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Ch.15 Fluid motion

• Quantities used in describing fluid behavior, including pressure

and density

• Hydrostatic equilibrium and buoyancy force

• How conservation of matter and energy apply to fluids

– The continuity equitation

– Bernoulli’s equation

Warming up

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Fluid

• Fluid is matter that flows under the influence of external

forces.
• Fluids include gases and liquids:
• In gases, molecules are far apart and the density changes readily:
compressible.

• In liquids, molecules are close together and density remains nearly

constant: incompressible.

• Fluids cannot maintain a fixed structure, but flow to assume the

configuration of any container they’re confined to.

Fluid: a substance that continually

deforms (flows) under an applied
shear stress (Wikipedia)

Pressure

• The amount of force applied at right angle to the surface

of an object per unit area Is “P” scalar or vector?
𝐹Ԧ⊥
𝑃= [𝑁/𝑚2 = 𝑃𝑎] Scalar!
𝐴
• Average atmospheric pressure
• 101.3 kPa (1013 hPa)

We can attain vector𝐹Ԧ⊥from scalar P

𝐹Ԧ⊥ = 𝑃𝐴𝑛
𝑛 : Normal unit vector for surface A

(Note: Weight of fluid is ignored)

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Hydrostatic equilibrium

• There is a net force due to pressure only when

pressure varies with position.

Hydrostatic equilibrium

• In the presence of gravity, pressure in a static fluid

increases with depth.
– This allows an upward pressure force to balance the
downward gravitational force.
– This condition is hydrostatic equilibrium.
– Details depend on the nature of the fluid.

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Hydrostatic equilibrium

For incompressible fluids (liquids having constant density),

𝑝 + 𝑑𝑝 𝐴 − 𝑝𝐴 = 𝑑𝐹𝑔

𝑑𝐹𝑔 = 𝜌 𝑔 𝐴 𝑑ℎ 𝜌: density of fluid

𝑑𝑝 = 𝜌 𝑔 𝑑ℎ

𝑝 = 𝑝0 + 𝜌 𝑔 ℎ

where p0 is the pressure at the surface.

Measuring pressure

A barometer measures the absolute pressure of a fluid, typically air.

Vacuum: 𝑃0 = 0
𝑝 = 𝑝0 + 𝜌 𝑔 ℎ

Standard atmosphere
pressure = 101.3kPa
= 760 mm of mercury

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Pressure unit

Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units

atmosphere (standard) atm ≡ 101325 Pa[34]
atmosphere (technical) at ≡ 1 kgf/cm2 = 9.80665×104 Pa[34]
bar bar ≡ 105 Pa
barye (cgs unit) ≡ 1 dyn/cm2 = 0.1 Pa
≡ 13595.1 kg/m3 ×
centimetre of mercury cmHg ≈ 1.33322×103 Pa[34]
1 cm × ɡ0
≈ 999.972 kg/m3 ×
centimetre of water (4 °C) cmH2O ≈ 98.0638 Pa[34]
1 cm × ɡ0
kilogram-force per square millimetre kgf/mm2 ≡ 1 kgf/mm2 = 9.80665×106 Pa[34]
≡ 13595.1 kg/m3 ×
millimetre of mercury mmHg ≈ 133.3224 Pa[34]
1 mm × ɡ0 ≈ 1 torr
pascal (SI unit) Pa ≡ N/m2 = kg/(m·s2) = 1 Pa[35]
pièze (mts unit) pz ≡ 1000 kg/m·s2 = 103 Pa = 1 kPa
pound per square inch psi ≡ 1 lbf/in2 ≈ 6.894757×103 Pa[34]
torr torr ≡ ​101325⁄760 Pa ≈ 133.3224 Pa[34]

Pressure around us

• There is 1 atm pressure around us all the time.

Why we don’t feel it?

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Measuring pressure
A manometer measures pressure differences.
Gauge pressure : a measure of
pressure relative to the ambient
atmosphere.

Tire pressure is the tire’s excess pressure

over atmospheric pressure.

Hydraulic lift
m

How about
the work?

