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Concrete: Use and Durability |

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After reading this article you will learn about:- 1.

Concrete in Use of Building Structures 2. Durability of
Concrete 3. Hydration of Cement and Water Cement
Ratio 4. Hydrated Cement Paste 5. Workability 6. Factors
Affecting Durability of Concrete 7. Preventive
Maintenance.

Concrete in Use of Building Structures:

Concrete in the most widely used construction material for

the present-day structures. Concrete is utilised in building
structures in the form of plain concrete, reinforced concrete
and pre-stressed concrete.

Structural concrete is a material obtained by careful

proportioning of its ingredients — cement, fine aggregate,
 course aggregate and water. Physical properties of concrete
are modified by varying the proportion of the ingredients
and sometimes by adding some admixtures, if necessary.

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The composite material has many advantages. It has

adequate compressive strength and stiffness. It can be
produced very easily at site without the use of any costly
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equipment. In the ‘green’ state, it can be moulded into any
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shape. If prepared with proper care, concrete can be made
durable. However, the material is brittle and very poor in
tension. Ductility and toughness are also poor.

Physically, the structure of the hardened concrete contains a

large number of micro pores/cavities which, unless properly
treated, allow ingress of water and harmful liquids causing
deterioration of the material.

Initially, concrete had limited use in building gravity

structures; but with the development of reinforced concrete
and rapid industrialisation, the material is being used for
building all possible structures including complicated high-
rise buildings.

It is, therefore, necessary to develop concrete which would

meet the various requirements in terms of compressive
strength, tensile strength, ductility, fatigue strength, thermal
resistance, etc., necessitating production of improved
quality and durable concrete.

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Concrete structures are favoured as the ingredients
required are easily available and can be erected without
much trouble at site and help of any heavy equipment.
Strength of the members depends upon the strength of the
concrete and steel used and can be obtained as required.

Durability of Concrete:

Durability of material is its capability to withstand the test

of time against adverse climate and aggressive
environment. Improved durability of a concrete structure
requires thorough knowledge of the materials used, their
behaviour, the location of the structure and the
environment/climatic conditions under which the structure
is expected to perform satisfactorily.

Concrete is a heterogeneous material and produced at site

under different conditions and varying parameters.
Durability assumes much importance and is most
questionable. No specification, however stringent, can
ensure durability unless adequate precautions are taken at
the construction stage.

The following are considered as serious durability

problems or viewed as effects of using substandard
materials affecting durability of the structure:

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Blistering, bugholes, crazing, curling, dusting, honey

combing, low test results, plastic shrinkage, cracking,
scaling, uncontrolled shrinkage, uneven colour, wavy
surface.

Most of the above problems can be eliminated by adjusting

the concrete mix marginally to suit the requirement or by
following the correct construction procedure.

Durability is affected very severely owing to chemical

attacks which are further aggravated by natural or artificial
environmental effects. This need all out attention for a long
trouble free service; life of the structure.

Performance of concrete is affected by interference of heat,

moisture and chemicals in the system. The most important
factors for durability of structure are the ingress
mechanism of moisture and gases within the system, i.e.,
within the microstructure pores and cracks.

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The initiative action for improvement of durability is
precisely the induced water originating from the aggregates
joining the mixing water and causing lower strength, higher
porosity and permeability. This condition attracts all the
unwanted chemicals which enter and deterioration starts.
This is further aggravated with the environmental
conditions.

Hydration of Cement and Water Cement Ratio:

Water is required in concrete mix for formation of a cement

paste and hydration of cement. About 23 per cent water by
mass of cement is required for chemical reaction and is
known as bound water. About 15 per cent of water by mass
of cement is required to fill the gel pores and is known as
gel water. Thus, a total of 38 per cent of water by mass of
cement is required for hydration.

If only 38 per cent of water was added, the capillary cavities

could be eliminated. The products of, hydration is colloidal,
which causes enormous increase in surface area of solid
phase during hydration.

This absorbs a large quantity of water. If water added is

only 38 per cent, all the colloidal are not sufficiently
saturated which decreases the relative humidity of the paste
leading to a lower hydration as the gel can be formed only
in water-filled space.

