PACKAGING: Packaging is the process of providing a protective and informative

covering to the product in such a way that it protects the product during material
handling, storage, and movement and also provides useful information to all the
concerned parties about the content of the package.
2. FUNCTIONS OF PACKAGING
The functions of a package are ―to preserve the quality and freshness of food, to add appeal to
the food to attract consumers, and to facilitate its storage and distribution.‖ The basic
functions required of a package can be grouped under five major categories.
2.1 To Contain the Product
The primary function of any package is to contain the food and facilitate handling, storage, and
distribution all the way from the manufacturer to the ultimate user or even the time the rest portion is
utilized by the consumer. However, there are usually various levels of packaging. A primary package
is one that comes into direct contact with the contained product, e.g., metal cans, glass jars, and plastic
pouches. By law, a primary package must not yield any substance that may be injurious to the health
of the consumer. Further development to facilitate handling is to bundle a series of primary packages
together, and this lead to the concept of secondary packages. Examples of secondary package is
corrugated box in which tins of apple juice are packed. As methods of handling and transportation
have become more sophisticated, these secondary packages are often palletized and secured by
strapping with metal or, more commonly, by shrink- or stretch-wrapped film to give yet another level
of packaging, i.e tertiary packaging. In turn, these pallet loads may be packed into large metal
containers, i.e., quaternary packaging for transportation over long distances by air, land, or sea. The
secondary, tertiary and quaternary packaging is also known as packing. The following are basic
functions during containing.
a. Adequate size and shape (trays to support biscuits in package)
b. Proper constructional features. No leakage, spillage, diffusion, i.e. loss prevention.
c. Package: Must contain the commodity in natural form (chips packed in Pillow pack, prevent
damage)
d. No subsequent damage after packaging during handling transportation and storage.
e. Optimum compatibility (nontoxic, non soluble with product, No physical, chemical or biochemical
changes/alteration, i.e. inert to the product.)
f. Containment or agglomeration - Small objects are typically grouped together in one package for
reasons of efficiency. For example, a single box of 1000 pencils requires less physical handling than
1000 single pencils. Liquids, powders, and granules need containment.
2.2 To Protect the Product
One of the most important functions of any container is to protect the product contained against any
form of loss, damage, deterioration, spoilage, or contamination that might be encountered throughout
the distribution chain. Packaging can prevent physical damage, e.g., bruising caused by vibration
shocks during transportation or stacking in a warehouse. Proper packaging will also prevent material
loss, e.g., potatoes from a weak sack or juice from a leaky can. Packaging can also protect products
against moisture loss or gain, dust, and light,which causes deterioration of some light-sensitive
products. It can also protect the package contents against temperature fluctuations in the transit of
chilled and frozen foods. Packaging can also be used to control the availability of oxygen to fruits and
vegetables and to protect against loss of flavor or fragrance and help products retain their nutritional
value. Proper packaging may also protect the product against microbial spoilage by bacteria, yeasts,
and molds. It can also protect against microbiological spoilage of stored products due to rodents and
insects.Packaging protects the product against damages which may be due to different hazards viz.
(a) Mechanical, (b) Environmental (c) Microbial & Biochemical and (d) Social Barrier protection - A
barrier from oxygen, water vapor, dust, etc., is often required. Permeation is a critical factor in design.
Some packages contain desiccants or Oxygen absorbers to help extend shelf life. Modified
atmospheres or controlled atmospheres are also maintained in some food packages. Keeping the
contents clean, fresh, and safe for the intended shelf life is a primary function of the package.
2.3 Medium of information
An important function of any food package is to identify the product and its origin; to inform the
consumer how to use the contents; to provide any other information needed or required; and very
importantly, to attract the user and encourage purchase of the product. Package design has been an
important and constantly evolving phenomenon for many years. Marketing communications and
graphic design are applied to the surface of the package and in many cases the point of sale/display.
The information a package can convey to the consumer may include the following:
1. Product manufacturing and best before dates
2. Proper storage conditions
3. Instructions for use
4. Size and number of servings or portions per pack
5. Nutritional information per serving
6. Manufacturer’s name and address
7. Cost
8. Suggested recipes
9. Country of origin
10. Information transmission - Packages and labels communicate how to use, transport
recycle, or dispose of the package or product.
2.4 Means of minimizing costs:
An important factor often overlooked is that packaging actually reduces costs for the consumer.
Packaging reduces food costs by reducing the cost of processing. Foods can be processed where they
are grown, waste is treated at the processing plant, and shipping weights are reduced, thereby lowering
the cost of transportation. The handling of packages in quantity is important for the economics of bulk
storage, warehousing, transport, and distribution. Proper packaging facilitates efficient and
mechanized handling, distribution, and marketing of products, thus reducing the high labour costs that
would have to be absorbed into the price of the product. Thus, packaging not merely contains the
product, but it is a process of bringing goods from the production point to the point of use in a most
beneficial manner. This involves all aspects of handling, storage, preservation, distribution,
advertising, sales promotion, preparation and various other facts of industry.
2.5 Means of selling product:
The packaging and labels can be used by marketers to encourage potential buyers to purchase the
product. A package must protect what it sells and sell what it protects.‖ Packages can have features
which add convenience in distribution, handling, display, sale, opening, reclosing, use, and reuse.
Primary packages should have the following characteristics to facilitate the sale of products:
1. Aesthetic appeal
2. Nontoxic
3. Transparent
4. Lightweight
5. Tamper evident
6. Easy to pick up and handle
7. Easy to fit into cupboards, shelves, refrigerators, etc.
8. Easy to open and dispense from
9. Easy to reclose
10. Returnable, recyclable, or reusable
11. Safe and presents no hazards in the way of broken glass or sharp jagged metal edges
12. Display the product
13. Glamorize: Create an illusion of something very precious, by decoration, embossing
techniques and exotic closures, but it should not deceive the people.
2.6 Unitization
Unitization is assembly or grouping of a number of individual items of products or
packages into a single entity that can be more easily distributed, marketed, or purchased
as a single unit. For example: a paperboard folding carton containing three flexible
material pouches of seasoning or soup mix delivers more product to a consumer than
does a single pouch. A paperboard carton wrapped around 12 beer bottles provides more
desired liquid refreshment for home entertainment than does an attempt to carry
individual bottles in one‘s hands.
Unitization reduces the number of handlings required in physical distribution and, thus,
reduces the potential for damage. Because losses in physical distribution are significantly
reduced with unitization, significant reductions in distribution costs are affected.
3. OTHER FUNCTIONS OF A PACKAGE:
1. Dispensing: Product not used all at once, remove a portion, without destroying/damagingthe
remaining product/container.
2. Preserve: Remaining product in container-Protection and preserve it for extended/desired period.
3. Measuring / Portion control: Single serving or single dosage package has a precise amount of
contents to control usage. Bulk commodities (such as salt) can be divided into packages that are a
more suitable size for individual households. It also aids the control of inventory: selling sealed one-
liter-bottles of milk, rather than having people bring their own bottles to fill themselves.
4. Security - Packaging can play an important role in reducing the security risks of transport. Packages
can be made with improved tamper resistance to deter tampering and also can have tamper-evident
features to help indicate tampering. Packages can be engineered to help reduce the risks of package
pilferage: Some package constructions are more resistant to pilferage and some have pilfer indicating
seals. Packages may include authentication seals to help indicate that the package and contents are not
counterfeit. Packages also can include anti-theft devices, such as dye-packs, RFID tags, or electronic
article surveillance tags, that can be activated or detected by devices at exit points and require
specialized tools to deactivate. Using packaging in this way is a means of loss prevention

