NERVOUS SYSTEM

Function
Receives sensory input: sensory receptors from internal or external
environment

Integration/processing info: respond, store as memory or ignore

Control muscle & glands

Maintaining homeostasis

Establishing /maintaining mental activity

Functional Divisions of NS
• Two (2) major:

Peripheral NS

Central NS
The Peripheral NS
Peripheral NS
I. Sensory division: Afferent neurons carries impulses from
sensory receptors to CNS

II. Motor division: Efferent (motor neurons) carries impulse

from CNS to effector organs. Eg muscles or glands
Somatic: transmits impulse from CNS to skeletal muscle
Autonomic: transmits from CNS to cardiac, smooth &
glands
Sympathetic &
parasympathetic
Enteric NS: unique division of PNS solely in the GIT.
Contains both motor & sensory.
Can be independent of other PNS parts or CNS , although integrated
with CNS by sensory neurons & by ANS motor neurons
Central NS

 Made of two (2) parts:

Brain

Spinal Cord
 The Neuron: Basic Cell of the NS
Two parts:
I. Cell body(Soma) &

II. Processess
Dendrites: short branching cytoplasmic
extension. Recieves impulses from neighbouring
cells toward the neuronal cell body
Axons: single long process from cell body.
• Axonal hillock

• Myelin sheath
• Node or Ranvier
 NEURONE - TYPES
• Shows great variability in size and shape
Classification according to number and arrangement of their
processes
• Unipolar neurone,
• Bipolar neurone eg those in retina & olfactory
• Multipolar neurone . Most CNS & motor neurons
Classification according to whether axon terminates on other
neurones or transmits impulse over long distances
• Interneurones
• Projection fibres
Functional types
• Sensory neurone
• Motor neurone
• Interneurone (internuncial or intercalated neurone) of Renshaw

9
Neuronal
Types

11
 NEUROGLIA
• These are Non-neuronal cells & not electrically active in same way as
neurones
• Responsible for creating and maintaining appropriate environment for
efficient functioning of neurones
• In CNS neuroglia outnumber neurones, 10 – 50 X
Macroglia : 3 main types
• Oligodendrocytes
• Astrocytes, ; major glia in CNS, stimulate or inhibits signalling btn
nearby neurons, BBB
• Ependymal cells: : CNS cavity lining & CSF production
Microglia: immune function

15
 Neuroglia: CNS

Oligodendrocytes

Astrocytes,

Ependymal cells: :

Microglia
17
 Neuroglia: PNS
• In PNS – 2 types
• Schwann cells
• Satellite cells in ganglia
• Myelin:
Lipid insulating material
Increasing speed of action potential
• Nodes of Ranvier
Organization of NS
Grey & White mater: both in PNS & CNS
Grey Matter:
consist cluster of neuron cell bodies & dendrite
Cortex: superficial portion in CNS
Nuclei- Interspersed deep grey matter clusters
White matter:
bundles of parallel axons surrounded by myelin, white appearance
Nerve tracts/conduction pathway: In CNS-
Nerves
 The Reflex: The basic functional Unit of the NS
Reflex: involuntary reaction in response to a
stimulus applied to the periphery & transmitted to
the CNS

Reflex arc: neuronal pathway by which reflex

occurs
• 5 components
Sensory receptor
Sensory neuron
Interneuron in some case
Motor neuron
Effector organ
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
The spinal cord
• Extends from base of skull to L2 level;
• Spinal nerves communicate b/n spinal cord &
the body surface
 Cauda equina: ???

Segments
Cervical – 8 segments
Thoracic – 12 segments
Lumbar – 5 segments
Sacral – 5 segments
Coccygeal – 1 segment
 The Spinal cord: Internal structure
Outer white matter =myelinated
axon
• Dorsal, ventral & lateral white
columns
• Column consists of ascending &
descending tracts
Inner grey matter: H-shape; cell
bodies clusters
 Anterior horn (motor) &
 posterior horns(sensory
impulse),
 lateral horn( associated with
ANS at some levels)
Central canal :CSF
 Spinal cord
• Dorsal and ventral rootlets
• Dorsal root (DR): dorsal root
ganglion
• Ventral root (VR)
Spinal nerve= both sensory
&motor)
• Spinal cord segments
• Cervical – 8 segments
• Thoracic – 12 segments
• Lumbar – 5 segments
• Sacral – 5 segments
• Coccygeal – 1 segment
 The Spinal cord:
Spinal cord segments
• Cervical – 8 segments
• Thoracic – 12 segments
• Lumbar – 5 segments
• Sacral – 5 segments
• Coccygeal – 1 segment

