E3S Web of Conferences 441, 02019 (2023) https://doi.org/10.

1051/e3sconf/202344102019
CELCT 2023

Comprehensive Review on Properties and Generation of

Biodiesel

Ravindra Mohan1,2,a, P.N.Ahirwar1,b, Geetesh Goga3,c, Santosh Kumar4,d

1Department of Mechanical Engineering, Madhyanchal Professional University, Bhopal MP, India
2Department of Mechanical Engineering, IES College of Technology, Bhopal MP, India
3Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bharat Group of College, Sardulgarh, Punjab, India.
4Department of Mechanical Engineering, Chandigarh Group of Colleges, Landran, Mohali, Punjab, India

Abstract. Recently, biodiesel has become more attractive owing to its attractive properties such as positive
environmental effects, non-toxic, biodegradable, derived from renewable resources. Hence, this paper aims
to provide an overview on biodiesel production and generations of biodiesel produced from distinct
feedstocks. Thereafter the comparison of fuel properties, oil yield for different edible and non-edible oil and
feedstock cost in distinct countries is given. Finally, the properties of biodiesel developed from distinct
feedstock are summarized. The outcome demonstrates that the various sources offered varying yields owing
to the process factors. However, the yield of biodiesel varies w.r.t. feedstocks owing to the physical and
chemical characteristics of the sources and the process factors. Among waste cooking oil, commercial diesel
fuel, and biodiesel from waste cooking oil, waste cooking oil offered higher pour point (284K), density
(0.924 kg/L), water content (0.42%), kinematic viscosity (36.4 mm2/s) than commercial diesel fuel and
biodiesel from waste cooking oil.

South Asian area, and Brazil need 12–24 gigajoules (GJ)

of energy per capita each year [9]. At the moment oil,
1. Introduction coal, and natural gas make up over 80% of the world's
The world's escalating energy needs are mostly met by energy supply, and nearly 98% of that energy is produced
non-renewable fossil fuels due to the fast-growing by carbon emissions from these fuels [9]. Through the
population and accelerating industrialization. Fossil fuel 21st century, it is anticipated that droughts would last
reserves are running out more quickly, and their overuse longer and be more intense, resulting in a five-fold
has caused significant environmental problems that make reduction in water reserves [2].
moving to renewable energy sources necessary. However, Hence, this review paper discusses about the various
owing to its biodegradability, renewability, and aspects for biodiesel production from distinct feedstocks.
ecologically friendly characteristics, biodiesel has Further, this paper includes the comparison of fuel
attracted significant interest as a feasible and flexible fuel properties, oil yield for different edible and non-edible oil
replacement to the currently used non-renewable fuels. and feedstock cost in distinct countries. Finally, the
Transesterification is the manufacturing method that is properties of biodiesel produced from distinct feedstock
most frequently used to produce biodiesel from a variety are summarized. Hence, this review paper will be useful
of sources [1]. Around 9 billion people are projected to for the futuristic scientists to get the properties of
live on the earth by 2050 [2]. Natural energy sources are biodiesel produced from distinct feedstock.
being depleted as a result of rising worldwide prices and
increased energy consumption [3-5]. The combustion of 2. Biofuels Types, Generation and
fossil fuels has a number of negative effects on the Production
environment, including a rise in the emissions of
greenhouse gases (GHG), mainly CO2 [6,7]. Global According to Figure 1, there are four generations of
primary energy consumption has sharply expanded in biofuels
recent decades as a result of rapid industrialization and
rising living standards [3,8]. To maintain a reasonable
quality of life, developing nations like South Africa, the
a
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

© The Authors, published by EDP Sciences. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
E3S Web of Conferences 441, 02019 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202344102019
CELCT 2023

with guided RNA for genetic change in algae [22]. In

order to increase biofuel yield, genetically altered algae
that accumulate high lipid and carbohydrate content are
used in the manufacturing of 4thgeneration biofuels [23-
25]. The Edible & non-edible vegetable oils developed
by distinct countries is given in Table 1.

