Session 9

Technical Aspects of Bridge

Construction

CONTENTS
9.1 Sequence of Bridge Construction
9.2 Bridge Expansion Joints
9.3 Bridge Bearings
9.4 Joints in Concrete
9.5 Reinforcement Works (as stated in BNBC legal documents)
9.6 Tolerances of Construction works
9.7 Most Common Problems with Concrete

9.1 Sequence of Bridge Construction

1. Bridge site selection
2. Bridge Lay-out Setting
3. Bridge Foundation Lay-out setting
4. Foundation Excavation up to top of pile cap.
5. Bridge Pile lay-out setting
6. Installations of Pile
7. Foundation excavation and breaking of pile head
8. Preparation and casting of pile cap
9. Preparation and casting of Abutment/Pier stem
10. Preparation and casting of pier head
11. Preparation and casting of Bridge Girder
12. Preparation and casting of Bridge deck slab

9.1.1 Bridge Site Selection

Usually road structure such as culverts and bridges will be built across gaps along roads.
Such gaps may be due to canals and streams or bare opening left for water to pass from
one side of the road to the other. For structural stability, safety and cost effective
construction a site should be selected as follows

a. to be situated on a straight reach of the stream/cannel,

b. to be so far away from the confluence of large tributaries as to be beyond their
disturbing influence,
c. should have well defined bank,
d. approach road to be straight, and
e. offers a square crossing as far as practicable

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9.1.2 Bridge Lay-out Setting

Before giving lay-out in the practical situation, it is convenient to plot a map of the proposed
bridge location and superimpose on it a scaled plan of the proposed structure. A number of
reference points including bench mark should be marked on the map and located in the
ground. It is necessary to know the dimension and overall geometry of the excavation
trenches. These should also be located in the map. Such map also helpful to locate areas
over which excavated materials will be dumped and construction materials are to be stored.
For all structures a main reference line should be chosen. All other distances and offsets are
to be measured from this main reference line. The centre line of the abutment, set out
accurately may form such a reference line. Similarly a permanent bench mark should be
installed. All other levels to be established from the permanent bench mark.

9.1.3 Excavating and Shoring

Excavation
The Contractor shall notify the Engineer before commencing excavation of the foundation
trenches so that the cross-section, elevations and measurements of the undisturbed ground
may be taken. The natural ground adjacent to the structure shall not be disturbed without
taking any permission from the Engineer.
Trenches and foundation pits for structures shall be excavated to the lines, grades and
elevations as shown on the Drawings or as directed by the Engineer. The elevations of the
bottom of the foundations shown on the Drawings are approximate only and the Engineer
may order such changes as deemed necessary to provide a secured foundation.
Where unstable soil is encountered at the bed level, it should be brought to the notice of
Engineer and all such unstable soil shall be removed as directed and replaced with suitable
materials to provide adequate support for the structure.
On acceptance of the materials forming the bottom of any excavation by the Engineer
subsequently becoming unacceptable to him/her due to exposure to weather condition or
due to flooding or have become puddled, soft or loose during the work process, the
Contractor shall remove such damaged softened, or loose materials and excavate
additional. Such further excavation shall be held as excess excavation and the cost of the
excess excavation and subsequent replacement with a suitable back-fill shall be at the
expenses of the Contractor.
Any erroneous excavation or excess excavation for the conveniences of the Contractor, or
over excavation performed by the Contractor for any purpose or reasons shall be at the
expenses of the Contractor. If the excavation for foundations exceeds the depths specified,
the Contractor shall brought it back to the specified levels with sand, mass concrete or other
approved materials conforming Standard Specifications at the Contractor’s own expenses.
Excavation shall be sufficiently large to provide necessary working space, shuttering and any
other Temporary Works required during construction.
Boulders, roots and any other objectionable materials encountered in excavation, shall be
removed. The excavated foundation shall be cleared of all loose materials and cut to a firm
surface.