• These segments extend as Spinal

nerves to supply the body
Spinal nerve
Dermatome
Nerve plexus
Cervical
brachial
Lumbosacral plexus
Coccygeal plexus

• No thoracic (T2-T11) = direct

innervation around trunk
The Brain
• Major region;
Brainstem

Diencephalon:
thalamus & hypothalamus

Cerebellum

Cerebrum
 The Brainstem
Connects spinal cord to brain
I. Medulla oblongata,
II. pons
III. midbrain

• Contains several nuclei for vital

function: breathing, blood pressure
regulation, heart rate etc

• Small injury-death while to cerebrum-

life still possible

• Nuclei for cranial nerve located on it

eg: optic & olfactory
 Medulla
• Inferior portion, extends from
foramen magnum to pons

• Contains ascending &

descending tracts & nuclei for
body functions such as Heart
rate, blood vessel diameter
control, breathing, cough,
sneezing,vomiting etc
• Pyramids= descending tract
into spinal cord for skeletal
muscle
Pons
• Acts a functional bridge between
cerebrum & cerebellum

• Contains ascending & descending

tracts & several nuclei

• Extension of some medulla nuclei

into it thus, some similar functions
in addition to salivation, chewing
Midbrain
• Smallest part, Contains nuclei for eye movt coordination,
pupil diameter, & lens shape
• Contains Ascending & Descending tract from spinal cord
to cerebrum or from cerebrum to cord or cerebellum

Dorsal part bears Four(4) colliculi=

 2 superior : relay centre for auditory nerve pathways
2 inferior; involved in visual reflex, touch & auditory input

Some Nuclei interspersed within the brainstem includes:

Substantia Nigra= for body movement regulation
Recticular formation within brain stem: regulation of cyclical
motor fxns. Eg respiration, & form major part of RAS
responsible arousing & maintain consciousness & regulation
sleep wake cycle
The Cerebellum
• Attached by several large connections:
• Cerebellar peduncle-serve as communications between
cerebellum & other CNS centres
Responsible for balance, proprioception, muscle
tone, & fine motor movement

Acts as a comparator comparing info about

intended movement from cortex to sensory info
from moving structures such as joints, tendons,
muscle & sends feedback to rectify any discrepancy
thus making smooth & coordinated movt

Learning of fine motor skill eg playing piano

cerebellum
 THE DIENCEPHALUM:
• Part of brain between
brainstem & cerebellum
Thalamus.

Epithalamus

hypothalamus
DIENCEPHALUM:
Thalamus
Largest part, two large nuclei cluster
joined by interthalamic adhesion;

Serves as relay centre foe ascending tract

synapse.

Thalamic tract convey impulse to cerebral

cortex
Also involved with mood, register
unlocalised pain, pain perception
THE DIENCEPHALUM:
EPITHALAMUS:
Superior & posterior to
thalamus.

Involved with emotional &

visceral response to odors

Contains pineal gland-

influence onset of puberty &
involved in long term cycles
influenced by the light –dark
cycle
The Hypothalamus
• Most inferior, several nuclei for
homeostasis
• Central role in the control of temperature,
thirst & hunger
• Sensations such as sexual pleasure ,rage,
fear. Relaxation after meal relates to it

Infundibiulum-funnel shaped stalk,

connection hypothalamic floor to pineal
gland
• Control secretions of hormones from pituitary
gland

Mammilary body- externally visible

swelling on the posterior portions of the
hypothalamus & involved with emotional
response to odors & memory
The Cerebrum
• Largest part of brain, divided into left & right
hemisphere by longitudinal fissure
• Right cerebral hemisphere receives sensory
input from & controls muscular activity on
the left half.
• The opposite is same for left cerebral
hemisphere
Commissures are the connection joining the
two cerebral hemisphere allowing sharing of
info between them
Corpus callosum- largest commissure found
at the base within longitudinal fissure