TYPES OF PACKAGING MATERIALS

Depending on the hardness, the packaging materials are of three types :

I.Based on flexibility
1. Flexible packaging materials : Plastic films, Paper, Aluminum foil.
2. Semi-rigid packaging materials : Paperboard/cardboard/containers, PET and PVC containers,
Aluminum containdrs, Molded containers.
3. Rigid packaging containers : Glass containers, Metal cans, Fibre board containers, wooden
boxes,crates ,barrels.
II Based on function
 Primary Packaging: Primary packaging refers to the immediate contact packaging of the food
product. It is in direct contact with the food and is responsible for preserving its quality and
integrity. Primary packaging materials must be safe, non-toxic, and compatible with the food
they contain. Examples include bottles, cans, blister packs, etc. For example, a beverage can, a
paper envelope for a tea bag, an inner bag in a cereal box and an individual candy wrap in a
pouch are primary packages, and their main function is to contain and preserve the product.
Beyond this packaging lies the product itself. Primary packages must be compatible with the
product
 Secondary Packaging: Secondary packaging is the outer packaging that holds the primary
packages together. It provides additional protection during transportation and storage, ensuring
the integrity of the primary packages. Examples include cardboard boxes, shrink wrap, etc.
 Tertiary Packaging: Tertiary packaging involves packaging multiple secondary packages into
larger units for efficient handling and distribution. Examples include pallets, stretch wrap,
shipping containers, etc.
III Based on the environmental impact
  Sustainable Packaging: Materials designed to minimize environmental impact, such as
biodegradable or compostable materials, recyclable materials, etc.
 Non-sustainable Packaging: Materials that have a higher environmental impact,such as non-
recyclable plastics, mixed materials, etc.
IV Based on barrier Properties
 Oxygen Barrier: Materials that protect against oxygen permeation, such as certain plastics or
metalized films.
 Moisture Barrier: Materials that provide resistance to moisture, such as coated papers or films.
 Light Barrier: Materials that block light transmission, often used to protect lightsensitive
products.
 Aroma Barrier: Materials that prevent the transmission of odours or flavours.
V Packaging Format
 Bottles and Jars: Commonly used for liquids, powders, or small solid items.
 Cans: Used for beverages, food, or aerosol products.
 Bags and Pouches: Flexible packaging formats often used for snacks, confectionery, or
powders.
 Cartons and Boxes: Rigid containers, typically made of paperboard, used for various products.
 Blister Packs: Transparent plastic packaging used to display and protect individual items.
1.FLEXIBLE PACKAGING MATERIALS : PLASTIC FILMS, PAPER, ALUMINUM FOIL.
Types Of Packaging Film
1.1 Plastic Films
(a ) Cellophane was the first commercial flexible film. It is a natural plastic film derived from
bleached pulp which is treated with acid and alkali and then plasticized to get cellophane. It can be
suitably coated on one side to impart various functional properties. This is a low cost film. Various
types ofthis film bear letter designation on the basis of its properties e.g., C - coloured M - moisture
proof S - heat sealable T - transparent D - demi (one side) coated Thus, MST cellophane refers to a
film which is moisture proof, heat sealable and transparent. Earlier, nitrocellulose coated cellophane
was very much in use for the packaging of fresh meat in developed countries, where its coated side
was kept away from meat.With its flexible structure, packaging film has transformed the industry in
recent years and has found its way into almost all industries. There are different types of flexible
packaging films that cover the needs of all businesses. Pharmaceutical and medical products, food and
beverages, heavy items and machinery, consumer equipment and thousands of other goods are
packaged with all kinds of films.
(b) 1- Polyethylene film
The most popular nylon and packaging plastics are made from this recyclable material. Polyethylene is
a plastic film made from ethylene, a hydrocarbon mainly obtained from natural gas or oil. The terms
“plastic sheet”, “polyethylene sheet”, or “poly-film” are often used as synonyms for polyethylene film.
The term polyethylene is abbreviated as “PE”. There are different types of polyethylene film, the most
popular of which are:
 Low-density polyethylene (LDPE)
 High-density polyethylene (HDPE)
 Linear Low-Density Polyethylene (LLDPE)
PE film can be purchased in different colours or transparent. In addition, there are different
thicknesses. This film is the most common plastic used today and is used for a wide range of
applications, including:
 Packing
 Label making
 Production of plastic products (such as plastic bags)
 Covering machinery and equipment
 Protection of surfaces in painting
 Of course, the primary material of stretch film and nylon shrink is usually polyethylene, and
different manufacturing methods cause distinct characteristics. Polyethylene is the first choice
for making packaging films in industries.
Advantages of polyethylene film
As explained in the previous section, PE film is the most widely used product in the packaging
industry. In addition to the low price, polyethylene has many advantages that make it at the top of this
list.
 Excellent protection, no leakage and excellent heat sealing
 Lightweight and easy to transport
 Soft and resistant structure
 Excellent flexibility
 Impact resistant
  Ability to produce in different colours, transparencies and thicknesses
 Easy processing and affordable price
 Excellent resistance to moisture
Low density polyethylene (LDPE) film is transparent to translucent, highly flexible and has
comparatively low permeability to water vapours, but it is fairly permeable to oxygen, carbon dioxide
or odours. HDPE film is translucent to opaqueand comparatively less permeable to water vapours and
gases. It is fairly oil and grease resistant as compared to LDPE.. This material changes its shape when
exposed to heat and can take a new shape many times without losing its structure and strength. LDPE
is a semi-crystalline thermoplastic with a nearly compact molecular structure. This film has many
advantages, but what makes it popular is its soft, flexible nature and high adaptability for use in
making different materials.
Advantages of low-density polyethylene film
The primary material of the film, LDPE, has been used in producing other materials, such as stretch
film and nylon shrink. This film is easily recyclable, thus significantly reducing our environmental
concerns.
 Affordable price
 A poor conductor of electricity
 Excellent resistance to high temperature
 Excellent chemical resistance
 Good flexibility
 Impact resistant
For example, low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is soft, puncture-resistant, highly transparent, and
heat-sealable, making it an ideal choice for product packaging, tubing, and auto parts packaging.
Slightly denser LDPE models are used to produce packaging bags for sharper objects.
black or yellow polyethylene pouches and bags being used by the butchers. These are used and
recycled plastic films. Polyethylene and other plastic films thrown here and there are collected by the
scavengers. These are purchased by the plastic factory owners and converted into coloured bags after
adding dyes. These are not fit for packing any food item because they contain synthetic dye (colour),
which on prolonged use may cause cancer.
(c)Polyethylene wrap film
2- Polyolefin film (POF)
Polyolefin is a durable, widely used, FDA-approved, food-safe plastic. The main feature of this
material is its strength. Polyolefin film (POF) is thin yet strong, with high puncture resistance and
sealing strength. The structure of this film is such that irregularly shaped goods can be packaged
without any problems using it.POF is 100% recyclable and offers impressive transparency, making
products stand out more. Manufacturing companies may add tiny holes to the film during manufacture
to give it exceptional flexibility. Applications of polyolefin film are generally in the following
industries, although any product with small dimensions can be well packaged with it.
 Making toys
 Chocolate and candy covers
 Packing books, food and other small things
Advantages of polyolefin film
When producing this film, no harmful fumes are emitted during processing, and it is environmentally