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When the footing is to rest on the ground and not on piles, special care shall be taken not to
disturb the bottom of the excavation and excavation to final grade shall be deferred until
immediately before the footing is placed. If foundation fill material is required, it shall be
placed and compacted in layers not more than 150mm thick or as directed by the Engineer.
The dry density on compaction within 300mm below the top level shall not be less than
100% maximum dry density as determined in accordance with STP T4.5 (standard
compaction).
In excavating foundation trenches, the last 150mm layer shall not be excavated until
immediately before commencing the construction work except that the Engineer shall permit
otherwise. Any damage to the work due to the Contractor’s operation shall be repaired at
the expenses of the Contractor.
The Contractor shall be solely responsible for the safety and stability of the excavation and
shall provide all protective supports, bracing, sheet piles, shoring etc. as required. Shoring
should be adequate to provide enough safety to all the adjacent structures and land.
Excavated materials, classified as suitable for fill, shall be stockpiled. Waste materials and
suitable fill materials in excess of requirement shall be disposed of by the Contractor outside
the limits of the site.
No footing, bedding material or structure shall be placed on any foundation until the
Engineer has inspected and approved the depth of excavation and the foundation materials.
Slope of Excavation
The depth and slope of an excavation and ground water condition control the overall stability and
movement of open excavations. The phenomenon is affected by soil type, depth of cut, side slope
and or berm geometry, ground water conditions and construction procedure. Where seepage is in
control, the following side slopes may provide stable cuts:
Soil Type Slope (V:H)
Wet clays and Silts 1:2
Dry sand and gravel 1:1.75
Dry Clay 1:1
Moist Sand 1:1.25
Hard and Compact Soil 1:0.5

The above values are to be used as an approximate guide. These may vary depending on local
conditions, seasons and duration of the construction as well as experience and judgment of the
engineer in charge.

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 Figure: Raking Shore Figure: Flying Shore Figure: Niddle / Vertical Shore
Excavation Shoring

Excavation below the foundation level of an adjacent structure usually leads to the necessity
for supporting the structure temporarily. The provision of temporary support is known as
shoring. On many instances it is not possible to provide sloped excavation. This would
require vertical supporting system to ensure stability of cuts this is also known as shoring.
Timber is usually used as the shoring material. Figure below illustrates various methods of
shoring.

9.1.4 Pumping and Bailing

The foundation shall be kept free from water at all times during the construction period. The
ground water level shall be maintained at a minimum of 0.9m below the lowest designed
excavation level.

Pumping and bailing from any foundation shall be done so as to preclude the possibility of
the movement of water through or alongside any concrete being placed. No pumping or
bailing will be permitted during the placing of concrete and for at least 24 hours thereafter,
unless it is done from a suitable sump separated from the concrete work by a watertight wall
or from well points.

The Contractor shall be solely responsible and include in his rates all costs in designing the
de-watering system, providing all equipment and accessories required for de-watering. The
rates shall also include cost for transportation, furnishing, installation, safe operation and
maintaining of the system including operators, mechanics, the supply of power, fuel,
lubricants, spares, repairing, etc. throughout and the removal of the equipment at the end of
the construction period under this Contract. Excavations shall be as dry as possible prior to
and during placing concrete. Concrete, placing under water will only be permitted if indicated
on the Drawings or approved by the Engineer.

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9.1.5 Back-filling

All excavated spaces shall be back-filled around the permanent structure to original ground
level. Prior to placing back-fill, all trash, metal, debris, lumber, bricks, soft materials and
similar objectionable foreign materials shall be removed from the area to be back-filled. No
back-fill shall be placed against any structure without the prior permission of the Engineer.
Back-fill shall be of approved materials that will produce a dense and well-compacted filling.
The material shall be free from large lumps, organic or extraneous materials.

9.1.6 Cofferdams

The term “cofferdam” denotes any temporary or removable structure, constructed to hold the
surrounding earth, water or both, out of the excavation whether such structure is constructed
of

earth, timber, steel, concrete or any combination of these. The term includes earth dikes,
timber cribs, sheet piling, removable steel shells and all bracing and it shall be understood to
include excavation enclosed by pumping wells and well points. Cofferdams shall be
constructed so as to control water to preclude sliding and caving-in of the walls of the
excavation. Where it is possible to de-water the cofferdam.

The natural stream bed adjacent to the cofferdam shall not be disturbed without the
permission of the Engineer. Any excavation adjacent to the cofferdam shall be back-filled to
the original ground level to the satisfaction of the Engineer.