Pressure exerted by a large piston = Pressure exerted by a small piston

p2 = F2 A2 = mg A2 p1 = F1 A1
2
R 
2
A  15cm  mg
F1 = mg 1 = mg  1  = mg   =
A2  R2   120cm  64

Pascal’s law: a pressure increase anywhere is felt throughout the fluid.

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Archimedes’ Principle and Buoyancy

Archimedes’ principle
The buoyancy force on an object is equal
to the weight of the fluid displaced by the
object.

Buoyancy force Fb = rf Vobj g

Buoyancy and Floating Objects

Archimedes’ principle
Buoyancy force Fb = rf gVobj

Fg = robj gVobj

r obj  r f
neutral
r obj = r f buoyance
(fish..)
r obj  r f

What is the source of buoyancy force? ➔ gravity

What is the source of pressure ➔ pressure exist without gravity.
It is due to the repulsion of molecules,
so fundamentally because of the electrostatic force

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Buoyancy and Floating Objects

r waterVsub g

=
r iceVice g

• If a submerged object is less dense than a fluid, then the buoyancy

force is greater than its weight, and the object rises.
– In a liquid, it eventually reaches the surface.
• Then the object floats at a level such that the buoyancy force
equals its weight.
• That means the submerged portion displaces a weight of
liquid equal to the weight of the object.
– In the atmosphere, a buoyant object like a balloon rises to a
level where its density is equal to that of the atmosphere.

Buoyancy and Floating Objects

When ice melts in a glass of water, does the water level changes?

Then why do we concern about ice-melting??

86% is land-based ice, which causes ~7m rise!!

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Equilibrium: Center of buoyancy

The buoyancy force does not act at the center of mass of the object but
at the center of mass of the water that would be there
if the object were not there
Stable boat

Unstable boat

Fluid dynamics : time dependent but steady

• Moving fluids are characterized by their flow velocity as a

function of position and time.
In unsteady flow, the fluid velocity at a given point varies with time.
v ( x, y, z, t )
In steady flow, the velocity at a given point is independent of time.
v ( x, y , z )
• Steady flows can be visualized with streamlines which are
everywhere tangent to the local flow direction.

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The continuity equation

: conservation of mass in a moving fluid.

➔ As it moves, new fluid is neither created nor destroyed.
Flow tube: an imaginary tube bounded by nearby streamlines
(no mixing across tube surface)

No physical boundary
but acts like a pipe
Fluid flows along not across

The Continuity Equation

Mass
𝑚 = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑣1 ∆𝑡
= 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑣2 ∆𝑡

“mass flow rate” == ∆𝑚/∆𝑡

r : density, v: flow speed, A : cross-sectional area

For incompressible fluids (r :constant)

“volume flow rate”.

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The Continuity Equation

Bernoulli’s equation

Conservation of Energy (neglect fluid friction; no viscosity)

as a fluid moves along a stream tube

Work done p + 12 rv 2 + r gh = constant

Mechanical energy change
𝑝1 𝐴1 ∙ ∆𝑥1 − 𝑝2 𝐴2 ∙ ∆𝑥2
1 1
= 𝐴 ∙ ∆𝑥2 ∙ 𝜌𝑣2 2 + 𝐴2 ∙ ∆𝑥2 ∙ 𝜌𝑔𝑦2 − 𝐴 ∙ ∆𝑥1 ∙ 𝜌𝑣1 2 + 𝐴1 ∙ ∆𝑥1 ∙ 𝜌𝑔𝑦1
2 2 2 1

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Example 15.6 Draining a Tank

Since the hole is open to the atmosphere,

the pressure at the hole is atmospheric pressure pa.

1
By Bernoullis eqn: p + r gh + r v 2 = const.
2

1 2
pa + r gh = pa + r vhole vhole = 2 gh
2

Example 15.7 A Venturi Flowmeter

p + 12 rv 2 + r gh = constant 1 1
𝑝1 + 𝜌𝑣1 2 = 𝑝2 + 𝜌𝑣2 2
2 2
𝑣1 𝐴1 = 𝑣2 𝐴2

2(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )
𝑣1 =
𝐴1 2
𝜌 −1
𝐴2 2

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The Bernoulli effect

p + 12 rv 2 + r gh = constant Despite the downward blow,

the ping-pong ball remains stuck in
flow at funnel the hollow of the funnel!