friendly. On the other hand, it is entirely recyclable, so the production of new products from oil
sources is reduced. But this product has other advantages:
 High durability and excellent chemical resistance
 lightweight
 Excellent clarity and clarity
 Good resistance to weather changes
 Good tensile properties and tear resistance
 Abrasion resistant
 It has insulation and sealing properties
 Wide operating temperature range
 variety colouring
 Low-cost
(d)Polypropylene film (PP)
Polypropylene (PP) is a thermoplastic “additive polymer” made from a combination of propylene
monomers. This material has a high melting point, which makes it suitable for hot liquids. It is also
perfect for specific applications that require good chemical resistance. PP is mainly used directly in the
packaging industry and is one of the most widely used packaging films. Of course, this material is also
used in electrical equipment production, household appliances and automotive industries.
Polypropylene has a variety of uses, such as packaging consumer products, making plastic parts for the
automotive industry, and producing special devices. Of course, polypropylene film is often used as the
outer layer in multi-layer packagings, such as bags with polyethylene. Yogurt containers, take-out
foods, medicine bottles, etc., are other items made of PP.
The advantages of polypropylene film
PP film can be produced in different ways, and for this reason, it shows different properties, but the
following advantages are valid for all its derivatives.
 Excellent heat resistance
 High melting point
 Suitable for food packaging
 Good and stable adhesion
 Excellent hardness and scratch resistance
 Proper transparency
(e) Polyvinyl chloride or PVC film
As PVC is reliable and lightweight, it helps the packaging maintain the integrity of the products. Of
course, compared to other films, this film has a fragile structure. Also, its manufacturing process is
associated with releasing toxic fumes, which is harmful to the workforce, and its factories must have
proper ventilation.Typical applications of PVC include various applications in the construction and
building industries as well as healthcare, electronics, automotive and other similar sectors. PVC is
used in plumbing and siding products, blood bags, and wire and cable insulation.
Advantages of PVC film
PVC is a thin thermoplastic film available in various shapes and coatings. Depending on the
requirements and constraints of the industry, it can show different strengths or flexibility. This flexible
nature has led to its use in various industries.PVC is highly resistant to fire due to its high chlorine
content. When burning, it does not ignite easily or produce much heat. However, since it can release
harmful chemicals when melted or burned, appropriate precautions should be taken to reduce the risk
of adverse health effects if used in industries where the material is used in operations involving flame
or high temperatures.
 Lasting and durable
 Resistant to damage caused by environmental conditions
 Suitable for use in harsh weather conditions
  Non-conductive (non-conductive)
 Fire resistant
(f)Thin plastic CPP film
The word CPP is abbreviated (Cast Unoriented Polypropylene) and is a plastic derived from
polypropylene. CPP film is suitable for traditional and modern packaging applications, from side-seal
pouches to stand-up pouches for textile and food packaging and document protection. CPP plastic has
the advantages of low moisture permeability, good heat resistance, thermal sealing, etc. It can make
moisture-proof, heat-resistant, non-toxic and odourless packaging.
(g) OPP packaging film
OPP stands for oriented polypropylene and is a type of propylene film. OPP is a flexible, colourless,
odourless, tasteless, non-toxic packaging material with high tensile strength, impact strength and
transparency. The production method of OPP film is that the molten polypropylene polymer is first
made into a thick sheet or film through a long and narrow series. Then it is placed in a unique
stretching device simultaneously or step by step at a specific temperature and speed. This film is made
by stretching in two vertical directions (longitudinal and transverse) after cooling or appropriate heat
treatment or special processing.
(h)Polyamide usually called Nylon film in the trade is inert, heat resistant and has excellent
mechanical properties. Nylon-6 is a tasteless and odourless film and thus ideal for use in the packaging
of fresh and processed foods. It can be sterilized by steam. It is used for making laminates of good
inertness and low permeability. It has excellent gas barrier properties.
(i) Polyester film is also inert and has excellent strength. It is widely used in lamination as outer,
abrasion resistance layer for food pouches. Polyethylene terepthalate (PET), a polyester of importance
is sold in United States of America by the name of Mylar. Mylar is highly resistant to high temperature
and can be handled in thin gauges. That's why it is used in lamination with aluminum foil.
Plastic bag
(j)- MOPP packaging film
MOPP stands for Monoaxially Oriented Polypropylene and is a uniaxial polypropylene film. The
direction of tension is the mechanical direction. Mechanical direction has high tensile strength,
lightweight, transparency, non-toxic, moisture resistance and good unidirectional tear
performance.The MOPP film production method is casting. A plastic extruder first melts the prepared
plastic in the casting method. It is then extruded through a T-shaped structure that forms the mould
and is cast as a sheet onto the rolling surface of a smoothly rotating cooling roller. Casting products
have superior performance and high production efficiency and are suitable for mass production.
(k) BOPP plastic film
BOPP stands for Biaxially Oriented Polypropylene, a biaxial polypropylene film. The anti-water
vapour property of BOPP film has made it one of the best packaging films. BOPP film is produced so
that the dense molecular polypropylene melt first passes through the extruder. After it passes through
the T-die series, it is condensed into a sheet and then in a special stretching device simultaneously in
both longitudinal and transverse directions. Extends And finally, films are produced after cooling.
(l) Biaxial polyethylene (BOPE)
BOPE, short for Bi-axially-oriented Polyethylene, is the ideal solution for packaging products that
require a high degree of protection. Some of the best features of this film are good puncture resistance,
excellent heat tolerance, durability, moisture-proof construction and high transparency. The cost of
making these films is relatively low.Today, BOPE films are innovative solutions often used for items
such as shopping bags, pharmaceutical packaging, and liquids and spices. Because these films are
recyclable, they help companies stay true to the environmental sustainability commitments made to
consumers. In addition, despite the long list of advantages, these films are inexpensive.
(m) Biaxial polyethylene terephthalate (BOPT)
Abbreviated as BOPET (Biaxially-oriented Polyethylene Terephthalate), films are usually white or
transparent and were first developed in the mid-1950s. The raw material of the film is stretched
polyethylene terephthalate (PET). It is known for its transparency, reflectivity, high tensile strength,
chemical and dimensional stability, gas and odour resistance properties, and electrical insulation.This
material is widely used as a surface film in laminates. When you laminate the packaging of any
product using BOPET foil, you protect the food from oxidation. Food products do not lose their
authentic flavour and can last longer. One of the most common ones is coffee foil packaging and bags
for ready meals.
(n) Biaxially Oriented Polyamide (BOPA)
Like BOPET, BOPA film is known for its excellent tensile strength, durability, odour barrier and
puncture resistance properties. But its most important feature is high transparency. Also, this film is a
good barrier against oxygen and some chemicals. BOPA is ideal for packaging frozen and cooked
food, vegetables, aquatic animals and medical machines, electronic products, etc. They are also
suitable for agricultural products and some medical products.
(o)Laminates
Laminate film is almost too common for food packaging. Flavoured beverages, such as sauces, canned
foods and powders, are often in multi-layer packaging. These films usually consist of a multi-layer
structure where one of the polymer or paper layers is covered with aluminium or metal films.
Laminates are an excellent barrier to prevent food from losing its flavour.