Unless otherwise mentioned, cofferdams shall be

removed on completion of the structure without
disturbing the finished work. The Engineer may
order the Contractor to leave any part or the whole
of the cofferdam in place and this shall not entitle
the Contractor to claim for any additional payment.

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The Contractor shall submit Drawings showing his proposed methods of cofferdam
construction. However, the Contractor shall remain fully responsible for the adequacy of the
design for strength and stability and for the safety of the people working therein.

9.1.7 Earthen Ring/Cross Bundh

This Work shall consist of construction of the earthen Ring/Cross Bundh by furnishing,
placing, compacting and shaping with suitable fill in accordance with the specifications and
direction of the Engineer including palisading. The earthen Ring/Cross Bundh shall be
maintained in proper condition by the Contractor until the completion of work for which this
temporary structure has been constructed. The work of this temporary structure shall be
carried out with adequate height as instructed by the Engineer to protect the permanent Work
and shall provide required clearance around the permanent structure.

The Contractor shall submit, upon request, Drawings showing his proposed method of
construction of the earthen Ring/Cross Bundh. Approval of the Drawings shall not, in anyway,
relieve the Contractor of his responsibilities for the adequacy of the design for strength and
stability of this temporary structure and for the safety of the people working therein. The
interior dimensions of the Ring Bundh shall be such as to give sufficient clearance for the
construction work of the permanent structure, the inspection of the interior and to permit the
pumping. In constructing the earthen Ring Bundh, palisading wall shall be erected on both
sides with bullah/ bamboo posts/pins walling with double Tarja mat or bitumen drum sheets
forming an enclosed area for filling earth. The local soil, which will meet the requisite criteria
shall be arranged by the Contractor from the locality, carried to the site and to be filled inside
the enclosed area with manual compaction layer by layer. When necessary, bailing out water
shall be carried out by the Contractor through pumping with pumps or by any other
appropriate methods.

The temporary earthen Ring/Cross Bundh shall be removed on completion of the permanent
structure. The responsibility shall remain with the Contractor to keep the enclosed area at the
level of the foundation bottom of the permanent structure dry by ensuring all arrangements to
prevent percolation of water from the surroundings during the construction of the permanent
structure for a period as required by the Engineer.

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2

9.2 Bridge Expansion Joints

The following 4-types of Bridge Expansion Joints are normally practiced in LGED and
mentioned in the LGED Rate Schedule. Strip Seal type Expansion Joint is normally used
in the case of small and medium length bridges and in the case large bridges Modular
Strip/Box Steel Expansion Joint used. Item Code of 4-types of Bridge Expansion Joints as
shown in the LGED Rate schedule are:

1. Item Code 4.11.06.01: Steel sheet Expansion Joint (For Small Movement)
2. Item Code 4.11.06.02: Strip Seal Expansion Joint (For Medium Movement)
3. Item Code 4.11.06.03: Modular Strip/Box Steel Expansion Joint (For Large
Movement)
4. Item Code 4.11.06.04: Finger Expansion Joint.
5. Detailed specifications / Item descriptions are available in the LGED Rate
schedule.
Strip Seal Expansion
Modular Strip/Box Steel Expansion
Joint
Joint Expansion Joint

Steel Sheet Expansion

Finger Expansion Joint Joint

9.3 Bridge Bearings

The following 6-types of Bridge Bearings are normally practiced in LGED and mentioned in
the LGED Rate Schedule. Steel Laminated Elastomeric/Neoprene Bearing is normally
used in the case of small and medium length bridges and in the case large bridges POT
Bearing used. Item Code of 6-types of Bridge Bearings as shown in the LGED Rate
schedule are:

1. Item Code 4.11.07.01.01: Roller Bearing

2. Item Code 4.11.07.02.01: Hinge Plate Bearing
3. Item Code 4.11.07.04: Hinge Plate Bearing with Lead Sheet
4. Item Code 4.11.08: Steel Laminated Elastomeric/Neoprene Bearing
5. Item Code 4.11.10: POT Bearing
6. Item Code 4.11.11: Spherical Bearing

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Detailed specifications / Item descriptions are available in the LGED Rate schedule.

