Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies 2014; 2(1): 123-129

E-ISSN: 2320-7078
P-ISSN: 2349-6800
www.entomoljournal.com
Study on history fitness and life cycle of
JEZS 2014; 2(1): 123-129
© 2020 JEZS
drosophila (Drosophila melanogaster)
Received: 19-01-2014
Accepted: 23-02-2014
Dr. Sujit Kumar
Dr. Sujit Kumar
Department of Zoology, P.M.J.
College, V.K.S.U., Ara, Bihar,
Abstract
India The present investigations were made on the history and life cycle of Drosophila. Life-history traits or
“fitness components” such as age and size at maturity, fecundity and fertility, age-specific rates of
survival, and life span are the major phenotypic determinants of Darwinian fitness. Drosophila is a genus
of small flies, belonging to the family Drosophilidae, whose members are often called “fruit flies”. The
entire genus, however, contains about 1,500 species and is very diverse in appearance, behavior, and
breeding habitat. One species of Drosophila in particular D. melanogaster, has been heavily used in
research in genetics and is a common model organism in developmental biology. Basic genetic
mechanisms are shared by most organisms. Therefore, it is only necessary to study the genetic
mechanisms of a few organisms in order to understand how the mechanisms work in many organisms,
including humans. Drosophila melanogaster, the fruit fly a little insect about 3mm long, is an excellent
organism to study genetic mechanisms. The general principles of gene transmission, linkage, sex
determination, genetic interactions; molecular, biochemical and developmental genetics, chromosomal
aberrations, penetrance and expressivity, and evolutionary change may all be admirably demonstrated by
using the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. The life cycle of Drosophila is short and completes in about
three weeks. Embryonic development, which follows fertilization and the formation of the zygote, occurs
within the egg membrane. The egg produces larva, which eats and grows and at length becomes pupa.
The pupa, in turn develops into an imago or adult. The duration of these stages varies with the
temperature. Drosophila cultures ought to be kept in room temperature where the temperature does not
range below 20 oC or above 25 oC. They are bred on fermenting medium which contains corn, dextrose,
sugar and yeast extract. Their breeding ratio is 1:3 (male: female). The common culture contaminants
include fungi, mites and bacteria. The male and the female are differentiated (under the microscope)
based on their size, markings on their abdomen and presence of sex combs following anesthetization with
ether.

Keywords: Drosophila melanogaster, embryology, neurodevelopment.