Table 1. Vegetable oils, both edible and not, by nation of

production [26].
Countries: Edible oil Countries: Non-Edible oil
China, USA: Corn USA: Jojoba
Thailand, Malaysia,
South Asia: Neem, Karanja
Indonesia: Palm
Canada: Canola China, Canada, Russia: Linseed
France, Finland,
Asia: Silk cotton
Germany: Rapeseed
Thailand, Philippines: India, China, Brazil: Tobacco,
Coconut Cotton seed
Figure 1. Types and generations of Biofuels [10] Sweden, Russia, Italy, India, Australia, Sri Lanka:
UK: Soybean Sandalwood
India, China: Groundnut China: Cotton seed
2.1. 1st Generation
Argentina, China,
India: Mahua, Polanga
1st generation biofuels are traditional biofuels that are Brazil: Sunflower
primarily produced from two categories of edible Canada, China, Europe: India, China, Thailand,
Mustard Philippines, Indonesia: Jatropha
feedstock: starch-based feedstocks (such as potatoes,
Russia, USA: Sunflower Malaysia: Rubber seed
maize, wheat and wheat) and sugar-based feedstocks
(such as sugar beet and sugarcane) [11, 12]. Crop
availability and relatively easy conversion procedures are The feedstock comes in three generations. Vegetable
the primary benefits of 1st generation raw materials. oils that can be consumed, like sunflower oils, and
However, there is a decreased food supply as a result of soybean are first generation feedstocks [27]. Table 2 lists
utilizing edible food crops for the manufacture of the second-generation feedstocks, which are derived from
biodiesel [13–15]. The use of agricultural land for fuel non-edible sources including jojoba oil, used cooking oil,
generation is another issue. Environmental damage could animal fats and jatropha etc. [28].
result from using excessive amounts of insecticides and
Table 2. Second-generation biodiesel production feedstock
fertilizer for agricultural production [16]. types [29].
2nd generation biodiesel production from distinct
2.2. 2nd Generation feedstock
Non-edible oil seed Waste materials Animal fats
Advanced biofuels known as second-generation biofuels Jatropha Acid oils Pork lard
are made from a variety of trees, grass, shrubs, and
agricultural waste [10]. The second-generation biofuels Kusum pomace oil Beef tallow
include the Cellulosic Ethanol, Algae-Based Biofuels, Karanja Vegetable oil soap chicken fat
Algae-Based Biofuels, Alcohol, Biosynthetic Natural Gas stocks
(Bio-SNG) etc. [17-20]. Botryococcusbraunii dried distiller’s yellow grease
grains (DDG),
Mahua tall oil By-products
2.3. 3rd Generation from fihi oil
Ethiopian mustard waste salmon
Algal biomass and used cooking oil are used to create 3rd Linseed sorghum bug
generation biofuels. These biofuels have the benefits of Tomato seed melon bug
greater growth and productivity, using less agricultural Cotton seed, Tobacco,
land, having more oil, and having less of an influence on Neem, etc.
the food supply. The main sources of 3 rd generation
biodiesel feedstocks include microalgae, animal fat, fish High costs, ineffectiveness, and sustainability are
oil and used cooking oil [21]. constraints on the development of these feedstocks [30–
34]. Number of distinct seed oils were evaluated as a
2.4. 4th Generation possible fuel source for the diesel engine, with the third-
generation feedstock, microalgae, receiving the majority
The biofuel produced by such a method is referred to be a of attention. Figure 2 compares the characteristics of
fourth-generation biofuel since it uses Molecular biology, several fuels.
transdisciplinary physicochemical methods, and genetic
engineering, including the utilization of “CRISPR/Cas9”