Steel Laminated Elastomeric/Neoprene

Bearing

Bridge POT Bearing (Fixed Type)

Bridge Roller Bearing

9.4 Joints in Concrete

Joints in Concrete are defined as concrete surfaces upon or against which concrete is to be
placed and to which new concrete is to be placed. That have become so rigid that the
new concrete cannot be incorporated integrally with that previously placed. Construction
joints shall be formed wherever there is a discontinuity in placing-concrete. Construction
joints shall be made only where located on the Drawings or shown in the pouring
schedule or as directed by the Engineer. All exposed faces of Construction joints shall
be made absolutely straight, leveled or plumbed and normal to the finished surface.

All planned reinforcing steel shall extend uninterrupted through joints. Additional reinforcing
steel dowels shall be placed across the joints, if and when directed by the Engineer.
Such additional steel shall be furnished and placed at the Contractor’s expenses.

Unless otherwise shown on the Drawing, horizontal joints may be made without keys
and vertical joints shall be constructed with shear keys. Surfaces of fresh concrete at
horizontal Construction joints shall be rough floated sufficiently to thoroughly consolidate
the surface and intentionally left in a rough condition.

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Surfaces of construction joints shall be prepared as early as possible after casting. The
preparation shall consist of the removal of all laitance, loose or defective concrete coatings,
sand and other deleterious materials. Preparation shall be carried out preferably when
the concrete has set but not hardened by jetting with a fine spray of water or brushing
with a stiff brush, just sufficient to remove the outer mortar skin and to expose the larger
aggregate without it is being disturbed. Where this treatment is impracticable and work is
resumed on a surface. Which has set the whole surface shall be thoroughly roughened or
scrapped with suitable tools so that no smooth skin of concrete that may be left from
the previous work is visible.

The prepared joint face shall be thoroughly cleaned by compressed air and water jests
or other approved means and brushed and watered immediately before depositing
concrete. The cleaned and saturated surfaces that also include vertical and inclined
surfaces, shall first be thoroughly covered with a thin coating of mortar or neat cement
grout against which the new concrete shall be placed before the grout has attained its
initial set. The placing of concrete shall be carried continuously from joint to joint. The face
edges of all joints, which are exposed to view, shall be carefully finished true to line and
elevation.

Construction joints in floors shall be located within the middle third of spans of slabs, beams
and girders. Joints in girders shall be offset a minimum distance of two times the width of
intersecting beams.

Bonding and doweling to existing structures

When reinforcing dowels grouted into the holes drilled in the existing concrete is required
at such construction joints, the holes shall be drilled by methods that will not damage
the concrete around the holes. The diameters of the holes shall be 6mm larger than
the nominal diameter of the dowels unless shown otherwise on the Drawings. The
dowel bars shall be round mild steel bar of the diameter and length as indicated on the
Drawings and/or as per the directions of the Engineer. The grout shall be a near cement
paste of Portland cement and water or an epoxy. Immediately prior to placing the dowel
bars, the holes shall be cleaned off dust and other deleterious materials, shall be
thoroughly saturated with water, have all free water removed and shall be dried to a
saturated surface dry condition . Sufficient grout or an epoxy shall be placed inside the
holes so as not to remain any void after the dowels are inserted. Grout shall be cured
for a period of at least 3 (three) days or until dowel bars are encased in concrete. When
an epoxy is used, the mixing and placing shall conform to the manufacturer’s
recommendations.

Construction joints

Joints placed in structures or slabs to provide for volumetric shrinkage of monolithic

unit or movement between monolithic units are defined as construction joints.
Construction joints shall be constructed so that there will be no bond between the
concrete surface forming the joints.

9.5 Reinforcement Works (as stated in BNBC legal documents)

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9.5.1 Standard Hooks and Minimum Bend Diameters
Standard hooks
The term “standard hook” as used in this code shall mean one of the following:
(a) 1800 bend plus an extension of at least 4 bar diameters, but not less than 65 mm at
the free end of the bar.
(b) 900 bend plus an extension of at least 12 bar diameters at the free end of the bar.
(c) For stirrup and tie anchorage
(i)For 16 mm diameter bar and smaller, a 90 0 bend plus an extension of at least 6 bar
diameters at the free end of the bar,
(ii) For 19 mm to 25 mm diameter bars, a 90 0 bend plus an extension of at least 12
bar diameters at the free end of the bar,
(iii) For 25 mm diameter bar and smaller a 1350 bend plus an extension of at least 6
bar diameters at the free end of the bar,
(iv) For closed ties and continuously wound ties, a 135 0 bend plus an extension of at
least 6 bar diameters, but not less than 75 mm.
(d) Seismic hook is defined as a hook on a stirrup, hoop, or crosstie having a bend not
less than 1350, except the circular hoops shall have a bend not less than 900. Hooks
shall have a six-diameter (but not less than 75 mm) extension that engages the
longitudinal reinforcement and projects into the interior of the stirrup or hoop.
Minimum bend diameters
(a) The minimum diameter of bend measured on the inside of the bar, for standard hooks
other than for stirrups and ties in sizes of 10 mm to 16 mm diameter shall not be less than
the values shown in Table 6.8.1.

