont ce
qu'on nomme de petites f laces , d'où elles tirent tous ceux qui leur
font néceffaires , & que , dans des tems de difette , le Fort-Dauphin
lui-même y trouve de quoi faire fubfifter fes ateliers par le fecours
des bananes & de la caflave. Comme tous les autres lieux de la
Colonie , Sainte-Rofe eft fubdivifée en cantons, qui ont chacun leur
dénomination particulière. En fuivant le cours de la Grande rivière ,
lorfqu'on entre dans cette paroifle par le bourg de la Tannerie , on
les trouve dans l'ordre où je vais les nommer. Ri'oe gauche. La
Tannerie , La Petite Guinée. Le Grand Gilles. Les Crêtes du Dondon.
Le Camp ( de Eiros ). Le Gj-and Cormier. Le Petit Cormier. Le Bourg.
lia Grande Guinée. Le vieux Canton des Allemands. Le Fond
Chevalier. Le Bois Rouge. Le Piton de Roche. Le Joli-Trou. La Belle
Crête. La Ravine à Gambade. La Crête à Gauthier. La Montagne
Noire. Bellevue. La Ravine à Trianon ou à Pariften. La Ravine des
Bananiers. La Ravine de h Banque. Bahon. Le Canton des Allemands.
Le Bay. Il n'eft prefque aucun de ces noms dont on ne trouve
T'étymologie dans celui d'un habitant , dans la nature du fol ou des
produdions , ou dans la fonr.e du lieu. , Ri've droite, L'Acul de Deux.
Le Gros nez. Partie de la ravine à Fourmy ou à Goyard, Les Epineux.
Caracol. Le Fourq de Caracol. Les Perroquets. La Ravine des Roches.
Les Giraumons. Le Bois àf. Pins. Lts Genypayers. Les Petites Mares.
Les Crêtes à Marcan, Les Crêtes Plates, Le Picaut. * ' 1 ^^
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'-a a.24 D E S C R I P T I O N D E L A P A R T I E Les

chemins de Sainte-Rofe font afîez beaux pour toutes fortes de
voitures. & l'on peut s'enfoncer en chaiies jufqu'à quacre lieu.s dans
la- gorge , mais c'e. avec rinconvénient d'y palier fept fois la Grande
nviére. On peut cependant aller d'un bout à l'autre de la paroiffe fan.
traverfer cette rivière, mais ce cloemin n'eO- praticable qu'à cheval
Se pour des animaux de charge. La temp^ature eft douce à Sainte-
Rofe & a,ê:ue fur le haut de la MontagneNoire on a vu le
thermomètre à 9 degrés au-dcffus de glace pendant la nuit. Les plus
beaux légumes , de fuperbes fleurs & de larges artichaux croiiTe.nt
fur cette montagne , où plus d'un habitant de la ville du Cap &
même de la plaine , a recouvré la lanté qu'il était ailé chercher dans
ce climat dont le troid femble piquant par fon contrafte avec les
chaleurs des tropiques. On évaluait à quatre-vingt-dix pouces , Teau
que ka pluies donnaient annuellement à S-nte-Ro!e. Mais Saint-
Domingue devient chaque jour plus fec , & même depuis quelques
années , on ne p.uc guères compter que les deux tiers de cette
q^iantité. Les Nords & les orages font pleuvoir, mais ces derniers y
exercent une plus grande libéraUté , puifque les fix mois pluvieux
font comptés d'ordinaire de Juin à Novembre, & qu'ils donnent les A
des jours de pluie & les ± de la quantité d'eau de l'année. Le chmat
de Sainte-Rofe eft affez favorable à fes habitans , pour qu'on y vcye
beaucoup de fexagénaires. C'eft de tous les endroits de la Colonie ,
celui qui a montré le plus de centenaires. Parmi eux, l'on doit citer le
Capitaine Vincent OlUvier, nègre hbre, quia été inhumé dans cette
paroiffe , le 14 Mars 1780 , âgé d'environ cent vingt ans. Vincent ,
qui était efclave , fmvit M. Olhvier fon maître , en 1697 , au fiège de
Carthagène. Comme il en revenait fur un bâtiment de tranfport , il
fut fait prifcinnîer & mené en Europe où les Hollandais le rachetèrent
avec feize autres , qui furent tous envoyés en France. Vincent qui
frappait par fa haute ftature , fut préfenté à Louis XIV. Ayant pris de
la paffion pour la vie militaire, Vincent alla faire les guerres
d'Allemagne fous Villars, & à fon retour à Saint-Domingue, M. le
marquis de Chateau-Morand , alors gouverneur-général , le nomma,
en 1716 , capitaine-général de toutes les milices de couleur de la