Introduction
Drosophila melanogaster is a fruit fly, of the kind that accumulates around spoiled fruit. It is
also one of the most valuable organisms in biological research, particularly in genetics and
developmental biology. Basic genetic mechanisms are shared by most organisms. Therefore, it
is only necessary to study the genetic mechanisms of a few organisms in order to understand
how the mechanisms work in many organisms, including humans. Drosophila melanogaster, a
little insect about 3mm long, is an excellent organism to study genetic mechanisms. The
general principles of gene transmission, linkage, sex determination, genetic interactions;
molecular, biochemical and developmental genetics, chromosomal aberrations, penetrance and
expressivity, and evolutionary change may all be admirably demonstrated by using the fruit
fly. D. melanogaster and its hundreds of related species have been extensively studied for
decades, and there is extensive literature available [1]. The extensive knowledge of the genetics
of D. melanogaster and the long-term experimental experience with this organism together
with extensive genetic homology to mammals has made it of unique usefulness in mutation
research and genetic toxicology. Many Drosophila genes are homologous to human genes and
are studied to gain a better understanding of what role these proteins have in human beings [2,
5]
. Much research about the genetics of Drosophila over the last 50 years has resulted in a
Corresponding Author: wealth of reference literature and knowledge about hundreds of its genes. It is an ideal
Dr. Sujit Kumar
organism for several reasons: 1) Fruit flies are hardy with simple food requirements and
Department of Zoology, P.M.J.
College, V.K.S.U., Ara, Bihar, occupy little space. 2) The reproductive cycle is complete in about 12 days at room
India temperature, allowing quick analysis of test crosses. 3) Fruit flies produce large numbers of
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offspring to allow sufficient data to be collected. Examination crawling become heavily channeled and furrowed [10]. The
and data collection is easy because the flies can be quickly larva has 12 segments: the 3 head segments, 3 thoracic
and easily immobilized for examination. 4) Many types of segments, and 8 abdominal segments. The body wall is soft
hereditary variations can be recognized with low-power and flexible and consists of the outer non-cellular cuticula and
magnification. The study by [3] suggested for the first time the inner cellular epidermis. A great number of sense organs
that the fitness of an organism is likely to be higher if there is are spread regularly over the whole body. (Fig. 1) [11]. the
a resonance between the endogenous clock and the larvae are quite transparent. Their fat bodies, in the form of
environmental cycle. An organism possessing a circadian long whitish sheets, the coiled intestine, and the yellowish
clock gains fitness advantage in two ways: by synchronizing malpighian tubules, as well as the gonads embedded in the fat
its behavior through physiological process and, secondly, by body can easily be distinguished in the living larva when
coordinating its internal metabolic process [6]. For example, observed in transmitted light (Fig. 1). The dorsal blood vessel
studies on golden hamsters Mesocricetus aureus have shown is the circulatory organ of the larva. The larval muscles,
that if there is inability of circadian clocks to entrain has segmentally arranged, are transparent but can be made visible
deleterious fitness effects [7, 9]. Differences in photoperiod when the larva is fixed in hot water. The larva contains a
may also have contributed to the selection response as fitness number of primitive cell complexes called imaginal discs,
traits may be affected by photoperiod [3]. Fecundity is a which are the primordia for later imaginal structures [3, 7]. The
measure determinate of female fitness [9, 1]. primary mechanism by which the larva grows is molting. At
each molt the entire cuticle of the insect, including many
Life Cycle of Drosophila specialized cuticular structures, as well as the mouth armature
Stages and duration and the spiracles, is shed and has to be rebuilt again. During
Embryonic development, which follows fertilization and the each molt, therefore many reconstruction processes occur,
formation of the zygote, occurs within the egg membrane. leading to the formation of structures characteristic of the
The egg produces larva, which eats and grows and at length ensuing instar. The growth of the internal organs proceeds
becomes pupa. The pupa, in turn develops into an imago or gradually and seems to be rather independent of the molting
adult. The duration of these stages varies with the process, which mainly affects the body wall. Organs such as
temperature. At 20 oC, the average length of the egg-larval Malpighian tubes, muscles, fat body, and intestine grow by an
period is 8 days; at 25 oC it is reduced to 5 days. The pupal increase in cell size; the number of cells in the organ remains
life at 20 oC is about 6.3 days, whereas at 25 oC is about 4.2 constant. The organ discs, on the other hand, grow chiefly by
days. Thus at 25 oC the life cycle may be completed in about cell multiplication; the size of the individual cells remains
10 days, but at 20 oC about 15 days are required. Drosophila about the same. In general, one might say that purely larval
cultures ought to be kept in room temperature where the organs grow by an increase in cell size, whereas the
temperature does not range below 20 oC or above 25 oC. presumptive imaginal organs grow by cell multiplication [12,
13]
Continued exposure to temperatures above 30 °C may result .
in sterilization or death and at low temperatures the viability
of flies is impaired and life cycle prolonged (Fig.1) [3]. 3. The Pupa
A series of developmental steps by means of which the insect
1. The egg passes from the larval into the adult organism is called
The egg of Drosophila melanogaster is about 0.5 of a “metamorphosis”. The most drastic changes in this