Table : Minimum Diameters of Bend

Bar Size Minimum Diameter of Bend

10 mm ≤ db ≤ 25 mm 6db
25 mm < db ≤ 40 mm 8db
40 mm < db ≤ 57 mm 10db

(b) For stirrups and tie hooks, inside diameter of bend shall not be less than 4 bar diameters
for 16mm diameter bar and smaller. For bars larger than 16 mm diameter, bend diameter
shall be in accordance with Table 6.8.1.
(c) Inside diameter of bend in welded wire reinforcement for stirrups and ties shall not be
less than 4 bar diameters for deformed wire larger than ASTM MD40 size (ASTM A1022)
and 2 bar diameters for all other wires bends with inside diameter of less than 8 bar
diameters shall not be less than 4 bar diameters from nearest welded intersection.

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Bending
i) Unless otherwise permitted by the engineer, all reinforcement shall be bent cold.
ii) Reinforcement partially embedded in concrete shall not be bent in place, except as
permitted by the engineer or as shown in the design drawings.
Surface conditions of Reinforcement
a) When concrete is placed, metal reinforcement shall be free from mud, oil, or other
nonmetallic coatings that decrease bond. Epoxy-coating of steel reinforcement in
accordance with standards referenced this Code shall be permitted.
b) Metal reinforcement with rust, mill scale, or a combination of both, shall be considered
satisfactory provided the minimum dimensions (including height of deformations) and weight
of a hand-wire-brushed test specimen are not less than applicable ASTM specification
requirements.
9.5.2 Placing of Reinforcement
i) Reinforcement shall be accurately placed and adequately supported before concrete is
placed and shall be secured against displacement within tolerances permitted in Sec 8.1.5.2
below.
ii) Reinforcement shall be placed within the following tolerances unless otherwise specified
by the engineer:
iii) Tolerances for depth d, and minimum concrete cover in flexural members, walls and
compression members shall be as set forth in Table 6.8.2.

Table: Tolerances for Placing Reinforcement

Depth of Member, d Tolerance for d Tolerance for Minimum

Concrete Cover

d ≤ 200 mm ± 10 mm -10 mm
d > 200 mm ± 13 mm -13 mm

iv) Notwithstanding the provision of (a) above, tolerance for the clear distance to formed
soffits shall be minus 6 mm and tolerance for cover shall not exceed minus one third (1/3) of
minimum concrete cover specified in the design drawings or specifications.
v) Tolerance for longitudinal location of bends and ends of reinforcement shall be ± 50 mm,
except at discontinuous ends of brackets and corbels, where tolerance shall be ± 13 mm and

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at discontinuous ends of other members, where tolerance shall be ± 25 mm. The tolerance
for concrete cover of Sec 8.1.5.2 a shall also apply at discontinuous ends of members.