dépendance du Cap , d'où lui était venu le nom de Capitaine Vincent
fous lequel feul , il était connu & qu'on lui donnait lors même qu'on
lui adreiïait la parole. La conduite de Vincent & les vertus qui étaient
parvenues à rendre le préjugé muet, lui obtinrent l'épée du roi avec
laquelle il fe montrait toujours , ainfi qu'avec un plumet, Vincent
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FRANÇAISE DE SAINT-DOMÏNGUE. 225 Vincent était admis

partout ; on le vit à la table de M. le Comte d'Argout , gouverneur-
général , affis à fes côtés & moins enorgueilli de cette marque d'une,
infigne prédiledion , que celui qui la lui avait accordée. Il donnait à
tous les hommes de fa clafle un exemple précieux, & Ton âge Se une
mémoire extrêmement fidelle le rendaient toujours intéreiïant. Je l'ai
vu dans l'année qui précéda fa mort, rappelant fes antiques
prouefîes aux hommes de couleur qu'on enrôlait pour l'expédition de
Savannah, & montrant , dans fes defcendans qui s'étaient offerts des
premiers , qu'il avait tranfmis fa vaillance. Vincent, le bon capitaine
Vincent, avait une figure heureufe , & dans le contrafte de fa peau
noire Se de fes cheveux blancs , fc trouvait un effet qui commandait
le refpeft. Aimé de tous tant qu'il vécut , content de fon humble
fortune dans la polfelfion d'une habitation au canton des Bois-Blancs
, & dans la jouiffance d'une penfion de 600 liv. que MM. d'Ennery &
de Vaivrc lui avaient accordée, le 8 Juillet 1776, fur le tréfor public j
ce vénérable viellard a emporté à fa mort des regrets univerfels. Le
16 Janvier 1780 , on a vu mourir, à Sainte-Rofe, Nanette , négrelTe
libre , âgée de quatre-vingt-dix ans. Le 14 Mai, Hélène Defle , veuve
en premières noces de Richard Boutinot, en fécondes de Mathurin
Lamare , & en troifièmes de Pierre le Grand , demeurant au canton
du Joli-Trou , âgée de cent ans. Le 29 Décembre , Catherine ,
négrcffe libre , de nation Timbou , à quatrevingt-dix ans* Le 28 Mars
178 1 , Marie- Jeanne , négreife libre , du canton du Joli-Trou j 'kgi^
àt qnatre-vingt-dix diTiS. Le 3 1 Mai , Jeanne , négreife libre , à cent
ans. Le 5 Septembre, Pierre Télémaque , affranchi par M. Legendre ,
l quatrevingt-dix ans. Le 18 Novembre , Marie Magdelaine , négreflè
libre , Arada, à cent ans. Le 14 Février 1782, Catherine Rouffeau ,
négrcffe libre, veuve de Julien Vital , à quatre-vingt-quinze ans.
Sainte-Rofe a encore perdu depuis une blanche de cent trais ans , &
il y a peu de, tems qu'une autre, plus que •«■«/,?««îV^ , exiftait
encore. Enfin le premier Septembre 1786, eft mort René Agion,
nègre libre, à ■cent dix ans.. Tojne I. 'P £ f «' LdÈ
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226 DESCRIPTION DE LA PARTIE. On remarque aufiî dans

cette paroiffe , que les terrains de la partie Occidentale font prefque
les feuls qui ayent des pierres calcaires , & que prefque tous ceux de
l'Orient font garnis de pierres vitrifîables. On avait prétendu qu'il
exiftait une ardoifière dans la paroiflcj mais ce fait ne s'eft point
vérifié. La population de Sainte-Rofe eft de 650 blancs, 950
affranchis & 9,500 efclaves. Des 1,600 libres , 500 font portant
armes. Les milices de cette paroifTe fourniiTent , durant îa guerre ,
leur contingent au fervice des corps-de-garde de Caracol, de
Limonade & du grand carénage du Quartier-Morin. En général , les
habitans de Sainte-Rofe , fans être tous riches , font trèsoccu es de
fe procurer toutes les jouiffances d'une vie que des moraliftes
févèrés pourraient trouver un peu épicurienne , & la fête de la
paroiffe eft célèbre par les amufemens dont elle eft l'occafion. On y
aime la bonne chère & le jeu. 11 eft fâcheux que ce goût de
diffipation n'ait pas banni un efprit de fufceptibihté , qui rend les
combats finguliers fort communs , dans un lieu où tout le monde
devrait fcntir que la concorde eft le premier affaifonnement du plaifir.