• Gyri- conspicuous features on brain,

increases surface area of cortex
• Sulci: the depression between gyri
Cerebrum: The Lobes
Frontal lobes: voluntary motor
function, motivation, aggression, mood,
olfactory reception

Parietal lobes: receiving & perceiving

most sensory information such as pain,
temperature, & touch
• Central sulcus separates it from frontal
Occipital lobe: visual inputs
Temporal lobe: auditory
• Lateral fissure containing the insula
separates it from the cerebrum
 Ascending tracts
Transmit sensory info
from periphery to brain.

Composite names of
tract= based on origin &
insertion. Eg spino-
thalamic,
spinocerebellar

Sensory tracts
decussates (crosses
from left to right side)
within the spinal cord or
brainstem
 Ascending Tracts
Another neuron relays
info from the thalamus to
the cerebral cortex
Some ascending tracts
also terminate in the
brainstem or cerebellum.
Eg. Spinocerebellar

Others: dorsal lemniscus-

touch, pressure
Sensory areas of the cerebral cortex
Primary somatosensory
cortex in parietal lobe- pain,
temperature, pressure

• Sensory fibres from specific

parts of the body project to
specific areas of the primary
somatosensory cortex

• Topographic map of the body

Sensory areas of the cerebral cortex

Visual cortex-
occipital lobe

Primary auditory
cortex- in
temporal lobe
Taste- Insula
cortex-
 Descending tract
• Voluntary movements occur via upper
& lower motor neurons

Upper motor N.-

• cell bodies in the cerebral
cortex &
• Axons form descending tracts
that synapse on LMN

• These includes
Corticospinal tract (ant & post),
recticulospinal, tectospinal
Descending tract
• Decussates in brainstem & spinal cord=
• left control right & vice versa

Lower motor N:
• cell bodies in anterior horn of spinal grey
matter or the cranial nerve nuclei
• The axons leave the CNS and extend
through the spinal grey mater to the
skeletal muscle

Motor unit: LMN & skeletal

Motor areas of cerebral cortex
Primary motor cortex: located in posterior portion of frontal lobe ,
anterior to central gyrus
• UMN project from this areas to the specific body parts (topographic
body map)

Premotor area: centre for organization before initiation from the

primary motor area
• Prefrontal area : area for motivation & foresight to plan
• Accounts for our complexity to think ahead & feel motivated
• Other motor areas: Wernicke area, Broca’s -speech
The Basal Nuclei
Made of corpus striatum & the
substantial nuclei in the brainstem

Involved in planning, organizing &

coordination of motor movet &
posture

Parkinson disease, huntingtin

disease etc
The Meninges (Brain covering)
The Meninges
• 3 connective tissue membrane surrounding &
protecting brain
• Dura, Arachnoid, Pia
Dura: double layered, separated into several
regions to form folds & dural venous sinuses
• Folds separates hemispheres & cerebrum
from cerebellum
• Dural venous sinuses: collects blood from
small brain vessels into juglar vein
• Dura adheres tightly to skull but in spinal
cord, spaced (epidural space)
• Epidural space: clinical epidural anesthesia
injection
 The Meninges
Arachnoid; thin, wispy,
• Subdural space: potential space
between arachnoid & dura
• Clinical significance: Spinal tap/spinal
anaesthesia block below L3

Pia;- closest & tightly bound to brain

& spinal cord.
• Subarachnoid space: between pia &
arachnoid,
• contains CSF, blood vessels
THE BRAIN VENTRICLES
Ventricles
• Fluid filled space within CNS
a) Lateral ventricle
b) Third ventricle-ant. to
diencephalon, between the
thalamus…….
c) Fourth ventricle: base of
cerebellum, connect via cerebral
aqueduct to 3rd ventricle.