2
E3S Web of Conferences 441, 02019 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202344102019
CELCT 2023

Figure 4. Cost of biodiesel feedstocks in distinct countries [35,

38]
Figure 2. Distinct fuel properties comparison [35].
Researchers and scientists have created many
processes for producing biodiesel from various biofuels.
Further, the comparison of oil yield (%) in case of
The majority of academics and experts claimed that using
edible and non-edible oil source is shown in Figure 3.
a catalyst increased the production of biodiesel. To create
biodiesel, Ahn et al. [39] used a 2-step reaction procedure.
By employing, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide
as catalysts, canola methyl ester (CME), rapeseed methyl
ester (RME), beef tallow ester (BTE) and sunflower
methyl ester (SME) were all produced. Cold-pressed
rapeseed oil and methanol are transesterified in two
stages at low temperatures to produce biodiesel [40-45].

3. Properties of Biodiesel
Fatty acid methyl ester (FAME), sometimes referred to as
biodiesel, is created by combining methanol with any
triacylglycerol-carrying substance, including vegetable
oil, animal fat, or both. The value of FAME's properties
is greatly altered by variations in feedstocks [46, 47]. The
cetane number, viscosity, calorific value, pour temp.,
Figure 3. comparison of oil yield for edible and non-edible oil iodine number, cloud temp, flashpoint, specific gravity,
[35-37] and cold filter plugging point are only a few of the
attributes that are closely linked to the composition of
Further, the cost of distinct biodiesel feedstock in FAME. However, the FAME characteristics of bio-diesel
distinct countries is represented in Figure 4. fuel are impacted by its handling and production
procedures in addition to its intrinsic characteristics [48–
54]. The water content, acid number, cold soak filtration,
ash content, metals, sediment, and methanol
concentration are some of these characteristics [47, 55].
Table 3 provides a summary of the main physic-chemical
characteristics of biodiesel

Table 3: Distinct characteristics of biodiesel developed from distinct feedstock [55-64]

Flash Pour Sulfur
Density Heating Cloud Viscosity Ad
temp. Temp. Iodine Content
Feedstocks at 15°C Value Point at 40 °C Cetane Value
(°C) (°C) Number (wt.%)
(kg/m ) (MJ/kg) (°C)
3
(mm /s)
2
Number mg/g
Babassu 872 31.8 4 117 - 4.2 63.25 - - 0.425
Bitter almond 884 - 4.5 169 -6 4.60 45.18 117.2 - 0.27
Camelus
871 39.52 12.7 158 15.5 3.39 58.7 65.3 0.031% -
dromedaries
Canola 878 - -3.25 172.36 -8 4.42 54 113.6 2 ppm 0.49
Chicken fat 883 40.17 -7 172 - 4.98 48 - 23.45 0.22
Variabilis 867 38.7 - 157 - 4.8 58.6 - 0 -

3
E3S Web of Conferences 441, 02019 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202344102019
CELCT 2023

Cotton seed 887 39.7 1.7 210 -12.5 4.19 48.1 120 - 0.5
Groundnut 920 39.8 8 132 3 4.4 59.85 71.8 1.31ppm -
J. curcasL. 865 40.7 5.6 175.5 6 4.52 55.43 95.75 0.008 0.24
Karanja 889 36.56 13.3 157.4 6.4 4.79 56.55 89 0.003% -
Lard 877 36.50 - 143.5 7 4.84 - 77 - 0.12
36.9L,
Mahua 895 4.33 129.5 4.33 4.77 55 74.2 - 0.41
39.4H
MicheliaChampaca 870 39.5 - 158 - 5.11 50.28 104 - 0.44
Neem 929 - 19 214 10 38.8 41 75.2 - -