Cette humeur irritable & le foin de contenir un grand nombre de
gens de couleur , ont rendu difficiles les fondions du commandant
des milices de cette paroiffe , auquel l'heureux talent de conciliateur
eft néceuaire , talent qui n'exclut pas le befoin de fermeté. La
réputation de falubrité dont jouit la paroiffe Sainte-Rofe , avait
déterminé à y faire cantonner , en 17 19, deux compagnies des
troupes détachées de la marine , & ce territoire a eu d'autres
cantonnemens , mais par d'autres motifs^ Toutes les perfonnes qui
ont examiné Saint-Domingue militairement , fe font accordées à
regarder Sainte-Rofe comme le premier point d'une retraite
intérieure éans la Partie du Nord , & comme importante à caufe de la
nature de fes communications avec le Dondon y par des gorges qui
s'ouvrent dans le territoire de Sainte-Rofe. M. de Belzunce 3 arrivé à
Saint-Domingue dans des circonftances où l'on devait regarder cette
Colonie comme très-menacée ,. & avec la miffion difficile de la
conferver au pouvoir de la France , ne laiffa pas SainteRofe & le
Dondon fans fonger à leur utilité. Sachant que fous le miniftère de
M. de Maurepas , M, le Maréchal de Noailies avait été fort occupé de
l'idée d'établir une place forte au Dondon , & croyant que la
confervation des troupes •venues avec lui exigeait une mefure avec
laquelle s'alliait fon fyftême défenfif et la Colonie , il fit former des
camps à Sainte-Rofe & au Dondon. Des
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— ^ FRANÇAISE DE SAINT-DOMINGUE. baraques furent

placées , notamment au bas de la gorge du Grand-Gilles à demi-
lieue du bourg de la Tannerie, près de l'habitation Fontenelle • ce
cam^ qui avait devant lui un ancien lit de la Grande rivière, fe
nommait le camp Birof De ce camp, la communication avec le
Dondon fe divife en deux branches" Celle de la droite, pafTe par la
gorge du Grand-Gilles qui a une lieue de lono- ' fur cinq cens toifes
dans fa plus grande largeur, mais qui fe rétrécit dans plufieurs points
& tellement dans un , que les deux cotés des montagnes ne laifTent
entr'cux que l'intervalle du chemin. Il n'y a que deux lieues du camp
Biros au bourg du Dondon. La communication de la gauche efl par la
gorge de Sainte-Rofe même On y traverfe un ancien lit de la Grande
rivière dans quatre points. D'abord deux fois fur le terrain Fontenelle
, puis à cent cinquante toifes de l'églife de Sainte-Rofe & plus loin
encore. Le chemin continue enfuite près de l'habitation Grand- Jean
& va fe joindre à la gorge du Joli-Trou qui eft à une demi-licue au-
deflus de l'églife. Cette gorge du Joli-Trou a une lieue de long fur un
quart de lieue de large dans fa plus grande largeur , comptée du
pied d'une montagne à l'autre A environ un tiers de fon étendue ,
elle fe divifc en deux branches. La première traverfe plufieurs fois la
ravine du Joli -Trou & la féconde eft ce qu'on appelé le Fond
Chevalier. Ces deux branches fe réunilTent dans leur plus grande
profondeur • où eft la jonaion des chemins des deux petites gorges.
Mais de là ce chemin fe partage encore en deux. L'un monte la Belle-
Crête & la traverfe pour arriver an bois de la Porte jufqu'à la limite
efpagnole qui eft à environ quatre lienes de l'églife Sainte - Rofe ;
l'autre après avoir pafle les Bois-Rouges , parvient au Dondon ,
proche l'églife de ce lieu qui , foit par la communication de la droite ,
foit par celle de la gauche , fe trouve à environ trois lieues de celle
de SainteRofe. Entre l'églife de Sainte-Rofe & l'habitation Grand-
Jean, il y a encore une communication avec le Dondon. A une palTe
de la ravine des Cormiers , le chemin fe divife en deux , la fourche
de la gauche va joindre le chemin du Dondon à l'habitation la
Bretonnière , fituée à une petite lieue du bourg du Dondon , & celle
de la droite va trouver le même chemin à l'habitation Dupuy , au
fommec de la gorge du Grand-Gilles & à environ mille toifes au-
deiTous de i'habitatioa la Bretonnière, Ff 2
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-2« ï) E SCRÏPTION DE LA PARTIE - Ce flit encore à la

même époque du mois de Mai 1762 , que le chemin de la gorcrc du
Grand-Gilles fot rendu praticable aux voitures pour le tranfporc des
approvifionnemens , des munitions , &c , depuis la Tannerie jufqu'au
haut de cette gorge. On fentit bien dès-lors que dans des montagnes
où il fallait couper & remuer des terres pour combler des points bas ,
on obtiendrait diiEcllement un chemin fohde & durable , on était
même très-enclin à lui en préférer un par le Bonnet qui , quoique