• Continuous with central canal of

spinal cord & opens to into
subarachnoid space through foramina
The Cerebrospinal fluid
Baths CNS, protective cushioning

Flows within ventricle, central canal & arachnoid space

Drains through arachnoid granulations into the blood

Hydrocephalus: obstruction in foramina of 4th ventricles & cerebral

aqueduct
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Autonomic nervous Sys
Motor neurons from CNS to
peripheral organs such as cardiac,
smooth & glands
2 neurons involved: preganglionic &
postganglionic
Preganglionic synapse on post
ganglionic in the autonomic
/collateral ganglia outside the CNS
Exception : preganglionic that synapse
on the adrenal medulla; the
postganglionic are the actual secreting
cells in the adrenal medulla
The two (2) Divisions of the ANS:
Sympathetic & Parasympathetic
The Sympathetic Division: fight or freight
• Cell bodies of sympathetic preganglionic are
in the lateral grey horn of the spinal cord
(T1-L2).

• Axons project from there through anterior

grey horn to the sympathetic chain ganglia
or collateral ganglia

• Some preganglionic synapse with

postganglionic fibres in the sympathetic
ganglia

• Postganglionic axons form sympathetic

fibres that extend to innervate organs in
thoraxic cavity
The Sympathetic Division
• Axons of sympathetic preganglionic
that do not synapse in the
sympathetic chain ganglia form
splanchnic nerves that extends to
collateral ganglia

Collateral ganglia are located near

target organs & includes celiac,
superior & inferior mesenteric ganglia

• Postganglionic fibres in collateral

ganglia synapse with the splanchnic
nerves(preganglionic) and extend to
innervate abdominal & pelvic organs
The Parasympathetic division: rest & digest
Cells bodies of parasympathetic
preganglionic are located within the
brainstem nuclei of the oculomotor, facial,
glossopharyngeal, or vagus or within the
lateral horn of the spinal grey mater of S2-
S4 regions

Axons of preganglionic neurons extend

through the spinal nerves or cranial nerves
to terminal ganglia located near effector
organs in head or walls of effector organs in
thorax, abdomen & pelvis
The Parasympathetic division
The axons of the postganglionic
neurons extend a relatively short
distance from the terminal ganglia
to the effector organs

Most thoracic & abdominal organs

are supplied by preganglionic
neurons of the vagus nerve
extending from the brainstem
 Some few things to note:
Each ANS division can produce both stimulatory & inhibitory effects
depending on the target tissue.
• Eg:Parasym stimulates contraction of bladder & inhibit contractions of
heart

Most organs that receive ANS supply are innervated by both para & sympa

In some organs, these two ANS divisions create opposing effect thereby
acting together for organ coordinate eg; Erection & ejaculation

Exclusive organs with single ANS supply; eg sweat gland & blood vessels-
only by sympa, Lens of the eye- by parasympa
ORGAN SYMPATHETIC ACTION PARASYMPATHETIC ACTION

EFFECTS OF
EYE (PUPIL)
ANS ON ORGANS
DILATION CONSTRICTION

GLANDS (EXCEPT REDUCES SECRETION INCREASES SECRETIONS

SWEAT GLANDS)

HEART INCREASES RATE (TACHYCARDIA) DECREASES RATE (BRADYCARDIA)

GIT DECREASES PERISTALSIS ; INCREASES PERISTALSIS ;

GLANDULAR SECRETIONS GLANDULAR SECRETIONS

URINARY SYSTEM RELAXES BLADDER; CONTRACTS CONTRACTS BLADDER; RELAXES

SPHINCTERS SPHINCTERS

ERECTILE ORGANS RELAXES AND ERECTS

LUNGS BRONCHODILATION CONSTRICTION AND SECRETION

ANS Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine: secreted by all preganglionic of both ANS divisions &
postganglionic of parasympathetic

Norepinephrine; by most postganglionic of sympathetic NS

Drugs??? Sympathomimetic etc…

BLOOD SUPPLY OF THE BRAIN
Effects of aging on the NS
• ↓ in number of sensory neurons, function & CNS processing→Prone
to skin injuries

• ↓ limb, joint positional sense→ ↓balance, coordination,

• ↑susceptibility to BP, dehydration, dehydration, urinary/bowel

incontinence
• 50% ↓ lower motor neurons in Lumbar spinal level by age 60
Thank you