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This requires a minimum of 50 per cent of water by mass of

cement, or, in other words, a water-cement ratio in excess of
0.5 is required for hydration. With lower percentage of
water, the concrete mix would not be workable. A mix is
workable, if it can be easily mixed, placed and compacted at
the required place. Usually 55 to 65 per cent of water by
mass of cement is required for the purpose.

So, to get a workable concrete mix, about 1.5 to 2 times

water is added than that required for chemical action. After
curing, the concrete begins to dry up and excess water
evaporates and micro-voids are created in the concrete.

Hydrated Cement Paste:

The strength of the hydrated cement paste mainly depends

on the quality of cement, mix proportion and water-cement
ratio. Complete hydration of cement and reduction of
porosity of the hydrated 5Smass are essential for improving
strength and durability.
Strength of concrete increases with increase in the gel/space
ratio which is defined as the ratio of volume of hydrated
cement paste to the sum of the volumes of the hydrated
cement and of the capillary pores. It is, therefore, essential
to reduce water content to the irreducible minimum,
maintaining, however, the workability required for proper
mixing, placing and compaction.

Workability of Concrete:

Workability may be defined as the amount of useful

internal work necessary to produce full compaction. The
useful internal work is a physical property of concrete alone
and is the work or energy required to overcome the internal
friction between the individual particles in the concrete.

In practice, however, additional energy is required to

overcome the surface friction between concrete and the
formwork or the reinforcement. The strength is significantly
affected by the presence of voids in the compacted mass
and, hence, it is necessary to achieve a maximum possible
density; but sufficient workability is necessary for full
compaction.

Factors Affecting Durability of Concrete:

i. Chemical influences causing corrosion effect,

ii. Permeability or porosity of concrete,

iii. Shrinkage,

iv. Concrete cover to steel,

v. Curing of concrete,

vi. Thermal influences,

vii. Acoustic pressure and blast pressure,

viii. Freezing and thawing effect, etc.

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I. Chemical influences causing corrosion effect:

a. Presence of Salt:

Presence of salt accelerates corrosion of embedded steel due

to salt-cell formation in concrete and reducing durability of
the concrete. This occurs in areas where atmosphere is
charged with salinity. The salt enters the concrete through
the porosity and attacks the embedded steel.

If the structures are built with good construction practices

and quality control and other conditions are ideal, it is likely
that the degree of deterioration is primarily a function of
the water-cement ratio of the concrete.

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In the case of reinforced concrete, the absorption of salts
establishes anodic and cathodic areas, the resulting
electrolytic action leads to an accumulation of corrosion
products on the steel which causes rupture on the
surrounding concrete. The effects of salt attack are more
severe on reinforced concrete than in plain concrete.

b. Carbonation:

Reinforced concrete is a material composed of more than

one ingredient. Concrete, which is an intimate mixture of
cement and aggregate, is highly alkaline in the ‘green’ stage
due to hydration of cement. Calcium hydroxide is released
increasing the pH value of fresh concrete.

The pH value of fresh concrete is around 12.5. In such a

condition, the embedded steel is protected by the thin film
of oxide developed and the steel is protected till such
condition prevails. Further, the physical barrier provided by
the concrete also protects the steel.

But, in course of time, carbon dioxide (CO2) from the

atmosphere gains access to the concrete through the pores.
This carbon dioxide neutralises lime. The depth of
carbonation, the amount of cracking, non- uniformity of
concrete used, all affect the protective shield provided to the
steel and carbon dioxide gets easy access to the reinforcing
steel through these cracks, in addition to diffusion due to
permeability nature of concrete.

Carbon dioxide reacts with the alkalis and form carbonates

causing reduction in pH value and subsequent breaking
down of the protective film. This phenomenon, known as
carbonation, is the Fig. 4.1 Carbonation penetration curves
root cause of rusting or corrosion of steel.