plus long , à la vérité , était plus utile à la plame du Cap & à la partie
montagneufe même; mais il fallait pour cette route 90,000 iournées
d'ouvriers lorfque l'autre n'en exigeait que 27,000 , & cette dernière
confidération l'emporta. La paix arrivée en 1763 , & le défaut
d'entretien ont ramené k chemin du Grand-Gilles à ce qu'il était
auparavant, & ils n'ont laiffé du camp Biros , conftruit pour recevoir
trois bataillons , avec magafms , hôpitaux & autres établiffemens ,
que le fouvenir de ce que des corvées énormes ont coûté aux
habitans. Cependant ces conftruftions fervirent , au mois de
Novembre & de Décembre 1764, à recevoir environ huit cents
Allemands & Acadiens. Le tréfor public acheti du terrain pour leur
procurer les moyens de fubfifter. Chaque famille avait, au mois de
Janvier 1765 . Ta cabane , & quatre carreaux de terre avec un petit
jardin enfemencé. Le 21 Décembre fuivant, on fit partir pour le Mole
le^ • cent foixante & onze individus qui reliaient , tout le refte était
mort. Ces malheureux Allemands faifaient partie de ceux immolés
par milliers dans l'entrepnfe mal combinée de Cayenne. Et on a déjà
befoin, vingt-quatre ans après, d'expliquer comment des cantons de
Sainte-Rofe ont reçu leur nomde latranfplantation de colons très-
exotiques pour le climat de Saint-Domingue. A la guerre de 1778 ,
Sainte-Rofe avait repris un peu de l'exiftence qui tient i fa pofition
militaire. On y fit conftruire une batterie & un retranchement dans le
plus étroit du chemin au Sud du bourg de la Tannerie & plus loin des
magafms, des feurs & une poudrière pour recevoir les munitions de
tout genre , d'abord entr-epofées dans les bâtimens de la fucrerie
Fontenelle. La pofition géographique de la paroiffe Sainte-Rofe, les
difficultés que la Grande rivière oppofent quelquefois a la
communication de certaines parties aveo d'autres , & , par exemple ,
celle du canton de Bahon avec l'églifc dont elle eft éloignée de
quatre lieues, ont été caufe" qu'on a formé à Bahon , un cimetière
pour faire les inhumations , lorfqu'on ne pourrait pas aller à la
paroiflè. Ce parti
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"*■■••■ FRANÇAISE DE SAINT-DOMINGUE. ii^ en quelque

forte , forcé dans un pays où la putréfadion des corps eft très-
rapide , aurait dû être accompagné de la précaution de faire attefter
ces inhumations fur les regiftres paroiffiaux, mais elle a été négligée
& ce n'a été qu'après en avoir été averti par des circonftances
particulières que le Confeil du Cap, par arrêt du aô Oftobre 17SS , a
prefcrit la recherche de toutes les fépultures antérieures & a commis
un habitant notable pour exercer , à l'avenir, une efpèce de vicariat
dont la principale fondion eft de conftater , dans une forme probante
, quels font les individus qu'on enterre à Bahon , afin de conferver
des preuves utiles à l'état civil des citoyens. La paroiffe Sainte-Rofe a
été la première de la Partie du Nord , où l'on a vu Se naturalifer des
abeilles tirées de la Partie Efpagnole quijes tenait de la Havane. M.
Brûlé , habitant au Joli-Trou , s'étant occupé de l'éducation de ce
laborieux infeae , il y a trouvé une utilité réelle , puifqu'avant 1783 ,
il vendait la pinte de miel une gourde. Cette valeur avait déjà décru
de moitié en 1788, Le bourg de Sainte-Rofe eft à 6 lieues du Cap. 3
i/z de l'Églife de la Petite-Anfe. . __ du Quartier-Morin. 3 lieues de
l'Églife de Limonade, 3 — du Dondon. Une lif^ne tirée Nord & Sud
de l'Églife de Sainte-Rofe , irait aboutir à la mer , dan° l'Eft de
l'embouchure de la Petite rivière du Quartier-Morin & à environ cinq
lieues de cette églife. Sainte-Rofe eft du quartier de Limonade & du
commandement Se de la Sénéchauffée du Cap; Il y avait , en 17 17
, un chemin du Cap à Léogane qui paflait par la gorge de Sainte-
Rofe , le Joli-Trou & le territoire efpagnol qu'on parcourait jufqU'au
Mirebalais. On trouve dans le premier volume des Mémoires de la
Société des Sciences & Arts du Cap , une analyfe qui annonce que la
paroifîe Sainte-Rofe renferme au canton de là Montagne-Noire , Jf^r
l'habitation Cameron, une eau minérale ferruginéufe» C'eft encore
dans cette paroiffe, fur l'habitation Gouvion , qu'une mule a donné k
30 Mars 1788 , un fœtus qui a été envoyé à la Société des Sciences
& Arts du C|ap ,. âinfique le procès-verbal qui conftatait ce fait. >i
 230 DESCRIPTION DE LAPARTIE La paroifîc Sainte-Rofe a
pour fa police , un fubftitut du procureur du roi de la SénéchaufTée
du Cap, & en outre un exempt & quatre archers de Maréchauffée.
«>" *i' *i.