millimeter long. An outer investing membrane, the chorion, is transformation process take place during the pupal stage.
opaque and shows a pattern of hexagonal markings. A pair of Shortly before pupation the larva leaves the food and usually
filaments, extending from the anterodorsal surface, keeps the crawls onto the sides of the culture bottles, seeking a suitable
egg from sinking into soft food on which it may be laid. place for pupation, and finally comes to rest. The larva is now
Penetration of spermatozoa into egg occurs through a small very sluggish, everts its anterior spiracles, and becomes
opening or micropyle, in the conical protrusion at the anterior motionless. Soon the larva shortens and appears to be
end, as the egg passes through the uterus. Many sperms may somewhat broader, thus gradually acquiring its pupal shape
enter an egg, through normally only one functions in (Fig. 1). The shortening of the larval cuticle, which forms the
fertilization. The spermatozoa have been stored by the female case of the puparium, is caused by muscular action. The
since the time of mating. Immediately after the entrance of the puparium, which is the outer pupil case, is thus identical with
sperm, the reduction (meiotic) divisions are completed and the cuticle of the last larval instar. When the shaping of the
the egg nucleus (female pronucleus) is formed (Fig. 1). The puparium is completed, the larval segmentation is obliterated,
sperm nucleus and the egg nucleus then come into position but the cuticle is still white. This stage lasts only a few
side by side to produce the zygote nucleus, which divides to minutes and is thus an accurate time mark from which to date
form the first two cleavage nuclei, the initial stage of the age of the pupa. Immediately after the cuticle reaches the
development of the embryo. Eggs may be laid by the mother white prepupal stage, the hardening and the darkening of the
shortly after they are penetrated by the sperm, or they may be cuticle begin and proceed very quickly. About three and a half
retained in the uterus during the early stages of embryonic hours later the puparium is fully coloured. Pigmentation
development [5]. apparently starts in the external surface of the cuticle and
proceeds inward [7, 8]. Four hours after the formation of the
2. The Larval Stages puparium, the animal within it has separated its epidermis
The larva, after hatching from the egg, undergoes two molts, from the puparium and has become a headless individual
so that the larval period consists of three stages (instars). The having no external wings or legs and known as the “prepupa”.
final stage, or third instar may attain a length of about 4.5 A very fine prepupal cuticle has been secreted and surrounds
millimeters. The larvae are such intensely active and the prepupa [14]. Pupation takes place about 12 hours after
voracious feeders that the culture medium in which they are puparium formation. By muscular contraction the prepupa
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draws back from the anterior end of the puparim and everts its readily visible with low power magnifiers, whereas that
head structures. This movement also ejects the larval mouth of the male has five [7, 8].
armature, which until now was attached to the anterior end of 4. Appearance of sex comb: The males have so called sex
the prepupa. The wings, halteres and legs are also everted. A combs, a fringe of about ten stout black bristles on the
typical pupa with head, thorax, and abdomen is thus shaped. distal surface of the basal (uppermost) tarsal segment of
In section it is seen that the pupa now lies within three the fore leg (fig. 2). Such bristles are lacking in the
membranes: an outer membrane, the puparium: an female [11]. Sex identification via the sex comb can also
intermediate membrane, the prepupal cuticle; and an inner be done successfully in the pupal stage.
membrane, the newly secreted pupal cuticle [13]. Now 5. External genitalia on abdomen: Located at the tip of
metamorphosis involves the destruction of certain larval the abdomen, the ovipositor of the female is pointed. The
tissues and organs (histolysis) and the organization of adult claspers of the male are darkly pigmented, arranged in
structures from primitive cell complexes, the imaginal discs. circular form, and located just ventral to the tip [14].
It must, however, be realized that some larval organs are 6. Sex organs during larval stage: during the late larval
transformed into their imaginal state without any very drastic stage males can be distinguished by the presence of a
change in their structure. The duration and extent of these large, white mass of testicular tissue. This tissue is
transformation processes vary greatly for the different organs located at the beginning of the posterior third of the larva
involved. Larval organs which are completely histolyzed in the lateral fat bodies and can be seen through the
during metamorphosis are the salivary glands, the fat bodies, integument. The corresponding ovarian tissue of the
the intestine and apparently the muscles. All these organs are female constitutes a much smaller mass [6, 7, 8, 9].
formed a new, either from imaginal disc cells already present
in the larva or from cells which come visibly into being in the
course of pupal reorganization. The Malpighian tubules are
relatively little altered during metamorphosis but nevertheless
undergo some change in their structural composition. The
same situation seems to prevail in the brain, which is not
completely histolyzed. The extremities, eyes, mouthparts,
antennae, and genital apparatus differentiate from their
appropriate imaginal discs, which were already present in the
larval stage and which undergo histogenesis during pupal
development. The body wall of the imaginal head, thorax, and
abdomen is also formed from imaginal disc cells. The body
wall of head and thorax is formed by the combined effort of
all the imaginal discs in this region, each of which contributes
its part. The hypoderm of the abdomen is formed by
segmentally arranged imaginal cells which first become
visible in young prepupae [15].