Once the metal surface is exposed to electrolyte, electrical

forces between the points of potential difference are
developed. Minute anodic and cathodic cells form and
electro-chemical reaction begins. Since iron has
electromotive force series higher than hydrogen, it is
dissolved at the anode while hydrogen is generated at the
cathode.
The depth of carbonation can he calculated from the
formula:

C = √KT where

Where

C = depth of carbonation,

T = time in years, and

K = Co-efficient depending on the environment and physical

condition of concrete. The value of K varies from 0.5 to 10.

c. Chloride attack:

Concrete provides a physical barrier to corrosion promoting

elements such as air, moisture, chlorides and other
atmospheric or industrial pollutants. Due to marine spray,
fog or mist, etc. the brine condenses on the concrete surface
and becomes a source of entry of chlorides. The other
sources are chloride in aggregates, mixing water, etc.

Chloride ions affect the pH value of concrete and, thus,

accelerates corrosion.

d. Presence of Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A):

The optimum percentage of Tricalcium Aluminate is still a

controversial issue. It is an accepted fact that lower
percentage of C3A helps in retarding the sulphate attack in
concrete, whereas higher percentage of C3A helps
neutralising the chloride infiltration. Concrete cracking due
to steel corrosion is a function of percentage of C3A content
of cement the lower the C3A. content, the more the cracking.

Concrete with ordinary Portland cement containing C3A to

the extent of 7.11% was observed severely deteriorated. The
failure was of surface disintegration type. Cement
containing C3A 13% or more is generally harmful,
particularly when combined with high C2O (replace as
Carbon) content.

II. Permeability or porosity of concrete:

Permeability of cement paste is mainly responsible for

permeability of concrete which depends on the size,
distribution and continuity of capillary pores in it. These
capillary pores are interconnected and are a function of
water-cement ratio for a given degree of hydration.

High water cement ratio is always detrimental to strength

development of concrete. It leads to formation of honey-
comb in the concrete, leaving voids in it which would be
sources of corrosion of the reinforcing steel.

III. Shrinkage:

A minimum quantity of water by about 20% to 25% by

weight of cement is required for hydration of cement. Water
being a polar material, cement particles mixed with this
polar material tends to flocculate.

These floes entrap water inside them and, thus, reduce the
water which otherwise would have been available for
workability. Flocculation, thus, affects the workability of the
concrete mix. Hence, more water is required for better
workability of concrete. The excess water not only reduces
the strength of concrete, it evaporates and causes shrinkage
of concrete.

IV. Concrete cover:

The thickness of concrete cover over steel is an important

barrier resisting corrosive agents of atmosphere.
Permeability and inadequate concrete cover thickness help
the salts and other aggressive agents to penetrate into the
concrete and reach the steel.

Hence, durability may be described as a function of

cover and permeability:

Durability = Function (Cover/Permeability)

The graph (Fig. 4.3) illustrates how the depth of cover affects
the life-cycle of concrete. Cover will also affect the pattern of
cracking when spalling occurs. As the cover/bar diameter
ratio reduces from-2 to 1 or 0.5, the cracking pattern
changes from random to 45° ‘pop out’, to a crack normal to
the concrete surface.

V. Curing:

Curing is a very important activity for quality control of

concrete. Concrete — otherwise done with all care and well-
designed — may simply be waste due to inadequate curing.

VI. Thermal influence:

It is well-known that normal reinforced concrete can

withstand temperature of 100°C, beyond which it starts
deteriorating. To protect the concrete from the
temperatures higher than 100°C a barrier is required to be
provided in the form of lining.
VII. Influence of acoustic pressure and blast pressure:

Effect of acoustic pressure should be taken into

consideration while designing structures to be located near
the source generating considerable noise. Similarly, in
structures which are located near a blast site, the pressure
likely to be generated due to blasting need be taken into
account.

VIII. Freeze-Thaw effect:

Porous concrete, when saturated, is damaged due to

frequent freeze-thaw and cause cracking of concrete.

The severity of the damage depends on the frequency of

freezing and thawing cycles and mean temperature.

This type of damage mainly occurs in the zone of variable

water line.

Preventive Maintenance/Measures of Concrete:

Preventive measures are attempts to improve the durability

of concrete by improving the quality and produce concrete
which would be able to sustain different attacks on it during
the lifetime and, thus, reduce the future maintenance and
repair-liability of the structure.

Measures intended to be taken are mainly attempts to

reduce the micro-porosity and perme​
ability of the concrete
for resisting ingress of moisture and other aggressive agents
from entering the concrete and protect the concrete and the
steel embedded in it from coming in contact with the
corrosive agents and environmental pollutants.