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FR A NÇ AISE DE SAINT-DOMINGUE. ^ji parlant, quoique

dans les ades on écrivîc Saint-Louis , & enfin aujourd'hui & depuis
long-tems, on ne dit & l'on n'écrit prefque plus que S^u.artïer-Morïn
f*) C'eft à cette paroifle que le nom de paroifTe de plaine convient
parfaite mentî car on peut dire que tout Ton territoire efl plane. Elle
a pour limites au Nord la mer; à l'Eft la paroifTe de Limonade , dont
elle eft féparée par la Grande rivière, depuis Ton embouchure jufqu'à
environ 400 toifes au-deffous du boure delà Tannerie j au Sud par
une bande extrêment étroite de la paroiffe Sainte
Rore,enfuivantlafommité du Grand-Gilles ; &àI'Oueft, par la paroifTe
de k Petite- Anfe , favoir : depuis un point du fommet de la
montagne du Grand Gilles , qui correfpond à-peu-près au bout du
Morne Pelé , jufqu'au point où fc chemiade l'embarcadère de la
Petite-Anfe commence fur l'habitation Millot • puis ce chemin lui-
même , jufqu'au point où il fe trouve entre deux mamelons qui font
dans le Sud-Oueft du Morne Pelé -, de-là , la limite faifant le NordEft,
va paflèr fur le fommet du Morne Pelé , du milieu duquel elle va par
une direaion. Nord-Oueft , gagner la ravine des Sables, qui fert
enfuite de borne jufqua ce que devenue elle-même rivière Any, elle
fe décharge dans la rivière du Haut du Cap. A ce point, c'eft le cours
de cette dernière jufqu'à fon embou chure dans la mer , qui fépare
la paroifTe du Quartier-Morin de celle du Cap On peut évaluer la
paroifTe du Quartier-Morin à environ quatre lieues de longueur Nord
& Sud , & à une lieue & demie de largeur moyenne , ce qui équivaut
à une furface d'environ fix lieues carrées. Si, pour juger de
l'importance des p^roifTes de Saint-Domingue , on h^ corn parait
èntr'elles , à raifon de leur étendue , on commettrait une immenfe
erreur relativement à celle du Quartier-Morin, puifqu'elle eft une de
celles qui pofsèdent le meilleur fol, & dont les produits font
proportionnellement les plus confidérablcs h. les produftions les plus,
belles (t). Elle ferait vraiment une terre promife s'il (*) Pour tout dire
jç crois devoir obfmer qu'ui^e bourgade de la province &|du
Corré.lmem de Truxillo au Pérou , à POuefl du cerre. ou monticule de
Pélagatos , s'appele MoL ^^""^ ^^ (t) L'habitation le Febvre quia .
35- carreaux de cannes , donne 800 milliers de focre , encore ^ ne
roulant pas tout ; celle Charrite ,550 milliers avec 97 carreaux de
cannes qui font p efoue ^hted. l'habuat^on puifqu'elle n'a que ,0.
carreaux. La fucrerie Saint-Michel donne loo «ulhers de fucre que
fabriquent .56 nègres , en 90 journées , non-fucceffives ; l'habitation
M.Z
 RIPTION DE LA PARTIE n'y avait pas des inégalités dans ce
fol fi fécond &: fi de petites portions ne femblaient pas difpofées par
la nature comme pour faire mieux éclater fa prodigalité fur les
autres. . La paroiffe du Quartier-Morin ne connaît d'autre culture que
celle du fucre qui occupe 32 fucreries , donnant par année, neuf
millions pefant de cette fubftance fi utile , fi agréable. Le fucre du
Quartier-Morin eft réputé le plus beau de celui qu'on fabrique dans la
Partie du Nord & c'eft le maxiôium d'une échelle à laquelle on fait
rapporter l'eilimation de celui produit dans les autres paroiflbs. Les
terrains des habitations Charrite , Portelance & Saint-Michel, font les
plus réputés pour le beau fucre , mais la meilleure terre avec des
productions aufll belles , c'eft celle de l'habitation Chaftenoye, qui
pourrait encore être arrofée en totalité , en prenant de l'eau dans la
Grande rivière , au-deffous de la prife d'eau de l'habitation Fournier
de Bellevue. A-peu-près vers les trois -cinquièmes de la longueur de
la paroiffe du QuartierMorin , à compter du rivage , on trouve
l'extrémité d'une petite chaîne de montagnes divifée en mamelons &
qui eft le prolongement de la chaîne du Bonnet dépendant de la
paroiffe de la Petite -Anfe. Sa direftion eft à-peu-près du SudOueft
au Nord-Eft & le mamelon qui le termine eft d'environ 800 toifes de
long fur 400 de large ; c'eft ce qu'on appelé le Morne Pelé ,
dénomination qui en le peignant avec une grande vérité , annonce
affez que l'aridité eft fon partage- Ce monticule oij eft une mine de
fer très-riche , mais point magnétique, avance de manière à rétrécir
de moitié la largeur de la plaine dans cette partie , mais au-deffus de
la plaine s'étend encore, quoique bien moins que dans la partie Nord
de la paroiffe. Supérieurement au Morne Pelé , c'eft-à-dire entre lui
& les montagnes , efpace oià fe trouvent huit fucreries , le terrain du