2.3.2 Aluminum Foil Plain aluminum foil is used for packaging food products. Thin guage aluminum
foil with pin holes are generally laminated to paper or plastic film with bonding agent to make suitable
laminates. These laminates are used to package food products requiring protection against light, water
vapour and gases especially dehydrated cooked meat. One disthict advantage of using aluminum foil
as the outer layer of a laminate is that it provides a very good base for colourful and decorative
printing.
2.3.3 Paper
Glassine is smooth, dense, transparent or semi-transparent paper manufactured primarily from
chemical wood pulps. It has good resistance to grease and air..A plasticizer may be added to make the
paper still more soft and machinable. It may be waxed, lacquered or laminated to be impervious to the
transmission of moisture .vapour. This is used for wrappir~g fatty cuts and bacon.
Parchment paper has good grease resistance and high wet strength. These papers are sometimes used
to wrapping bacon and other fatty cuts of meat. Following are different terms used in trade:
Frozen foods paper is a type of high moisture and water vapour resistant paper used - for inner liners
in frozen food packaging; usually specially treated glassine or bleached chemical wood papers, waxed
papers, or plain or coated vegetable parchment paper; pliable and strong to resist cracking at freezing
temperatures and for high wet strength. Meat wrapping paper is a specially treated odourless and
tasteless paper that resists meat juices, fat and greases, and is easy to remove from any kind of meat.
Delicatessen paper is used as an inner wrap for meats and for soft foods to retain the moisture in the
food and to prevent the outer wrapper from becoming water - or grease soaked. It is made from
bleached chemical wood pulp and may be given a dry parafT"n
wax treatment of about 10 to 20 - per cent of the weight of the paper.