Corrosion of steel assumes to be the main factor affecting

durability of Reinforced Cement Concrete. There are various
methods for protection of reinforcing steel from corrosion
and, thus, preventing the structure from future distress.

I. Improving the quality of concrete:

a Increasing the quantity of cement:

Concrete mix need be designed in consideration of the

parameters like quality of aggregate, their sizes, sources and
gradation. The ultimate intention is to produce dense
concrete of required strength with reduced permeability.
This may be achieved by varying the quantity of cement
according to the exposure condition.

Increase in quantity of cement will make the concrete

denser, reduce the permeability and, thus, improve the
quality and durability.

b. Adopting increased cover:

IS. 456-1978 specifies that the cover has to be increased

from 15 to 40 mm for structures exposed to aggressive
environment.

Covers recommended:

c. Curing:

Curing is an important activity after concreting. In cases of

dry and hot weather, curing may have to be started within
two hours of concreting. In any case, it must be assured that
the concrete remains moist for the specified period of 15
days.

Bituminous paints of non-breathing type have been

developed for application on the exposed surface to be
buried under ground. As normal curing would delay the
work, these paints on application on the surface of concrete
will not allow the water in the concrete to evaporate and
also will resist sulphate or any other chemical attack from
the soil.

d. Reduction of permeability, porosity and shrinkage:

All these mainly depend upon the quantity of water used in

mixing, which again is directly related to workability.

Decrease in water-cement ratio will increase strength of

concrete, reduce permeability and porosity and also will
reduce the chances of shrinkage. But it is difficult to
achieve, as reduction in water-cement ratio will adversely
affect the workability of the concrete which will produce
poor quality concrete.

The main objective is to produce good quality concrete by

reducing porosity and permeability. This need be achieved
by effectively controlling the water-cement ratio. It is,
therefore, necessary to find a regime where a workable
concrete based on low water-cement ratio can be made.

This can be achieved by using an efficient dispersing

admixture. It is possible to make an almost fluid concrete by
having a water-cement ratio below 0.30 using super-
plasticizer.

Cement particles have surfaces containing large number of

free electrical charges. They have a strong tendency to
flocculate when they are in contact with water. The floes
trap a part of mixing water and are not available for
workability of mix. In mixes without any admixture the
need to use water-cement ratio rises to 0.40 or more.

Superplasticizer:

Superplasticizers are based on sulphonated condensates or

formaldehydes of melamine and naphthalene. The action of
superplasticizers is a physical phenomenon and not a
chemical one. The molecules of the superplasticizer form a
film round the cement particles. Water in the mix, in turn,
attaches itself to this film. This reduces the internal friction
between the particles and results in considerable fluidity.
Various superplasticizers are available of different
make. An appropriate one has to be selected after
consulting its specification and suitability for the
particular mix:

Concrete with water-cement ratio of 0.45 or below is almost

impermeable. However, in practice, higher water-cement
ratio is used. By using chemical admixtures, water-reducer,
water-cement ratio can be kept at the desired level.

Due to lower water-cement ratio, the concrete will have less

void, permeability will be lower. It has been observed that
by using 1 – 2 % of superplasticizer by mass of cement used,
water-cement ratio could be made to lower from 0.52 to 0.42
and depth of penetration could be lowered by 37% while
workability remaining the same as with water-cement ratio
of 0.52%.

Compatibility:

With increasing use of admixtures in concrete and larger

options available a source of anxiety has crept in that of
compatibility. In earlier days some reports of early loss of
slump were made. These were mostly associated with the
presence of anhydrate of cement.

It has been observed that compatibility problems are more

pronounced in low water-cement ratio concrete. In such
cases, initial availability of SO4 may be less than required
for C3A.

Much of the problem can be sourced to the condition in the

cement plant where calcium sulphate content is optimised
for Portland cement at a condition of 0.50 water-cement
ratio. This is much higher than what is adopted in the field
where high performance concrete is targeted. Further,
calcium sulphate content has variations adding to the
problem.

Such problems exist and trials are necessary to fix up dosing

of the particular admixture for each type of cement.