[6] Kumar, A., Singh, V.P., Nirala, A., Singh, R.C.,

4. Conclusion Chaudhary, R., Mourad, A.H.I., Sahoo, B.K. and
Kumar, D., Influence of tool rotational speed on
According to the literature, biodiesel from sources mechanical and corrosion behaviour of friction stir
including sunflower, rapeseed, palm, and jatropha has processed AZ31/Al2O3 nanocomposite. Journal of
enormous potential. It has been established that base Magnesium and Alloys, 2023 7(3), 487-500.
catalysts outperform acid catalysts and enzymes, and that https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jma.2023.06.012
biodiesel combustion properties are comparable to those [7] Venugopal, V., Singh, V.P. and Kuriachen, B.,
of diesel. The usage of vegetable oil/diesel blend is also Underwater friction stir welding of marine grade
implied to have resulted in worse engine performance aluminium alloys: A review Materials Today:
since the high viscosity oil contaminated the lubricating Proceedings, 2023
oil and caused coking of the injectors. The literature https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.07.182
study led to the conclusion that there is a significant area [8] Singh, V.P., Kumar, A., Kumar, R., Modi, A.,
for research in the manufacturing of biodiesels, as well as Kumar, D., Mahesh, V. and Kuriachen, B., Effect of
in performance improvement and emission reduction. Rotational Speed on Mechanical, Microstructure,
Additionally, there are significant opportunities for study and Residual Stress Behaviour of AA6061-T6 Alloy
in the field of increasing biodiesel output. Joints through Friction Stir Welding. Journal of
Materials Engineering and Performance, 2023 pp.1-
References 16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-023-08527-8
[9] Yusuf, M.; Beg, M.; Ubaidullah, M.; Shaikh, S.F.;
[1] Fatima Akram, IkramulHaq, SalehaIbadat Raja, Keong, L.K.; Hellgardt, K.; Abdullah, B. Kinetic
AzkaShahzad Mir, SumbalSajidQureshi, AmnaAqeel, studies for DRM over high-performance Ni–
Fatima Iftikhar Shah, Current trends in biodiesel W/Al2O3–MgO catalyst. International Journal of
production technologies and future progressions: A Hydrogen Energy, 2021, 47, 42150–42159.
possible displacement of the petro-diesel, Journal of https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.08.021
Cleaner Production, Volume 370, 2022. [10] Deora, P.S.; Verma, Y.; Muhal, R.A.; Goswami, C.;
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.133479 Singh, T. Biofuels: An alternative to conventional
[2] Neupane, D.; Adhikari, P.; Bhattarai, D.; Rana, B.; fuel and energy source. Materials Today:
Ahmed, Z.; Sharma, U.; Adhikari, D. Does Climate Proceedings. 2022, 48, 1178–1184.
Change Affect the Yield of the Top Three Cereals https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.08.227
and Food Security in the World? Earth, 2022, 3, 45– [11] Mat Aron, N.S.; Khoo, K.S.; Chew, K.W.; Show,
71. https://doi.org/10.3390/earth3010004 P.L.; Chen, W.H.; Nguyen, T.H.P. Sustainability of
[3] Mehmood, M.A.; Ibrahim, M.; Rashid, U.; Nawaz, the four generations of biofuels–a review.
M.; Ali, S.; Hussain, A.; Gull, M. Biomass International Journal of Energy Research, 2020, 44,
production for bioenergy using marginal lands. 9266–9282. https://doi.org/10.1002/er.5557
Sustainable Production and Consumption, 2017, 9, [12] Aransiola, E.F.; Ojumu, T.V.; Oyekola, O.;
3–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2016.08.003 Madzimbamuto, T.; Ikhu-Omoregbe, D. A review of
[4] Maheshwari, P.; BelalHaider, M.; Yusuf, M.; current technology for biodiesel production: State of
Klemeš, J.J.; Bokhari, A.; Beg, M.; Al-Othman, A.; the art. Biomass Bioenergy, 2014, 61, 276–297.
Kumar, R.; Jaiswal, A.K. A review on latest trends https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2013.11.014
in cleaner biodiesel production: Role of feedstock, [13] Mahapatra, S., Kumar, D., Singh, B. and Sachan,
production methods, and catalysts. Journal of P.K., Biofuels and their sources of production: A
Cleaner Production, 2022, 335, 131588. review on cleaner sustainable alternative against
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.131588 conventional fuel, in the framework of the food and
[5] Singh, A.R.; Singh, S.K.; Jain, S. A review on energy nexus. Energy Nexus, 2021, 4, p.100036.
bioenergy and biofuel production. Materials Today: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nexus.2021.100036
Proceedings, 2022, 49, 510–516. [14] Yadav, P.K., Dixit, G., Dixit, S., Singh, V.P., Patel,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.03.212 S.K., Purohit, R. and Kuriachen, B., Effect of
eutectic silicon and silicon carbide particles on high