2.4 SEMI-RIGID PACKAGING MATERIALS

A semi-rigid container is intended to maintain a definite form or shape and is not influenced
by the bulk of the contents.
Paper board sheets are cut, folded into desired form and glued. Comers can be made stronger. The
material can be made as set up paper board boxes or folding carton or tray as per the demand. It
provides convenience, strength and good product protection.
PET (polyethylene terepthalate) and PVC plastic sheets can be moulded in shape,size and colour to
suit specific product requirements. PET bottles and containers are extremely clear, virtually
unbreakable and very light weight. They are ideal for that packaging of pickled meat products. They
provide enhanced visual appeal to the products.
Plain aluminum foil of higher guage either alone or in combination with paper or plastic foils can be
pressure formed into desired shapes to serve as semi-rigid containers.for various types of food
products.
Moulded pulp containers are the cheapest packaging for the shell eggs. They allow wholesale trading
of eggs along with the tray.
2.5 RIGID PACKAGING MATERIALS
Glass containers are very old and versatile packages for food packaging. Glass has many unique
properties to our advantage. It is chemically inert and is an excellent barrier to solids, liquids and
gases. It can be molded in various shapes and sizes and also allows excellent product visibility. Glass
bottles are used for packaging meat pickles etc. The main drawbacks of glass containers are the risk of
breakage and comparatively heavy weight.
Metal cans are primarily used for commercially sterilized food products. Iron sheet usedefor making
can has very thin tin coating on either side. It is generally applied to check rusting and corrosion of
metal cans on long term storage. To make the metal can more suitable for food application, a further
very thin coating of enamel or lacquer is applied to the tin. For canning of meat products, a sulphur-
resistant lacquer is preferred to check black discolouration of the product. Can bodies are soldered or
welded. The product is hermatically (air tight) sealed in the can.
Rigid thermoformed plastic containers are made by exposing the plastic sheet to heat and forming
into various shapes either individual pieces or in combination. The plastic used in the thermoformed
trays are high density polyethylene, polypropylene or polyvinyl chloride. In developed countries,
thermoformed polystyrene foam trays are used for containing fresh meat pieces or chunks which is
then overwrapped with low density polyethylene.
Fibreboard containers, wooden boxes and plastic crates are used as wholesale or shipping containers.
QUALITY EVALUATION AND TESTING OF PACKAGING MATERIALS

I PHYSICAL TESTS
1. Mechanical Strength Testing: This assesses the physical strength and durability of packaging
materials through tests like tensile strength, puncture resistance, and tear resistance.
2. Flexibility and Rigidity Testing: It examines the flexibility or rigidity of materials to determine
their suitability for specific packaging applications.
3. Barrier Performance Testing: This evaluates the ability of packaging materials to resist the
transfer of gases, moisture, light, and odour.
4 Seal Integrity Testing: It verifies the quality and effectiveness of seals to ensure they are properly
formed and capable of maintaining product freshness and preventing leakage.
5 Compatibility Testing: It examines the interaction between packaging materials
and the packaged product to avoid chemical reactions or alterations in quality.
II CHEMICAL TESTS
1. Migration Testing: This analyses the potential migration of substances from packaging materials
into the food, ensuring compliance with safety regulations.
2 Chemical Resistance Testing: It determines the resistance of packaging materials to various
chemicals, preventing contamination or degradation of the packaged product.
3. Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) Testing: This identifies and quantifies the release of volatile
organic compounds from packaging materials, ensuring compliance with environmental and health
regulations.
III.MICROBIOLOGICAL TESTS
1. Microbial Growth Testing: It assesses the ability of packaging materials to resist microbial growth,
preventing contamination and extending the product's shelf life.
2. Sterility Testing: This ensures that packaging materials intended for sterile products are free from
microbial contamination
TESTING OF PACKAGING MATERIALS
1 Paper and Paper Board
The types of test for paper and paper boards are almost same. But there are certain test like stiffness
which is conducted for paper board only.Significance and Tests of Important Parameters
(a) Grammage
Significance : It specifies the mass of a unit area of a sheet of paper or paper board and it is expressed
in gms per square meter.
Test Method : The test method is described in Indian Standard 1060-Part-I (1987). Cut the test
specimen of size 10cm x 10cm and then take the weight in weighing balance. At least, ten readings are
taken and then take the average value and expressed in gms/square meter .
(b) Moisture Content
Significance : It is necessary to understand the presence of moisture content in paper which affect the
other properties of paper such as printing, absorbency etc.
Test Method : This test method is described in Indian Standard IS : 1060-PartI (1987).
(c) Thickness
Significance : This test is important to measure the thickness of an individual sheet which affect the
total thickness of board used in packaging.
Test Method : In the laboratory, the single sheet as test specimen is measuredat several points by
means of a micro meter and an average value is calculated.
(d) Bursting Strength
Significance : This test is performed to determine the resistance of a paperagainst to rupture in use.
Test Method : The apparatus generally used “the Jumbo Muller Tester” is either motor driven or hand
driven. The testing is done by means of hydraulic pressure communicated through the medium of
glycerin or by compressed air to a pure gum rubber diaphragm in contact with the paper. The test
values are expressed in kg/cm2 or pound/sq inch or kilo pascals.
(e) Water Absorption Test
ignificance : This gives an indication of resistance to water absorption (normally referred as cobb
value). In this, the quantity of water absorbed by a specified area of paper surface when in direct
contact with water over a period of time is measured.
(f) Breaking Length
Significance : It signifies that when a paper roll is hanged and allowed to fall,then the extent of the
length of paper at which the paper breaks on its own weight is measured in meter, and that is
expressed as breaking length.
Test Method : The breaking length is measured by the following formula :
Breaking Length (meter) 1000
Grammage
Tensile Strength = ×
(g) Stiffness to Bend
Significance : The test signifies the rigidity of the test sample. Normally, the test is carried out for
paper board.
Test Method : One end of the test specimen is clamped on jaws and then allow to bent at 15 degree
angle. Measure the force required to bent the sample without cracking, measures the resistance against
bending. Stiffness is expressed in either kenley or Taber or mN.
(h) Tear Resistance
Significance : The resistance against tearing of paper is measured.
Test Method : The specimens are clamped on the jaws of Elmendorf Tear
Tester. 25% of the specimen is cut by means of a knife inbuilt in the tear testing equipment. Then, the
pendulum is released to tear the balance 75% of the test specimen. The force required to tear the paper
is measured from the recording scale. The tear resistance is expressed as gms force.
PLASTIC FILMS AND LAMINATES
Significances and Tests of Important Parameters
(a) Caliper or Thickness
Significance : To measure the thickness of the film in millimeter or micrometer or micron.
Test Method : The centre portion of the test specimen is placed in between the flat jaws of micrometer
to check the uniformity of thickness.
(b) Density
Significance : To check the specific gravity or density or the ratio of mass upon volume.
(c) Tensile Strength and Elongation at Break
Significance : To measure the force require to break the test specimen while the samples are kept
under tension in between the jaws of tensile machine.
Test Method : Two ends of the test specimen are clamped in the machine at the grips separated by
50mm. Start the machine at the pre adjusted speed of 500 mm/min and note the load and elongation at
break. Tensile strength is expressed as kg/cm2 or Mn/m2 and elongation at break are expressed as
percentage.
(d) Dart Impact Resistance
Significance : To measure the impact resistance of the plastic film by measuring the load or dart at
which 50 percent of the specimen fail when tested by this method.
(e) Co-Efficient of Friction or Slip
Significance : It is the ratio of the frictional resistance to the normal pressure acting on two surfaces in
contact.
Test Method : A sled of 120 mm square is allowed to move over the plastic film and record the
frictional force acting at the contact surface. The value is expressed in Newton. Calculate the dynamic
coefficient of friction using the mean load represented by the straight line.
(f) Determination of Gloss
Significance : To measure the percentage of reflectance of light at a particular angle where the angle of
incident light and the angle of reflectant light will be the same. This is an optical property of plastic
film.
Test Method : The gloss meter is set up to 450 . Take reading with plastic film by replacing the
standard used for calibrating the instruments. Repeat the test for five times with different specimens. It
is expressed as specular gloss at 450
.(g) Determination of Haze
Significance : The haze of the specimen is the percentage of transmitted light which is passing through
the specimen deviates from the incident beam by forward scattering. This is also an optical property of
the film
PAKAGING MATERIALS AND OTHER FOOD INGREDIENTS
Test Method : Illuminate the specimen by unidirectional beam making an angle with the direction of
its axis not exceeding
Determine the reading with haze meter and then expressed in percentage.
(h) Peel Bond Strength for Flexible Laminate
Significance : To measure the tackiness between the two substrate of the laminate in terms of force.
 Test Method : The two ends of the test specimen where one end clamped at the jaws of Tensile
machine by keeping the gauge length of 50 mm. Run the test at the speed of 300 mm/min and record
the force in gm/15 mm width and then calculate the average from the graph. (13.5.3 Aluminium Foils
Significance and Tests of Important Parameters
(a) Thickness or Caliper
Significance : To measure the thickness of the aluminum foil or web.
Test Method : Properly calibrated dead weight micrometer is used to measure
thickness.
(b) Pin Hole Test
Significance : To ascertain the number of pinhole exists in the aluminum foil.
Test Method : The aluminum foil is checked by means of an illumination equipment where a tungsten
lamp is positioned in a cylindrical structure and all the surroundings are covered with black paper. The
test specimens are placed at the top end of the cylinder and then observed the pinholes against the
light.