QuartierMorin eft moins fertile , fi ce n'eft dans la partie qui borde la
Grande rivière , dont les dépôts font d'autant plus féconds , qu'ils
font plus voifins de fon lit , & en même-tems plus éloignés des
mornes , parce qu'avec une moindre vîreffe , l'eau tranfporte moins
de galets & abandonne davantage de limon. Mais auffi tout ce que
j'ai dit à l'article de Limonade des changemens de lit & des irruptions
de la Grande rivière & de la nature du fol qu'elle a formé dans la
plaine , eft commun au Quartier-Morin. On a même vu , qu'autrefois
cette rivière coulait abfolument dans la rivière Salée , qui eft
maintenant la petite rivière du Quartier-Morin , que fon extrême
rapprochement de l'autre & un cour^
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''■^Sf> FRANÇAISE DE SAINT-DOMINGUE. 233 cours qui a,

à peine j,ooo toifes , ne permet pas de confidérer autrement que
comme une infiltration de la Grande rivière , furtout lorfqu'on voit ,
comme moi , d'anciens plans où cette dépendance efl fenfiblement
miarquée. Les débordemens de la Grande rivière ont caufé des
pertes confidérabks au Quartier-Morin , 8c dans celui du mois
d'Oftobre 1780 , les dégâts foufferts par les habitations Cadufli &
Rocheblave étaient bien propres à donner une idée de fon
impétuofité. LafTés de tant de pertes , effrayés de l'avenir , excités
par l'exemple tardif mais heureux des riverains des deux bords qui
ont efFeclué le redreffcment partiel de la Grande rivière dont j'ai
parlé à l'article de Limonade , les riverains du Quartier-Morin depuis
la Tannerie jufqu'à l'habitation Gradis inclufivement , s'occupèrent
auiïi de fon redreflement dans cette partie. Ils avaient même été
jufqu'à s'affembler le 30 Juin 1787 , & les Adminiftrateurs avaient
ordonné qu'on ferait préalablement un plan des lieux , mais c'eft
encore un projet de Saint-Domingue. Il n'eft pas une feule des dix
habitations de la paroilTe du Quartier-Moria rivenaines de la Grande
rivière , depuis la Tannerie , qui ne pût avoir un moulia à eau, &
peut-être même une diilribution faite avec intelligence, auraict-elle
pu en procurer un à chacune des trente-deux fucreries de la paroifTe
, par la facilité de faire fcrvir fucceffivement la même eau à plufieurs
moulins Mais les habitans du Quartier-Morin fe font lailTés enlever
cet avantage dont de longues féchereffes & le renchériiïèm.ent
progreffif des mulets leur fait fentir chaque jour la perte , de plus en
plus. D'autres habitans qui le méritaient mieux qu'eux , puifqu'ils
étaient plus indufîrieux , l'ont employé à l'utilité de leurs habitations
depuis 1741, & quatre feules habitations du Quartier-Morin, dont
deux non-riveraines , ont fu s'afTocier à ce détournement d'eau. Les
dcwx premières font les habitations l'Héritier & Duplaa , & les deux
autres font celles Lacombe 8t Stapleton , aujourd'hui Fcurnier de
Beîlcvue & Macnemara. On a cependant calculé alors qu'il était jufte
de laiffer dans le lit de la Grande, rivière , l'eau néceffaire aux
riverains placés inférieurement à la prife d'eau des heureux
ufurpateurs ; mais foit que l'évaluation faite alors du volume d'eau
de la rivière fût fautive , foit que ce volume ait fingulièrement décru
par l'effet à\\ "tems qui a réellement amené de fiéquentes féchereilts
, foit que la quantité qu'on 'efil autorifé à en détourner ait été
excédée , foit enfin que ces trois caufes aient Tome G g M
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[1 aj4 DESCRIPTION DE LA PARTIE a»! fimultanément , il

eft arrivé , a:- exemple , au mois de Mars 1786, que le lii de la
rivière a été abfolument à fec. Ainfi l'on peut regarder les riverains
du Quartier-Morln, comme dépouillés par le fait j d'un avantage dont
le droit a été folemnellement reconnu par ceux-mêmes qui les en ont
privés , & avec lefqueh ils plaident j depuis 1777 , pour le recouvrer.
Au lurplus , j'entre dans la defcripcion de la paroiffe de la Petite-
Anfe , dans de plus grands détails fur cet objet , parce que les
ufagers de l'eau détournée de la Grande rivière j font connus fous le
nom d'Intéreffés au canal de la Petite-Anfe. Les riverains du
Quartier-Morin ont pratiqué des levées pour fe garantir des
débordemens , eux qui, pour ainfi dir-e , n'ont plus que les dangers
de leur pofition. Il y en a une fur l'habitation Duplaa ^ la dernière de
la rive gauche , dont les dimenfions font , dans certains points, 60
pieds de bafe fur 15 pieds de hauteur , au-deffus des érores de la
rivière & de 20 pieds de plate-forme. Je m'y ibis promené plufieurs
fois en voiture. L'églife du Quartier-Morin eft fituée à environ 2,500