4
E3S Web of Conferences 441, 02019 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202344102019
CELCT 2023

stress scratching wear of aluminium composite for [26] Ghazali, Wan Nor Maawa Wan, Rizalman Mamat,
various testing parameters. Wear, 2021, 482, Haji Hassan Masjuki, and Gholamhassan Najafi.
p.203921. "Effects of biodiesel from different feedstocks on
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2021.203921 engine performance and emissions: A review.
[15] T. Mizik, G. Gyarmati, Economic and sustainability Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 51
of biodiesel production—a systematic literature (2015): 585-602.
review, Clean Technologies. 2021, 3 19–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.06.031
https://doi.org/10.3390/cleantechnol3010002 [27] Atadashi, I. M., Mohamed Kheireddine Aroua, AR
[16] Obergruber, M.; Hönig, V.; Procházka, P.; Abdul Aziz, and N. M. N. Sulaiman. "Production of
Kuˇcerová, V.; Kotek, M.; Bouˇcek, J.; Maˇrík, J. biodiesel using high free fatty acid feedstocks.
Physicochemical properties of biobutanol as an Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16, 5
advanced biofuel. Materials, 2021, 14, 914. (2012): 3275-3285.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14040914 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.02.063
[17] Lynd, L.R.; Sow, M.; Chimphango, A.F.; Cortez, [28] Pinzi, Sara, David Leiva, Isabel López‐García, M.
L.A.; Brito Cruz, C.H.; Elmissiry, M.; Laser, M.; Dolores Redel‐Macías, and M. Pilar Dorado. "Latest
Mayaki, I.A.; Moraes, M.A.;Nogueira, L.A. trends in feedstocks for biodiesel production."
Bioenergy and African transformation. Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining, 2014, 8, 1,
Biotechnology for Biofuels, 2015, 8, 1–18. 126-143. https://doi.org/10.1002/bbb.1435
https://doi.org/10.1186/s13068-014-0188-5 [29] No, Soo-Young. Inedible vegetable oils and their
[18] Posten, C.; Schaub, G. Microalgae and terrestrial derivatives for alternative diesel fuels in CI engines:
biomass as source for fuels—A process view. A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Journal of Biotechnology, 2009, 142, 64–69. Reviews, 2011, 15, 1, 131-149.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiotec.2009.03.015 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2010.08.012
[19] Xu, H.; Wang, C. A Comprehensive Review of 2,5- [30] Singh, V.P., Kumar, D. and Kuriachen, B., Effect of
Dimethylfuran as a Biofuel Candidate. Biofuels from Low Welding and Rotational Speed on
Lignocellulosic Biomass: Innovations Beyond Microstructure and Mechanical Behaviour of
Bioethanol, 2016, 105–129. Friction Stir Welded AZ31-AA6061-T6.
https://doi.org/10.1002/9783527685318.ch5 Transactions of the Indian Institute of Metals, 2023,
pp.1-9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12666-023-02971-9
[20] Zhang, W.; He, J.; Engstrand, P.; Björkqvist, O.