Packaging Equipment

Packaging equipment refers to machinery designed to enclose and safeguard products by placing them
into containers for purposes such as sale, distribution, shipping, storage, and usage. This machinery
plays a crucial role in the marketing process by ensuring that products are presented with the
appropriate image and design. Essentially, packaging equipment streamlines and accelerates the
process of encasing products in protective containers or wraps.
Packaging Equipment Functions

Packaging is crucial for safeguarding products, and today it is largely accomplished using specialized
machinery. These machines are increasingly important and perform several key functions, including:

Improve labor productivity. Some machine packaging equipment is a lot quicker than manual
packaging. One good example is the candy packing equipment, as hundreds and thousands of candy
may be wrapped in minutes.

 Ensuring packaging quality. Mechanical packaging is mostly important for exported products to obtain
reliable packaging.
 Handle specialized needs, like inflatable packaging, skin packaging, vacuum packaging, and pressure
packaging.
 Reduce labor and better working conditions for heavy or bulky goods.
 Protect employees from health problems brought by toxic or hazardous products, dust, and avoid
environmental contamination.
 Reduce packaging expenses and save storage expenses for loose goods, such as tobacco, cotton, linen,
silk, etc., by easily utilizing compression packaging.
 Reliably ensure good hygiene by eradicating hand contact with medicines and food.
.The various types of packaging machines include strapping machines, pallet wrappers, carton and
container sealers, and industrial scales. Also included are sorting, counting, and accumulating
machines as well as machines that close and seal products with glue, caps, corks, heat seal, and other
methods.Packaging equipment comes in various specialized forms, making it challenging to categorize
them into a single group. Each type of packaging requirement is met with distinct machinery, and
some machines are designed for specific, unique applications.Packaging equipment comes in various
specialized forms, making it challenging to categorize them into a single group. Each type of
packaging requirement is met with distinct machinery, and some machines are designed for specific,
unique applications.

TYPES

Transitioning from manual to semi-automatic and fully automated packaging systems provides various
advantages for packagers. Beyond reducing labor costs, automation can enhance quality consistency
and improve overall throughput.Advancements in packaging automation increasingly involve the use
of robotics and programmable logic controllers.Large completely automatic packaging operations can
include several parts of major machinery from different manufacturers, also conveyors and ancillary
machinery. Joining such systems may be a challenge. Often external engineering firms or consulting
firms are utilized to coordinate huge projects

Accumulators are used to collect items, while batching machines prepare products for further
processing or packaging. Additionally, bagging, banding, sleeving, and box-making machines handle
different aspects of the packaging process.

Bundling machines arrange items into groups for banding or wrapping, capping machines apply caps,
and carton machines produce cartons. Closing machines seal packages, and bottling machines fill
bottles, which are then processed by batching machines and wrapped in plastic by wrapping machines
before being placed on pallets for additional wrapping.
Filling Machines
Filling machines or fillers are utilized for packaging, mostly for beverage and food but for other
products also. These are used to fill either a pouch or a bottle, depending on the product. The
following are the most popular.
Auger or Agitator Filler
Augers and agitator fillers are designed for dispensing dry powders such as flour and sugar. These
fillers feature a cone-shaped hopper that stores the powder and uses an auger conveyor, managed by
the agitator, to transfer it into pouches.
Auger Filler
The powder is placed into a pouch, typically made from poly or paper, which is formed using a collar.
The pouch is then sealed through a series of dies and heaters. The interface where the powder is
applied plays a crucial role in ensuring effective filling.
Vibratory Weigh Fillers
These systems provide a combination of speed, flexibility, and precision for linear feeders. Each
weighing hopper is designed to meet the demands for accurate measurement.