Got it? 15.5

• A large tank is filled with liquid to the level h1 shown in the figure. It
drains through a small pipe whose diameter varies: emerging from
each section of pipe are vertical tubes open to the atmosphere.
Although the picture shows the same liquid level in each pipe, they
really won’t be the same. Rank level h1 though h4 in order from
highest to lowest.
ℎ1 > ℎ4 > ℎ2 > ℎ3

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Problem 64

Water emerges from a faucet of diameter d0 in steady, near-vertical flow with

speed 𝜈0 . Show that the diameter of the falling water column is given by
𝑑 = 𝑑0 (𝜈02 )/(𝜈02 + 2𝑔ℎ) 1/4 , where h is the distance below the faucet.

The continuity equation: v0 d02 = vd 2,

Since the water is in vertical free fall (negligible friction) → Bernoulli eqn:

v 2 = v02 + 2 gh = (d0 /d )4 v02 ,

Thus,
𝑑 = 𝑑0 (𝜈02 )/(𝜈02 + 2𝑔ℎ) 1/4

Problem 66. An Airplane Speedometer

• A Pitot tube is used for measuring aircraft speeds. The tube is

mounted on the aircraft with opening A at right angles to the flow and
opening B pointing into the flow. The gauge prevents airflow through
the tube.
By applying Bernoulli’s Equation

pB = pA + 12 r vA2 , (vB = 0)

vA = 2 ( pB − p A ) r

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Flight and Lift

Do not apply Bernoulli’s principle here.

• A fluid flowing past the surface of a body

exerts a force on it.
• Lift is the component of the force that is
perpendicular to the flow direction.
• Drag force is the component of the surface
force parallel to the flow direction.

Puzzle?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eiUtogwXUKg

Fan: Air particle: 0 => mv : ∆p=mv

Sail: Air particle: mv => -mv : ∆p=2mv
(if total elastic collision)
∆p=mv (if total inelastic collision)

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Flight and Lift

Knuckle ball Four seam

Flight and Lift

• 12-6 curveball

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Flight and Lift

Movie: What Happens When a Spinning Basketball is Thrown Off a Dam!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2OSrvzNW9FE

Viscosity

• Viscosity: fluid friction

• Moving fluid interacts with the surfaces it contacts
• The transfer of momentum among adjacent layers within a fluid

The property of a fluid to resist the growth of shear deformation is

called viscosity.

Without viscosity, propellers would spin uselessly

and planes and ships would go nowhere.

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Viscosity

𝜇1 < 𝜇2

𝐹 𝜕𝑢
=𝜏=𝜇
𝐴 𝜕𝑦

F: force acting on the top plate 𝜇: viscosity of fluid

u: speed of the top plate
A: the area of each plate
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscosity

Turbulence

• Turbulence is complex, chaotic, time-dependent fluid motion.

Turbulent flow ➔ Laminar flow

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Chapter Summary
• Fluid is characterized by pressure, density, and flow velocity.
• Hydrostatic equilibrium characterizes stationary fluids under the
influence of gravity.
• Objects submerged in a fluid are subject to an upward buoyant force, equal
to the weight of the displaced fluid. Buoyancy force Fb = rf gVf
• Objects floating at the surface of a liquid displace a volume of water whose
weight equals that of the object.
• Moving fluids conserve matter and, under appropriate circumstances,
energy as well.
• The continuity equation describes the conservation of matter.
𝜌𝑣𝐴 = constant for compressible fluid, 𝑣𝐴 = constant for incompressible fluid
• Bernoulli’s equation describes conservation of energy.
p + 12 rv 2 + r gh = constant
• The Bernoulli effect describes the tradeoff between flow speed and
pressure. Where pressure is high, flow speed is low, and vice versa.
• Viscosity and turbulence are more complicated aspects of fluid behavior.

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