toifes dans le Sud du rivao-e , èc à 1,000 toifes dans l'Ou^ft de la
Grande rivière, de manière qu'elle eft prefque à l'une des extrémités
de la paroiffe. Cette fituation étonnera moins £\ l'on refléchit que
dans l'origine des étabhffemens français , le voifinage de la mer était
feul fréquenté. Cette églife fut mife fous l'invocation de Saint-
François d'Affife lors de fon établiflement , comme le prouve la pièce
fuivante , qui montre en même-tems ce qu'était alors le Quartier-
Morin. L'an i63S , Is cinquième jour du mois de Mai > par l'ordre de
M. de Cufly , gouverneur pour le loi eh Pile de !a Tortue & Côte
Saint-Domingue , nous frère Jean Jacques ,. capucin miffioimaire &
pafteur de l'églife du Quartier-Morin, Jean Dumolard & Jean
Mandeviile marguillisrs , ea conféquence du dit ordre , nous nous
fommes tranfportés dans l'églife de Saint-François d'Ailife du
Quartier-Morin , où étant , nous a^-ons vu & examiné la dite églife
tant dedans que dehors i pous avons trouvé uns églife fouten.ue par
des fourches , couverte de cannes, à fucre & entourée d'une
paliffade,le tout deaii-pouri ; enfuite nous avons vu un feul autels fur
lequel nous avons trouvé un vieux & petit tabernacle , fans dorure ,
huit petites images de papier , deux vieilles flatues qui repréfentent
deux Anges & quatre chandeliers de bois , demi-rompus. De-là ,
nous ayons paiïe dans la facrillie , tendant à la mêine ruine que la
fufdite églife ; nous y avons trouvé deux coiFres^ un grand a un
médiocre ; dans l'un il 7 a douze vafes de terre de fiience: dans
l'autre il y a deux chafubles , une verte , & l'autre noire qui ne vaut
pas grand chofe , ceux aubes, une fine & l'autre un peu groSère , un
calice d'argent demi-rompa par le pied , deux corporaiix gercés , fix
purificatoires , trois nappes d'auîe! , deux nappes pour la
communion & trois ferviettes ,, gne pedte clochette pour l'élévation
de l'hoftie , deux milTels vieux ^ dan; le fufdiî tabernacle, il lJI
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FRANÇAISE DE SAINT-DOMINGUE. 235; y a une petite

caûods pour conferver le trjs-Saint-Sacrement. Hors de l'églife, il y a
une cloche de 700 livres pefant ou environ , ne fotuaant point, à
caisfe qu'elle eft appuyée fur terre, n'y ayant point de clocher; de
toutes le£ f^ùiHites chofes , nous avons fait & dreiTe' le préfent
procès-verbal , pour pre'fenter à Sa Majefté , afin que par fa charité
ordinaire , il lui plaife donner fecours' %«': F. Jean Jacques Davilk,
cap-ocin; Bernardin Brunelot, affocié du fieur Dumolard , comme'
abfent ;^ Jean Mandeville ; de BeiizevrJ , féne'chal ; Camufet ,
procureur du Roi j & Leftorel ', greffier de la Sénéchauftee du Cap,
Mes recherches n'ont pu m'apprendre pourquoi cette paroiffe a été
mlfe en 1700 , fous l'invocation de St- Louis. Elle avait été bâtie en
bois à cette époque , mais elle a été cor/ftruite en maçonnerie en 17
17. C'efl une des jolies & des mieux entretenues de h Colonie. Elle a
un autel à la romaine & doit une grande parde de i^es ornemens à
la libéralité de M. de Charritc , gouverneur du Cap , & qui avait
accepté volontairement la charge de marguiUier de cette églife en
1709 & 17 10. Il y avait fait conftruire, à fes frais , une chapelle
latérale du côté du Nord , fous l'invocation de Saint-Jean-Baptifte ,
fon patron. Les paroiffiens pour reconnaître tant de bienfaits , ont
donné à perpétuité cette chapelle I M. de Charrite , par me
délibération du 23 Janvier 1718 , approuvée parles Adminiftrateurs
de la partie du Nord le 12 Août 1746, & enfuite par les
Adminiftrateurs en chef le 10 Mai 175 1 , en faveur de la famille de
M. de Charrite. Elle en jouit encore fans autre obligation que celle
foufcrite par fon auteur, d'entretenir cette chapelle & de faire les
frais de l'office divin qui y eft célébré le jour de la fête patronale de
Saint-Jean. Les regiftres paroiffiaux du Quarder-Morin , qui font
confervés , remontent jufqu'en l'année 1705, Le terrain de l'églife eft
une ancienne dépendance de l'habitation Guillaudeu , autrefois
connue fous le nom de Beauval , qui était celui de l'un de ,fes
copropriétaires. C'eft fur cette habitation que M. Guillaudeu a fait
conllruire une colonne de foixante &dix pieds de hauteur, qui porte
une barre éleélrique. L'on n'a pas obfervé qu'elle ait Influé fur les
nuages chargés de la matière de la foudre , fi ce n'eft que depuis
i'établiffement de cette barre , le tonnerre eft tombé fouvent fur le
moulin de l'habitation Carré , qu'elle a immédiatement dans l'Oueft ,
& qu'il y a tué & des nègres & des mulets. Le condufteur de chez M.