Flow Fillers
Designed for handling oils, liquids, and thin edible products, these fillers operate by filling containers
like tubs or bottles that are fed into the machine. After filling, the open bottles are transferred to
another conveyor system for sealing.
Tablet Fillers
These fillers are designed for products that are counted by units rather than weight. They are suitable
for small bottles, similar to other flow fillers. The hopper is configured to enable the counting of
individual items such as candy pieces or tablets through scanning.
Positive Displacement Pump Filler
Positive displacement pump filling machines are versatile, managing various container sizes, fill
volumes, and product types. Initially designed for gels, lotions, and creams, these fillers are also
suitable for water-like liquids and thin pastes.This machinery efficiently handles a range of products,
including thick sauces, cosmetic creams, hair conditioners, viscous shampoos, honey, paste cleaners,
hair gels, and car wax.
Vertical Form Fill Sealing Machine
Vertical form fill seal machinery is an automated packaging system commonly used in the food
industry, as well as for various other products. This machine converts flat film rolls into stand-up
pouches and plastic bags while simultaneously filling and sealing them. It is capable of packaging both
liquid and solid products.The machine operates with a continuous roll of flat plastic film, which may
have labels and artwork applied either on the inside or outside. While plastic is the predominant
material used in food packaging, the machine can also be adapted to process metalized paper, film/foil,
and fabric by modifying the edge seaming and sealing techniques. For other products, the film might
undergo a sterilizing chemical wash and drying process before being used in the packaging system.
Cartoning Machines
Cartoning machinery, also known as a cartoner, is designed to create cartons by folding, erecting,
sealing, and side-seaming them. This equipment converts flat carton board blanks into fully assembled
cartons that can be filled with products or bags. After filling, the machine uses slots or tabs to apply
adhesive and completely seal both ends of the cartons.
Cartoning machines can be categorized into two main types:
Horizontal cartoning machines
Vertical cartoning machines
One type of cartoning machine picks individual folded cartons from stacks, erects them, and fills them
with products or bags of products through the open ends. The cartons are then closed by tucking in the
end flaps or applying adhesive or glue. Products can be inserted using pressurized air or mechanical
sleeves, or manually in some cases. This type of machinery is commonly used for packaging items
such as confectionery, food products, pharmaceuticals, miscellaneous goods, and cosmetics.
Pallet Wrappers or Stretch Wrappers
Pallet wrappers are widely used in packaging lines around the world. They offer significant cost
savings compared to manual wrapping, leveraging the stretch capabilities of stretch film to ensure both
time and cost efficiency.
A stretch wrapper helps ensure that exact load containment for wrapping operation is being used. For
load containment, three variables are considered:
The amount of layers or wraps on the load
The wrapping force
The thickness or gauge of the film
Turntable Wrapper
This machine operates by placing a pallet on a rotating turntable. As the turntable spins, a wrap
application system wraps the stretch film around the load, typically starting at the bottom and moving
up to the top before returning to the bottom.
Turntable Wrapper
Turntable wrappers are among the most commonly used stretch wrapping machines and can be
configured to efficiently handle a variety of applications.
Straddle Wrapper
In straddle wrappers, the load remains stationary while the wrap application system rotates around it.
This type of wrapper is effective for wrapping both lightweight and heavy, unstable loads and can
handle a range of volumes from low to high.

Orbital Wrapper
Orbital wrappers, sometimes called "ringer" wrappers, wrap the pallet by moving under and over the
load as it progresses through the machine on a conveyor. These wrappers are particularly useful for
packaging irregularly shaped or flat products, such as rolled carpets, pipes, and windows.
Ring Straddle Wrapper
These high-speed wrappers can typically handle up to 200 loads per hour and are commonly used in
the beverage and toiletry industries. Although highly specialized, they represent a small fraction of the
stretch wrapping machinery currently in operation.In these machines, the load remains stationary
while the wrapping system rotates around the pallet.
Shrink Tunnels
A shrink tunnel is a key component in many packaging lines. When set to the appropriate temperature,
it effectively shrinks a shrink film around a product. The process involves passing a product wrapped
in shrink film through a hot tunnel, which causes the heat-sensitive film to contract uniformly around
the item.Airflow within the machinery prevents the products from overheating. For items that are
particularly heat-sensitive, special heat-sensing tapes are used to determine if the product is suitable
for packaging with a heat tunnel.
If the tapes indicate that the heat tunnel is not suitable for the product, packaging professionals can
suggest alternative packaging methods.
Carded Packaging Machines
These machines encase products in a plastic shell, which is supported by either a blister board or
another plastic piece. The three main types of carded packaging are skin packs, blister packs, and
clamshells. Skin packs and blister packs feature plastic shells with blister board backers, while
clamshells are entirely made of plastic and close like their namesake shellfish.Carded packaging
options such as skin packs, blister packs, and clamshells offer both protection and visual appeal that
might not be achieved otherwise. Blister packs are commonly used for fishing lures as they protect the
hooks while providing a clear view of the product inside.
Skin packaging is particularly effective for tools like wrenches, pliers, screwdrivers, and hammers.
Because skin packs conform to the shape of the product, they allow potential customers to examine the
contents closely and securely hold the item in place.

Blister Packaging Machines

These machines are available in both semi-automatic and automatic models. They feature rotating
sections that keep the plastic part of the blister pack securely in place.As the machinery rotates, empty
plastic shells are filled with the product either automatically or manually. After filling, blister board
backers are attached to the back of the plastic shells using glue, either by machine or by hand,
completing the blister pack.