4. Adult stage
When metamorphosis is complete, the adult flies emerge from
the pupa case. They are fragile and light in color and their
wings are not fully expanded. These flies darken in a few
hours and take on the normal appearance of the adult fly [1].
Upon emergence, flies are relatively light in color but they
darken during the first few hours. It is possible by this
criterion to distinguish recently emerged flies from older ones
present in the same culture bottle [3]. They live a month or
more and then die. A female does not mate for about 10 to 12
hours after emerging from the pupa (Fig.1). Once she has
mated, she stores a considerable quantity of sperm in
receptacles and fertilizes her eggs as she lays them. Hence, to
ensure a controlled mating, it is necessary to use females that
have not mated before. These flies are referred to as virgin
females [7].

Features to determine the sex of adult fly (Fig. 2)

1. Size of adult: The female is generally larger than the
male.
2. Shape of abdomen: The tip of the abdomen is elongated
in the female, and somewhat more rounded in the male
[5]
.
3. Markings on the abdomen: Alternating dark and light (Source: Dept. of Anatomy & Cell Biology University of
bands can be seen on the entire rear portion of the female; Melbourne)
the last few segments of the male are fused (5). The Fig 1: Lifecycle of D. melanogaster and then present information for
abdomen of the female has seven segments that are setting upafly laboratory.
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combined with plugs that are easily removed and replaced

results in very few escapes. The frequency with which new
subcultures need to be established depends on health and
fecundity of the genotype, the temperature at which it is
raised, and the density of the cultures [9, 17]. It is very good
practice to keep the old cultures for 2 weeks (at 18 ºC) after
transfer, so that they can be used as a backup should the new
stocks fail for any reason [16].