Economic evaluation on bio-synthetic natural gas [31] Kumar, A., Nirala, A., Singh, V.P., Sahoo, B.K.,
production integrated in a thermomechanical pulp Singh, R.C., Chaudhary, R., Dewangan, A.K.,
mill. Energies, 2015, 8, 12795–12809. Gaurav, G.K., Klemeš, J.J. and Liu, X., 2023. The
https://doi.org/10.3390/en81112343 utilisation of coconut shell ash in production of
hybrid composite: Microstructural characterisation
[21] Alaswad, A.; Dassisti, M.; Prescott, T.; Olabi, A.G.
and performance analysis. Journal of Cleaner
Technologies and developments of third generation
Production, 398, p.136494.
biofuel production. Renewable and Sustainable
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.136494
Energy Reviews, 2015, 51, 1446–1460.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.07.058 [32] Singh, V.P., Kumar, R., Kumar, A. and Dewangan,
A.K., Automotive light weight multi-materials sheets
[22] Godbole, V.; Pal, M.K.; Gautam, P. A critical
joining through friction stir welding technique: an
perspective on the scope of interdisciplinary
overview. Materials Today: Proceedings, 2023.
approaches used in fourth-generation biofuel
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.02.171
production. Algal Research, 2021, 58, 102436.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2021.102436 [33] Kumar, R., Dwivedi, R.K., Singh, V.P., Kuriachen,
B. and Krishnan, N.A., Influence of toughness and
[23] Abdullah, B.; Muhammad, S.A.F.a.S.; Shokravi, Z.;
retained austenite on wear behaviour of carbide-free
Ismail, S.; Kassim, K.A.; Mahmood, A.N.; Aziz,
bainite in high silicon steel. Transactions of the
M.M.A. Fourth generation biofuel: A review on risks
Indian Institute of Metals, 2022, 76, 2425–2434.
and mitigation strategies. Renewable and Sustainable
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12666-022-02818-9
Energy Reviews, 2019, 107, 37–50.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.02.018 [34] Singh, V.P., Kumar, D., Mahto, R.P. and Kuriachen,
B., Microstructural and Mechanical Behavior of
[24] Lan, E.I.; Liao, J.C. Metabolic engineering of
Friction-Stir-Welded AA6061-T6 and AZ31 Alloys
cyanobacteria for 1-butanol production from carbon
with Improved Electrochemical Corrosion. Journal
dioxide. Metabolic Engineering, 2011, 13, 353–363.
of Materials Engineering and Performance, 2023, 32,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymben.2011.04.004
4185–4204. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-022-
[25] Almeida JR, F_avaro LC, Quirino BF. Biodiesel 07380-5
biorefinery:opportunities and challenges for
[35] Selvaraj, R., R. Praveenkumar, and I. Ganesh
microbial production of fuels and chemicals from
Moorthy. "A comprehensive review of biodiesel
glycerol waste. Biotechnology for Biofuels,
production methods from various feedstocks.
2012;5:48. https://doi.org/10.1186/1754-6834-5-48