Spacing of Reinforcement
i) The minimum clear spacing between parallel bars in a layer shall be equal to one bar
diameter, but not less than 25 mm, or 1.33 times of maximum nominal size of coarse
aggregate, whichever is larger.
ii) Where parallel reinforcement is placed in two or more layers, bars in the upper layers shall
be placed directly above those in the bottom layer with clear distance between layers not
less than 25 mm.
iii) For compression members, the clear distance between longitudinal bars shall be not less
than 1.5 bar diameters nor 40 mm nor 1.33 times of maximum nominal size of coarse
aggregate.
iii) Clear distance limitation between bars shall apply also to the clear distance between a
contact lap splice and adjacent splices or bars.
iv) In walls and one-way slabs the maximum bar spacing shall not be more than three times
the wall or slab thickness h nor 450 mm.
v) For two-way slabs, maximum spacing of bars shall not exceed twice the slab thickness h
nor 450 mm.
vi) For temperature steel, maximum spacing shall not exceed 5 times the slab thickness h
nor 450 mm.
Bundled bars
(a) Groups of parallel reinforcing bars bundled in contact to act as a single unit shall be
limited to four.
(b) Bundled bars shall be enclosed within stirrups or ties.
(c) Bars larger than 32 mm diameter shall not be bundled in beams.
(d) Individual bars within a bundle terminated within the span of flexural members shall
terminate at different points with at least 40db stagger.
(e) Where spacing limitations and minimum concrete cover are based on bar diameter d b, a
unit of bundled bars shall be treated as a single bar of a diameter derived from the
equivalent total area.
9.5.3 Exposure Condition and Cover to Reinforcement
i) The nominal concrete cover to all reinforcement (including links), maximum free water-
cement ratio and minimum cement content required for various minimum concrete strengths
used in different exposure conditions shall be as specified in Table 6.8.3. However, for mild
environment, the minimum concrete cover specified in sections 8.1.7.2 and 8.1.7.3 for
various structural elements may be used.
Cast-in-place concrete

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(a) Minimum concrete cover for concrete cast against and permanently exposed to earth
shall be 75 mm.
(b) Concrete exposed to earth or weather, the minimum clear cover shall be as under.
19 mm to 57 mm bar diameter: 50 mm
16 mm diameter bar and smaller: 40 mm
(c)The following minimum concrete cover may be provided for reinforcement for concrete
surfaces not exposed to weather or in contact with ground:
Slabs, Walls: Minimum Cover
40 mm to 57 mm bar diameter 40
36 mm bar diameter and smaller 20
Beams, Columns:
Primary reinforcement, Ties, stirrups, spirals 40
Shells, folded plate members:
19 mm bar diameter and larger 20
16 mm bar diameter and smaller 16

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Table : Concrete Cover and other Requirements for Various Exposure Conditions

Environment Exposure Conditions Minimum f1c N/mm2

20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Nominal cover (mm)

Mild Concrete surfaces protected 30 25 20 20 20** 20** 20**

against weather or
aggressive conditions

Moderate Concrete surface away from 40 35 30 25 20 20 20

severe rain Concrete
subject to condensation
Concrete surfaces
continuously under water
Concrete in contact with
non-aggressive soil

Severe Concrete surfaces exposed 45 40 30 25 25 20

to severe rain, alternate
wetting and drying or severe
condensation

Very severe Concrete surfaces exposed 50 40 30 30 25

to sea water spray,
corrosive fumes

Extreme Concrete surfaces exposed 60 50 40 30

to abrasive action, e.g. sea
water carrying solids or
flowing water with pH ≤ 4.5
or machinery or vehicles

Maximum water/ cement ratio 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.40

Minimum cement content, (kg/m3) 315 325 350 375 400 410 420
*This Table relates to aggregate of 20 mm nominal maximum size.
** May be reduced to 15 mm provided the nominal maximum aggregate size does not exceed
15 mm

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Precast concrete (manufactured under plant control conditions):
(a) Concrete exposed to earth or weather:
Bar diameter Minimum cover, mm
Wall panels:
40 mm to 57 mm diameter 40
36 mm diameter bar and smaller 20
Other Members:
40 mm to 57 mm diameter 50
19 mm to 36 mm diameter 40
16 mm diameter bar and smaller 30

(b) Concrete not exposed to weather or contact with ground:

Bar diameter Minimum cover, mm

Slabs, Walls:
40mm to 57 mm diameter 30
36 mm diameter bar and smaller 16
Beams, columns:
Primary reinforcement 20<d <40
Ties, stirrups, spiral 15
Shells, folded plate members:
19 mm diameter bar and larger 16
16 mm diameter bar and smaller 10
i) For concrete cast against and permanently exposed to earth, minimum cover shall be 75
mm. If, concrete cover specified in drawings conflicts with those specified, the large value
shall be taken.

ii) Bundled Bars: Minimum concrete cover shall be equal to the equivalent diameter of the
bundle, but and be greater than 50 mm.