Culture contaminants
Drosophila is largely pestilence-free, but mites, fungi, and
bacteria can be problems in laboratory cultures. Benchtop and
Fig 2: Male and Female adult D. melanogaster
fly pushing equipments must be regularly cleaned. Benchtop
and all equipments that come into contact into potentially
Tools for culturing Drosophila
contaminated stocks should be cleaned with 70% ethanol or
Basic fly handling equipment includes a binocular microscope
soap and water after use. Sharing pounding pads, CO 2 pads,
with a good light source, an etherizer or a CO2 plate for
fly pushers, and sorting plates can aid in the spread of
anesthetization, a fly pusher, an aspirator, a pounding pad,
contaminants [6, 8, 9]. Mites are egg predators and are the most
and a morgue. For most purposes flies can be kept at room
dangerous contaminating species. Even those that simply feed
temperature, but one or two constant temperature rooms,
on the medium can out compete weak genotypes and
preferably humidified, or incubators are generally useful and
compromise experimental observations. Frequent stock
are necessary for some techniques [13].
transfer, tight plugs and zero mite tolerance by all fly workers
in a building are best defenses. Cultures that are grown at 24 –
Microscope and light source
25 oC must never be kept for more than 30 days. If mites are
A binocular or trinocular microscope with good quality
known to be a problem cultures should be checked and
optics, easy access to the magnification changer and a smooth
discarded after 18 – 20 days. To prevent the import of mites
accessible focusing mechanism is ideal [14].
from outside sources, all stocks new to the lab should be
quarantined for atleast two generations. Any culture found to
Anesthetizing flies
contain mites should be autoclaved immediately and replaced
Ether and CO2 are the fly anesthetics of choice. CO2 requires
with a mite free source [2]. Fungi and bacteria can also
more setup and maintenance than ether. If ether is chosen an
contaminate the culture. If mould is the problem in isolated
etherizer and a sorting plate is required, on the other hand a
cultures, it can usually be eliminated by daily transfer of
CO2 pad serves as both an anesthetizer and a sorting plate [15].
adults for 7 – 10 days. Visually inspect cultures from the later
Ether is flammable, has a strong odor and will kill flies if they
transfers for hyphae (look around the pupal cases) and use one
are over-etherized. Carbon dioxide works very well, keeping
that appears to be free of fungal growth for further subculture.
flies immobile for long periods of time with no side effects,
If fungal contamination is a widespread problem be sure that
however CO2 mats (blocks) are expensive and a CO2 source
fungal inhibitor (p-hydroxy-benzoic acid methyl ether) is
(usually a bottle) and delivery system (vials and clamps) are
being added to the medium after it is cooked (boiling destroys
necessary, increasing the costs. The least harmful to the flies
the inhibitor). A variety of bacterial contaminants can occur in
is either carbon dioxide or cooling anesthetizing. Of these two
fly cultures. Most common problems are caused by mucous -
choices, cooling is the simplest, requiring only a freezer, ice
producing bacteria. Although not directly toxic, larva, and to
and petridishes. In addition, it is the only method which will
some extent adults become trapped in the heavy layer of
not affect fly neurology, therefore behavior studies may begin
mucous that coats the surface of the food. Large numbers of
after the flies have warmed up sufficiently.
larvae overcome the effect of the bacteria in a healthy stock,
but weak stocks or pair mating can be seriously compromised.
Anesthetizing flies by cooling
A wide spread bacterial problem may indicate that the pH of
In order to incapacitate the flies, place the culture vial in the
the medium is too high; try lowering the pH [3, 4, 11].
freezer until the flies are not moving, generally 8-12 minutes.
Flies are dumped onto a chilled surface. This can be
Culture conditions
constructed by using the top of a petridish, adding crushed
Timing & Lighting
ice, then placing the bottom of the petridish on top. Adding
Fruit flies are “cold-blooded” so rate of growth and
flies to this system will keep them chilled long enough to do
development varies with temperature. The duration of the
each experiment. Simply place the flies back into the culture
different stages varies with the temperature. At 20 °C the
vial when finished. There are no long-lasting side effects to
average length of the egg-larval period is 8 days; at 25 °C it is
this method, although flies left in the refrigerator too long
reduced to 5 days. The flies are attracted to lights. Part of fly
may not recover [5, 6, 9].
courtship behavior is visual, so it is probably a good idea to
keep them in an area with good lighting most of the time [2, 4,
Stock Keeping 5]
.
Most stocks can be successfully cultured by periodic mass
transfer of adults to fresh food. Bottles or vials are tapped on
Fitness in Drosophila
the pounding pad to shake flies away from the plug, the plug
The concept of fitness has played a key role in the
is rapidly removed, and the old culture is inverted over a fresh
development of evolutionary biology as a discipline despite
bottle or vial. Flies are tapped into the new vessel, or some are
fundamental disagreement over what it means and how it
shaken back into the old one, as necessary, and the two are
should be measured. Recent investigations have served to
rapidly separated and re-plugged. Good tossing technique
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corroborate the admonition of [4, 6] that it can be misleading to these types of analyses. Although the net parameter measured
attempt to infer total fitness from individual components of in each of these techniques is referred to as “fitness”, at least
fitness. For example, viability alone has been shown to be a for the strains tested they are not necessarily measuring the
poor indicator of fitness [1, 5], and the simultaneous study of same thing [15].
viability and fertility has proved unsatisfactory [6, 9] largely
because of pleiotropic effects [9, 15]. Sexual selection, a General methods
component usually not distinguished from fertility, has been The D. melanogaster used originated from Lyon, France, and
shown to be important to fitness [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. Moreover, the had been kept in culture for 2½ years in a large outbred
conditions under which fitness is estimated (such as density population. The A. tabida strain used had been collected from
and temperature) can influence the results obtained [8, 9, 11]. Sospel, France, and had been cultured in the laboratory for 13
Clearly then, as stated by [8, 16]. any study of fitness must years on D. subobscura, a species which never encapsulates
include as much of the life cycle as possible. The assessment this wasp. Both fly species were reared at intermediate
should be done, at least initially, under uniform environmental densities in bottles containing a baker’s yeast/sugar medium.
conditions. Also, one must have an operational definition of This strain of D. melanogaster successfully encapsulates
fitness, if only for comparative purposes. Lastly, these desires ≈55% of the eggs laid by the Sospel wasp strain [7].
must be fulfilled within a manageable experimental regime. Parasitized flies were obtained by allowing five A. tabida
We have chosen to examine several experimental techniques light: dark regime. Larval competition is often severe in wild
that have been devised for estimating total or net fitness in populations of h: 8 °C under a 16 h in 8‐oz bottles
Drosophila melanogaster. Because these are estimates of total containing ≈200 second instar larvae. Between 70 and 90% of
or net fitness encompassing at least one complete generation, the larvae were attacked under these conditions, with the large
they can satisfy the above-mentioned conditions while majority receiving a single egg as super parasitism is rare in
avoiding the problems of component analyses. These this parasitoid when un attacked hosts are available. Capsules
techniques all operationally define fitness in terms of are clearly visible in pupae, and this allowed the collection of
competitive ability, or reproductive success under competitive those flies which had successfully encapsulated. The flies
conditions. They are relative measures in that they assess the were sexed by the presence or absence of sex combs which
fitness of a strain or population relative to some standard. We are visible in mature pupae. All experiments were conducted
treat the terms “strain” and “population” as interchangeable at 20 to search for 24 D. melanogaster [7, 15] increasing
from an experimental point of view. The set of D. variability in development rates and body size. These
melanogaster strains subjected to these analyses include lines confounding effects were avoided by maintaining the
homozygous for chromosome 2, lines heterozygous for populations with a large excess of food [6, 9].
chromosome 2, wildtype lines of varied geographic origin and
lines that have been sib-mated for several generations. By Dynamics of eclosion and developmental time
subjecting the same set of strains to each of these techniques, Dynamics of eclosion and mean developmental time (± S.E.)
comparisons can be made in an effort to determine what is of flies reared on their native diets are presented in Fig. 3a
being measured and if the same thing is being measured in and b, respectively