5
E3S Web of Conferences 441, 02019 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202344102019
CELCT 2023

Biofuels 10, no. 3 (2019): 325-333. butanol extraction and fuel properties. Process
https://doi.org/10.1080/17597269.2016.1204584 Biochemistry 2001; 37:65–71.
[36] Wan Omar WNN, Saidina Amin NA. Optimization https://doi.org/10.1016/S0032-9592(01)00178-9
of heterogeneous biodiesel production from waste [47] Sharma, V., Das, L., Pradhan, R. C., Naik, S. N.,
cooking palmoil via response surface methodology. Bhatnagar, N., & Kureel, R. S. Physical properties of
Biomass and Bioenergy, 2011;35:1329-1338. tung seed: An industrial oil yielding crop. Industrial
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2010.12.049 Crops and Products, 2011 33(2), 440-444.
[37] Gui, Meei Mei, Keat Teong Lee, and Subhash Bhatia. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2010.10.031
Feasibility of edible oil vs. non-edible oil vs. waste [48] Singh, Virendra Pratap, and Basil Kuriachen.
edible oil as biodiesel feedstock. Energy, 2008, Experimental investigations into the mechanical and
33.11 1646-1653. metallurgical characteristics of friction stir welded
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2008.06.002 AZ31 magnesium alloy. Journal of Materials
[38] Kumar, Niraj, and Sant Ram Chauhan. Performance Engineering and Performance 31, no. 12 (2022):
and emission characteristics of biodiesel from 9812-9828. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-022-
different origins: A review. Renewable and 07055-1
Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2013, 21, 633-658. [49] Ranjole, C., Singh, V.P., Kuriachen, B. and Vineesh,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.01.006 K.P., Numerical prediction and experimental
[39] Ahn E, Koncar M, Mittelbach M, Man R. A low- investigation of temperature, residual stress and
waste process for the production of biodiesel. mechanical properties of dissimilar friction-stir
Separation Science and Technology 1995;30:2021– welded AA5083 and AZ31 alloys. Arabian Journal
33. https://doi.org/10.1080/01496399508010391 for Science and Engineering, 2022, 47(12),
pp.16103-16115. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-
[40] Cvengro J, Povaz AF. Production and treatment of
022-06808-3
rapeseed oilmethyl esters as alternative fuels for
diesel engines. Bioresource Technology [50] Singh, Virendra Pratap, Surendra Kumar Patel, and
1996;55:145–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/0960- Basil Kuriachen. Mechanical and microstructural
8524(95)00190-5 properties evolutions of various alloys welded
through cooling assisted friction-stir welding: A
[41] Kaieda, Masaru, Taichi Samukawa, Takeshi
review. Intermetallics 133 (2021): 107122.
Matsumoto, Kazuhiro Ban, Akihiko Kondo, Yuji
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intermet.2021.107122
Shimada, Hideo Noda et al. Biodiesel fuel
production from plant oil catalyzed by Rhizopus [51] Singh, V.P., Patel, S.K., Ranjan, A. and Kuriachen,
oryzae lipase in a water-containing system without B., Recent research progress in solid state friction-
an organic solvent. Journal of bioscience and stir welding of aluminium–magnesium alloys: a
bioengineering, 1999, 88(6) 627-631. critical review. Journal of Materials Research and
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1389-1723(00)87091-7 Technology, 2020, 9(3), pp.6217-6256.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2020.01.008
[42] Uosukainen E, La¨msa¨ M, Linko Y, Linko P,
Leisola M. Optimization of enzymatic [52] Kumar, A., Singh, R.C., Chaudhary, R. and Singh,
transesterification of rapeseed oil ester using V.P., April. Tribological studies and microstructural
response surface and principal component characterisation of SiC and fly ash particles based
methodology. Enzyme and Microbial Technology, aluminium 2024 alloy composites prepared through
1999, 25, 236–243. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0141- stir casting route. In IOP Conference Series:
0229(99)00034-4 Materials Science and Engineering, 2020, 804(1) p.
012025). IOP Publishing.
[43] Ma Fangrui, Hanna Milford A. Biodiesel production:
https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/804/1/012025
a review. Bioresource Technology, 1999; 70:1–15.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0960-8524(99)00025-5 [53] Singh, V.P., Patel, S.K., Kuriachen, B. and Suman,
S., 2019. Investigation of general welding defects
[44] SamukawaTaichi, Kaieda Masaru, Matsumoto
found during friction-stir welding (FSW) of
Takeshi, Ban Kazuhiro, Kondo Akihiko, Shimada
aluminium and its alloys. In Advances in Additive
Yuji, et al. Pretreatment of immobilized Candida
Manufacturing and Joining: Proceedings of
Antarctica lipase for biodiesel fuel production from
AIMTDR 2018 (pp. 587-595). Singapore: Springer
plant oil. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering,
Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9433-
2000;90:180–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1389-
2_51
1723(00)80107-3
[54] Singh, V.P., Patel, S.K., Kumar, N. and Kuriachen,
[45] Ikwuagwu OE, Ononogbu IC, Njoku OU.
B., Parametric effect on dissimilar friction stir
Production of biodiesel using rubber
welded steel-magnesium alloys joints: a review.
[Heveabrasiliensis (KunthMuell.)] seed oil.
Science and Technology of Welding and Joining,
Industrial Crops and Products 2000;12:57–62.
2019, 24(8), pp.653-684.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0926-6690(99)00068-0
https://doi.org/10.1080/13621718.2019.1567031
[46] Crabbe Edward, Nolasco-HipolitoCirilo, Kobayashi
[55] Singh, D.; Sharma, D.; Soni, S.; Sharma, S.; Kumari,
Genta, Sonomoto Kenji, IshizakiAyaaki. Biodiesel
D. Chemical compositions, properties, and standards
production from crude palm oil and evaluation of