iii) Future Extension: Exposed reinforcement, inserts, and plates intended for bonding with
future extension shall be protected from corrosion.

iv) Fire protection: If a thickness of cover for fire protection greater than the concrete covers
specified in sections 8.1.7.1 to 8.1.7.6 is required, such greater thicknesses shall be
specified.

v) Corrosive Environments: If a thickness of cover for corrosive environment or other severe

exposure conditions greater than the concrete covers specified in Sections 8.17.1 to 8.1. 7.6
is required, such greater thickness shall be specified. For corrosion protection, a specified

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concrete cover for reinforcement not less than 50mm for walls and slabs and not less than
65 mm for other members may be used. For precast concrete members a specified concrete
cover not less than 40 mm for walls and slabs and not less than 50 mm for other members
may be used.

Minimum compressive strength of concrete f1c for the corrosive environment or other severe
exposure conditions shall be 25 MPa with minimum cement of 400 kg per cubic meter.
Coarse aggregate shall be 20 mm down well-graded stone chips and fine aggregate shall be
coarse sand of minimum FM 2.20.

For any non-structural member like drop wall, railing, fins etc. 12 mm down well graded
stone chips may be used as a coarse aggregate.

Use of brick chips (khoa) as coarse aggregate in strictly prohibited for the corrosive
environment or other severe exposure conditions.

Water-Cement ratio shall be between 0.40 to 0.45. Potable water shall be used for all
concreting.

9.6 Tolerances of Construction works

Unless it has been specified otherwise, all works shall be constructed within the tolerances shown in
the Table given below.

Type of Item Tolerance

Structure
Concrete Tolerances from specified position (Structure)
Structures
Maximum departure of plan position structure 25mm
or element

Tolerances from specified dimensions

(Structure)

Maximum departure in thickness or cross +6mm

sectional dimensions of columns, beams, -3mm
buttresses, piers, wall footings etc., like up to
and including 500mm thick (except tunnel and
shaft linings)

+10mm
Ditto – 500mm to 1000mm thickness
- 5mm

+10mm
Ditto – 1000mm to 4000mm thickness
-8mm

+25mm
Ditto – Over 4000mm thickness
-10mm
Tolerances from specified position (Surface)
Maximum departure of vertical, sloping or
25mm
curved surfaces including joint surfaces

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 Type of Item Tolerance
Structure
Maximum departure of horizontal or near-
horizontal surfaces including joint surfaces 20mm

Tolerance on Straightness or Departure from

Specified Curve (Surface)
12mm in 2m
General Surface
Maximum deviation in horizontal or vertical
directions – gradual

Maximum deviation in horizontal or vertical

directions – abrupt 6mm
Surface in Contact with Low Velocity flowing
Water
Maximum deviation in direction of flow or 6mm in 2m
normal to flow – gradual
Maximum deviation in direction of flow or 4mm
normal to flow – abrupt
Surface in Contact with High Velocity Flowing
Water
Maximum deviation in direction of flow or 3mm in 2m
normal to flow – gradual
Maximum deviation in direction of flow or 0
normal to flow – abrupt (Grind to 1 in 50 level)
Formwork Sectional dimension
Plumb +5mm

Levels (before any deflections has been taken +1 in 1000 of height

place) +3mm
Reinforcem- Length of splice -25mm
ent
Variation of protective cover +5mm

Variation in indicated position or reinforcement:

 Starter bars
One bar diameter
 Slabs and Walls 0.25 times the indicated
spacing
 Beams and columns +5mm
Dimension of bent bars:
 Stirrups and ties +5mm
 Other bars +10mm

Slope Stone Work

+50mm
protection Pitching and Masonry
over 3m
Thickness of tipped rock or filter +50mm
-000
Block Work/Brick Work
Verticality +3mm in 1m
Line + 5mm in 3m

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 Type of Item Tolerance
Structure
Finished level +10mm
Piles 1. Pre-cast driven pile:
a) Verticality for vertical pile 1 in 50
b) Verticality for raker pile 1 in 25
c) Deviation from position shown on the ¼th of least dimension or
Plan for vertical and raker piles after driving 75mm whichever is greater
Concrete piles casting tolerances:

a) Maximum departure in thickness or cross +6mm

sectional dimensions - 0.00
b) Deviation of pile face 6mm in 3m
c) Deviation of cross-section centroid from
straight line connecting the centroid of the end 10mm
faces of the pile
2. Bored and Cast-in-situ pile:

a) Verticality for vertical pile 1 in 75

b) Verticality for raker pile 1 in 25
c) Deviation from position shown on the plan Maximum 75mm in any
for vertical and raker pile shaft direction
Elastomeric Level of the top surface 3mm
bearing
Point on either surface in contact with the
1mm
bearing from the plane of that surface