Fig 3: Dynamics of eclosion (a), developmental time (b) and egg-to-adult survival (c) of D. melanogaster strains reared on five different diets
for 13 years

St. flies emerged from the 11th to 19th day, with the largest in developmental time (F = 66.240, df = 4, error df = 25, p<
number emerging on day 14. Their mean developmental time 0.001). Post hoc LSD test revealed that C flies developed the
was 13.82 ± 0.07 days. Eclosion of both T and B flies started fastest (p< 0.001) and A flies the slowest (p< 0.001).
on the 13th day and that of T flies ended on the 17th day and of Spearman’s rank test revealed no significant correlations
B flies on the 18th day. The largest number of T flies emerged between developmental time and protein content (r = –0.600,
on day 14 and of B flies on day 15. For the T and B flies p> 0.05). Egg-to-adult survival Mean egg-to-adult survival (±
development lasted, on average, 14.25 ± 0.05 and 14.97 ± S.E.) in experimental group I is presented in Fig. 3c. One-
0.05 days, respectively. Eclosion of C flies started on day 10 Way ANOVA revealed significant difference in egg-to-adult
and ceased on day 14. The highest percentage of adults of C survival among strains (F = 22.342, df = 4, error df = 25, p<
strain emerged on the 11th day, sand mean developmental time 0.001). LSD Post hoc analysis indicates that the egg-to-adult
was 11.08 ± 0.04 days. On the other hand, A flies started survival of T flies was the highest (88.61% ± 1.41; p< 0.001)
[12]
emerging on day14 and the last emerged on day 29, and the . The body size mm under a × 40 binocular microscope.
largest number of flies emerged on day 20. Mean Thirty individuals of each sex, with and without capsules,
developmental time of A flies was 20.82 ± 0.22 days. One- were measured. The data were analysed using the length of
Way ANOVA indicates that the strains significantly differed the left wing (from wing tip to the major costal break) and the

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