6
E3S Web of Conferences 441, 02019 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202344102019
CELCT 2023

for different generation biodiesels: A review. Fuel,

2019, 253, 60–71.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2019.04.174
[56] Neupane, D.; Bhattarai, D.; Ahmed, Z.; Das, B.;
Pandey, S.; Solomon, J.K.Q.; Qin, R.; Adhikari, P.
Growing Jatropha (Jatrophacurcas L.) as a Potential
Second‐Generation Biodiesel Feedstock. Inventions
2021, 6, 60.
https://doi.org/10.3390/inventions6040060
[57] Patel, S.K., Singh, V.P., Roy, B.S. and Kuriachen, B.,
2020. Recent research progresses in Al-7075 based
in-situ surface composite fabrication through friction
stir processing: A review. Materials Science and
Engineering: B, 262, p.114708.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mseb.2020.114708
[58] Patel, S.K., Singh, V.P. and Kuriachen, B., 2019.
Friction stir processing of alloys with secondary
phase particles: an overview. Materials and
Manufacturing Processes, 34(13), pp.1429-1457.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10426914.2019.1662037
[59] Patel, S.K., Singh, V.P., Kumar, N., Kuriachen, B.
and Nateriya, R., 2020. Wear behaviour of Al-silicon
(LM13) alloy composite reinforcement with TiC and
ZrSiO4 particles. Silicon, 12(1), pp.211-221.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12633-019-00114-8
[60] Patel, S.K., Singh, V.P. and Kuriachen, B., 2019.
Microstructural, Tribological and mechanical
properties evolution of ZrSiO4/A4047 surface
composite fabricated through friction stir processing.
Transactions of the Indian Institute of Metals, 72(7),
pp.1765-1774. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12666-019-
01647-7
[61] Patel, S.K., Singh, V.P., Kumar, D., Roy, B.S. and
Kuriachen, B., 2022. Microstructural, mechanical
and wear behavior of A7075 surface composite
reinforced with WC nanoparticle through friction stir
processing. Materials Science and Engineering: B,
276, p.115476.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mseb.2021.115476
[62] Singh, A.K., Mishra, A.K., Gupta, K.K., Bhatnagar,
P. and Kim, T., 2020. An integrated converter with
reduced components for electric vehicles utilizing
solar and grid power sources. IEEE Transactions on
Transportation Electrification, 6(2), pp.439-452.
https://doi.org/10.1109/TTE.2020.2998799
[63] Singh, N., Gupta, K.K., Jain, S.K., Dewangan, N.K.
and Bhatnagar, P., 2020. A flying squirrel search
optimization for MPPT under partial shaded
photovoltaic system. IEEE Journal of Emerging and
Selected Topics in Power Electronics, 9(4), pp.4963-
4978. https://doi.org/10.1109/JESTPE.2020.3024719
[64] Mahla, S.K., Goyal, T., Goyal, D., Sharma, H., Dhir,
A. and Goga, G., 2022. Optimization of engine
operating variables on performance and emissions
characteristics of biogas fuelled CI engine by the
design of experiments: Taguchi approach.
Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy, 41(2),
p.e13736. https://doi.org/10.1002/ep.13736