GuilIaJdeu s'étant rompu à la hauteur d'environ vingt pieds, on l'a
laififé dans cet état, fans penfer qu'il peut occafionner des acccidens
, cette tour étant placée au milieu de cafés à nègres bâties en
caferncs. G g 2 "^^^^jSm^
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i 236 DESCRIPTION DE LA PARTIE Ce fut fur l'habitation

Carré que la déraflreufe épizootie de 1772 commença à fe
manifefter. Il y eut dans deux jours plus de 60 animaux attaqués &:
enlevés. Depuis, elle a continué fes ravages d'une manière plus ou
moins funefte , & en 1788, la morve & le charbon faifaient encore
périr beaucoup d'animaux au Quartier-Morin. On croit que les
premières cannes à fucre de la plaine du Cap ont été plantées dans
un terrain faifant, à préfent, partie de l'habitation Duplaa, qui eft un
démembrement des poffeffions de M. de Charrite , & fur laquelle eft
même refté la maifon de cet ancien gouverneur. Ces cannes plantées
en 1699 & roulées en 1700, fe trouvent dans l'Eft des bâcimens de la
manufadure , & il faut avouer que jamais lieu ne fut plus propice
pour recevoir ce précieux dépôt ^ puifqu'encore en ce moment , cet
utile rofeau y croît avec un fuccès qui femble tenir à l'orgueil de
cette poffeffion primitive. Avant la canne à fucre , on a cultivé
l'indigo pendant quelques tems au Quartier-Morin ; mais qu'on juge
de ce que c'était alors , puifque le 11 Oftobre 1688 , M. Garnier & fa
femme vendaient à M. de Franquefnay r3 carreaux de terre avec une
indigoterie , fitués vers l'habitation Carré , pour un négrillon de huit
ou dix ans. A la fin du dernier fiècle , un terrain de 600 pas en carré
de l'habitation aujourd'hui Charrite, placé prè. des bâtimens, fut
acheté des capucins cent fteces de huit , environ 4C0 liv. tournois, &
la jolie & fi fertile habitation Deftreilles, ne coûta depuis à M.
Stapleton que 3,000 liv. En 1737 , il y avait encore du bois debout
fur l'habitation la Molère , an bord de la Grande rivnère. ■ J'omettais
de dire que l'églife du Quartier-Morin , a eu long-tems pour pafteur
le père Olivier , jéfuite , né dans la province de Guyenne. Jamais on
n'eut plus de qualités propres à l'apoPtolat. Devenu fupérieur de la
miffion , en 17 16 , il défira , en 1720 , d'aller furveiller
l'adminirtration de l'habitation de fon ordre Su Terrier-Rouge , parce
que fa fanté ne lui permettait plus de remplir les devoirs de fon état.
Il y mourut , le 28 Mars 1731 , dans la 58^- année de fon âge & la
iS'- de fa miffion , cél très-vieux par les auftérités qu'il pratiquait , &
laiflant un fouvenir digne de fes vertus. La paroiffe du Quartier-Morin
eft une de celles où il y a le plus de chemins de eommunications.
Tous ces chemins font beaux & prefque toujours droits. Ils bordent
des habitations dont l'afpea annonce de riches mamifadures, mais
non pas d'agréâbks habitations ] car on en voir où il n'y a point
d'arbres ; où: k
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LU 'I .•• Ï-RANÇAISE DE SAINT-DOMINGUE. 2^7 demeure

principale eft comme jettée au hafard , au milieu d'une favane , dans
laquelle les animaux cherchent le long des bâtimens , un abri dont
on les éloif^ne ou que leurs excrémens rendent déiagréable. C'eft
donc avec une fenfation mêlée de douceur & de furprife , qu'on
apperçoit fur l'habitation Duplaa , une allée de 400 toifes de long,
garnie d'un double rang de chênes très-élevés & dans lefquels on
remarque le long & confiant effet de la brife d'Efl , qui a donné aux
arbres une inclinaifon vers le Couchant. Une autre furprife naît de ce
que le bâtiment le plus frappant ne fe trouve pas en face mais fur le
côté gauche de cette avenue , & elle augmente , mais pour faire
place à un fentiment bien doux , lorfqu'on apprend que cette
conftruélion eft l'hôpital de l'habitation, Se que là l'humanité & des
foins multipliés accueillent les cultivateurs de cette immenfe fu^rerie
, pour ainfi dire , créée en dix ans par le zèle & les talens multipliés
de M. Barré de Saint- Venant ; il a aufTi embelli les lifières de cette
habitation , en y plantant de jeunes acajoux-meubles , qui feront un
jour d'une grande utilité aux conftruftions de la manufafture fans
avoir rien coûté. La côte qui termine , au Nord , la paroilTe du
Quartier-Morin , eft propre à fournir plufieurs obfervations. Elle
commence au bord Oueft de l'embouchure de la Grande rivière. A
430 toifes plus Oueft encore, eft l'err.bouchure delà petite rivière du
Quartier-Morin. Celle-ci , dans le point du grand chemin du Cap à
Limonade qu'elle travcrfe > a quelquefois beaucoup d'eau , dans les
tems pluvieux j fans cependant qu'elle interrompe jamais la
communication. C'eft à quelque diftance , au Couchant de cette
embouchure de la petite rivière, qu'on peut obfervcr combien la mer
remblaye dans cette partie, puifque chaque jour , des efpèces de
dunes fabloneufes , où l'on reconnaît aulîî le limon de la Grande
rivière , s'élèvent du fond des eaux & étendent le domaine terreftre
en s'unîfTant au rivage, par de nouveaux attérriffemens. M. Barré &
moi, nous nous fommes hafardés à aller les premiers > en 1779 ,
dans une voiture à travers un étroit pafTage de quelques toifes de
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