Slope of each face 5mm per m

Horizontal position of any point from the 10mm
location

Pre- Condition for Surface Coating: Surface Preparation is must by blasting system before
coating. White surface must be obtained before applying the contents of coatings. The
surface preparation standard would be SA-2.5 to 3.0 (Swedish Standard). Curing time is 7 to
14 days.

9.7 Most Common Problems with concrete

The most common concreting issue is caused by excessive concrete mixing and
carelessness when putting and handling it. The weather, on the other hand, plays a major
role in worsening such issues that arise during concretion.

Bleeding

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Bleeding in concrete occurs when the excess water comes to the surface of the concrete
due to the settlement of heavier components like aggregates, cement. Excessive bleeding
can do more harm as it lessens the strength of concrete.
Ways to reduce bleeding:
 Strictly maintaining water to cement ratio.
 Supplementary cementations materials to increase water absorption.
 Adding air entertaining admixtures

Segregation
In this concrete problem, the cement paste comes to the top while the aggregates settle
down at the bottom of the concrete. Segregation affects the durability and strength of
concrete as good concrete is always an even and homogenous mixture.
Ways to prevent segregation:
o Using the recommended proportion of cement and water.
o Avoiding over-vibration or compaction of concrete.
o Being cautious while handling, placing, or transporting concrete.
o Avoiding dropping concrete from long heights.

Plastic Shrinkage Cracking

Plastic shrinkage cracking occurs in the concrete when there is an excessive and rapid loss
of water from concrete before it has even set. This occurs when the rate of evaporation of
surface moisture is higher than the rate of bleeding of water in concrete. This problem is very
common during hot weather conditions.
Here are the ways to avoid plastic shrinkage cracks in concrete:
ð Avoiding over mixing of the concrete.
ð Providing sunshades around the concrete in hot weather.
ð Placing or constructing temporary walls to block or reduce wind velocity.
ð Placing concrete either early in the morning or in the late afternoon to avoid hot
temperatures.

Laitance
The consequence of the problems of segregation and bleeding leads to laitance in the
concrete. During this concrete problem, a thin and weak layer of cement dust, sand, and
lime appear on the surface. This condition further weakens the strength and durability of
cement.
Prevent Laitance with these Steps:
 Using water-reducing admixtures in concrete.
 Not doing the finishing steps till the water has evaporated from the surface.
 Removing clay, silt, dust content before mixing concrete.
 Using well-graded aggregates in the concrete mixture.
7 Types of Construction Defect in RCC Works:

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1. Honeycomb and Rock Pockets

2. Defects due to Poor

Formwork Installation

3. Defects due to Concrete Dimensional Errors

Dimensional errors in concrete structures occur either due to the poor centering of a
structural member or due to deviation from the specifications.
4. Defects due to Finishing Errors
Finishing errors in concrete structures can involve over-finishing of the concrete surface or
addition of more water or cement to the surface during finishing of the concrete.
5. Defects due to Poor Reinforcement Placement
Errors during reinforcement installation could lead to
serious concrete deterioration. For instance,
inadequate chair bars and insufficient tying of

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reinforcement would cause rebar movement which may lead to inadequate concrete cover
and reduction in effect depth of the concrete section.
6. Bugholes
Bugholes or surface voids are small regular or irregular cavities formed due to the
entrapment of air bubbles in the surface during placement and consolidation. They
commonly occur in vertical cast-in-place concrete like walls and columns. Bugholes are
considered as defects if their width and depth exceed 3.81cm and 1.27cm respectively.
7. Crazing
Crazing, alternatively referred to as pattern cracking
or map cracking, is the uneven formation of closely
spaced shallow cracks.
Crazing occurs as a result of the top surface of
concrete rapidly hardening due to high
temperatures, an excess of water in the mix, or
inadequate curing.

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