There is an attempt to incorporate the admixture in cement

itself so that the problem of compatibility is solved at the
source.

e. Resisting Sulphate Attack:

Sulphate attack can be resisted appreciably by using

Sulphate Resisting Cement (S.R.C.) in construction work and
also by using special bituminous painting over the concrete
surface in the underground portion. This painting resists
ingress of sulphates in the concrete.

II. Coating of rebars:

Corrosion of reinforcing bars in the concrete is the most
injurious aspect which affect the durability of the
structures.

Once a steel bar is corroded and a notch is formed in the

bar, initiation of cracking occurs and increases and
propagation may be faster because of the stretch
concentration effect. Hence, time to failure will start.

The precautions as detailed above will, no doubt, reduce

corrosion attack on the rebars and improve the durability.
But for ensuring further protection of the steel, these may
be given a coating so that the steel remains safe.

The coating may be by:

a. Paint,

b. Chemical compounds, and

c. Metallic coating — galvanising.

However, in application of the coating on the rebars, the

prime consideration would be that it does not harm the
bonding of steel with concrete; as otherwise, the purpose of
reinforcing the member would be lost.

a. Paint coating:

Generally, the protective coatings are given with sodium

benzonate (2% mixed in water), 10% benzonate cement,
Sodium nitrate 2% to 3% by weight of cement has also been
found effective. Ordinary cement slurry also helps in
protecting the steel rebar.

b. Chemical compounds:

Epoxy has been found to be the most effective. The rebars

are coated by fusion of epoxy powder. Application of liquid
epoxy resin of low viscosity with a curing component based
on coal tar is effective. The application consists of equal
proportion of epoxite resin in liquid form and hardener.
About 200 gms of the mix is required per sqm of surface for
single coat.

c. Metallic coating:

The prime consideration for metallic coating over the

rebar for protecting them from corrosion is based on the
ability of the coating to provide:

i. Sacrificial protection to avoid localised corrosion.

ii. Ensured bond between concrete and rebar.

iii. Cost effectiveness on a long term basis.

Zinc coating has been found to be effective and satisfying

the above considerations. Initial attack on the zinc by the
alkalies released during the hydration of cement is not
progressive. In aggressive conditions, zinc has been found to
be corrosion resistant 10-40 times better than steel.

Due to galvanising, hardness of the steel surface is

increased, the ductility of the steel is retained and the bond
strength improved.

Corrosion resistance:

Zinc, after coating on the steel, becomes an anode, since it is

electropositive in relation to steel. Hence, zinc dissolves in
preference to iron. Oxidation, carbonation, hydration, etc.
then occur with the zinc ions, forming stable and insoluble
zinc salts such as calcium zincate.

These salts unlike rusts adhere tightly to the coated surface

and prevent further contact between zinc layer and the
electrolyte. Furthermore, these salts are not expansive, thus
reducing the chance of spalling of the concrete.

Zinc coating is done by hot dip method i.e. dipping the steel
in hot and molten zinc.

III. Surface coating:

In addition to the methods applied during concreting,

surface coating of the concrete may help in resisting ingress
of harmful agents.

The surface may be applied with two coats of ordinary oil-

based paint. This will help in sealing of the pores of the
concrete.

Other improved paint materials are also available. The

paints are of two systems — breathing and non-breathing.
In consideration of the common function, the choice is in
between the two.

The non-breathing system provides a totally impervious

layer, which does not allow any liquid or gaseous material
to pass through the membrane; while, in the breathing
system, an impervious chemical membrane is formed,
which does not allow water in liquid form to pass through
it, but allows the vapour to pass through.

In Indian conditions, the breathing system has been found

to be better, as it does not encou​
rage de-bonding of the
membrane or bubbling at the interface of the membrane
and the concrete below.

IV. Cathodic Protection:

Cathodic protection prevents corrosion of steel by supplying

current flow that suppresses the galvanic corrosion cell. The
method is employed for arresting further aggression of
corrosion and not as a curative measure.

This can be achieved by direct electrical current or by using

sacrificial anode. Cable connections are made between
reinforcing steel and negative terminal of power supply and
between primary anode wires and positive terminal. The
anode wires can be formed of copper cored cable expanded
titanious metal, etc.

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