Skin Pack Machines

Although blister packs and skin packs are similar, the machinery used to produce them differs
significantly. Skin pack machinery features a platform for supporting the backing substrate or blister
board, onto which the products are placed before packaging.The machine applies a heated, soft plastic
layer that molds over the products. Vacuum sealing is commonly used to ensure a snug fit. The
substrate then adheres to the heat-sealed layer on the cardboard.
Clamshell Machines
Blister packs and clamshell packs differ significantly. Clamshells are made from a single piece of
molded plastic with a hinge. They can be sealed using various methods, including staples, press-fit
closures, buttons, RF sealing, or heat.Clamshell machines feature an automatic lid-closing mechanism,
which, while efficient, requires a considerable amount of space.
Case Erectors
These machines are used to erect or unfold cardboard boxes for product filling. They come in manual,
automatic, and semi-automatic types. In manual machines, an operator unfolds the box, folds it, and
tapes the flaps either by hand or with a taping machine. Once prepared, the box is either passed to the
next worker or moved along a conveyor.
Case Erector
Semi-automatic erectors handle the second and third stages of the process automatically. A conveyor
machine guides the box through areas that shape it accurately. Once erected, the box is conveyed to a
stack either by another conveyor or by hand.An automatic case erector employs mechanical
components, such as a robotic arm, to retrieve a box from the pile, unfold it, and place it onto an
automatic conveyor. The box then travels through the conveyor, gets filled with products, and is sealed
either manually or by automated mechanisms.
PACKAGING EQUIPMENT
The different types of packaging equipment include:
Lasers for Packaging
CO2 lasers, in particular, are highly efficient for processing packaging materials such as paper,
cardboard, wood and its derivatives, as well as plastics and their derivatives.
Laser Cut
The laser beam vaporizes material along a defined path, with the quality of the cut varying depending
on the material. CO2 laser cuts produce clean edges on many surfaces, often eliminating the need for
additional finishing and making the final piece ready for use.
Paper Laser Cutting
Laser cutting is used to create openings and windows in packages, add features such as easy-to-open
tabs and tear openings, design filtering systems, and cut parts of packages for assembly at a later stage.
Laser Engraving and Marking
Laser engraving and marking both use lasers to imprint marks on materials, though the processes
differ slightly. Laser marking involves a superficial change to the material, resulting in a permanent
but decolorized mark. In contrast, laser engraving involves a deeper transformation, creating a more
pronounced and tactile inscription on the material.
Fiber Laser Marking
Lasers enable manufacturers to engrave logos with exceptional detail, providing a permanent mark.
They can also be used to print production batches or expiry dates directly onto packaging.
Package Label
A label is a piece of plastic film, paper, metal, cloth, or other material attached to a product or
container, on which is printed or written symbols or information about the product. Packaging might
have labeling affixed to or integrated with the package.These labels can display a range of information
including barcodes, pricing, UPC codes, usage instructions, advertising, addresses, and recipes. They
can also be used to help prevent pilferage or tampering.
Pallets for Packages
A pallet is a flat platform used to support and stabilize packages during lifting with equipment such as
pallet jacks, forklifts, front loaders, cranes, or jacking devices. It forms the structural foundation for
unit loads, enhancing storage and handling efficiency. Goods or shipping containers are often placed
on pallets and secured with stretch wrap, strapping, or shrink wrap before being shipped.Pallets are
highly compatible with contemporary packaging solutions, including intermodal containers and
corrugated boxes commonly used for bulk shipping. Although many pallets are made of wood, they
can also be constructed from paper, plastic, metal, or recycled materials.
Marking Process
Marking refers to the identification, description, instructions, warnings, specifications, weight, or UN
markings required on the external packaging of dangerous materials or hazardous goods. It serves the
same purpose as labeling.
Collaborative Robots
A collaborative robot is a double or single robotic arm which can be trained to imitate motions or
gestures. These robots repeat the operation over and over again. Some of these robots improve on the
trained gestures. After learning from repeating motions, they learn to carry out better work.
These robots are equipped with safety features, including sensors that detect when a human enters a
collaborative area. In such cases, the robot slows down or stops completely. Once the human leaves
the area, the robot resumes its tasks. Many companies use collaborative robots in packaging to
improve efficiency and help get products onto store shelves.
Packaging Suction Cups
Packaging suction cups are used to move and position a variety of packaged materials. When pressed
against a container, they create a vacuum that grips the container, allowing it to be lifted by a robotic
or mechanical arm. These suction cups work with lifting devices programmed to transfer materials
from one location to another.The design of packaging suction cups allows them to lift materials even if
their surfaces are oily or damp. Various types, such as flat concave, bellows, and long bellows suction
cups with extended thin lips, are effective for handling corrugated cardboard and boxes.Packaging
suction cups are made from a range of materials, including nitrile, neoprene, polyurethane, silicone,
Viton, vinyl, and natural rubber. Natural rubber is particularly suitable for gripping, pulling, and
feeding items.
Types of packaging suction cups include:
Flat - Flat suction cups have a round shape and are suited for handling flat pieces of material. Their
flat surface allows them to grip objects quickly and efficiently.
Flanged - Flanged suction cups have a flange attached to the cup. They can be used as spacers during
the movement of fragile materials. The size of flanges on flanged suction cups varies according to the
application where they will be used.
Bellow - Bellows suction cups have an oval shape for the movement of long and narrow packages.
They are ideal for handling packaging of different heights, uneven surfaces, and fragile items.
Push-In - Push-in suction cups are easy to mount on a pipe, robotic arm, or hose barb. They have a
large orifice for quick attachment and release.
Flower - Flower suction cups have thin wavy lips that securely attach cardboard, lightweight thin
plastics, and even or uneven surfaces. They form a vacuum that has a strong hold without crushing or
damaging products.
The five suction cup types mentioned above are among the most commonly used for packaging. For
specialized or unique packaging materials, manufacturers can design and engineer custom suction cups
to suit specific applications. The popularity of packaging suction cups is attributed to their gentle,
smooth, and efficient handling of packaged materials.
Important Considerations for Purchasing Packaging Machinery
A summary of considerations when purchasing packaging equipment are:
 Type of product being packaged
 Product shape, weight, and dimensions
 Objectives for color and labeling
 Can film be printed to meet requirements?
 Way of packaging product into the flexible film
 Product journey from conception to shipping to the shelving and beyond
 Will it be handled frequently and/or put to rough handling
 The types of environments/climates it will experience
 Whether it needs specific film additions to keep it fresh
 Requirements for security and anti-tampering of the completed good

BENEFITS OF PACKAGING EQUIPMENT

Packaging equipment offers several advantages, including:
Production – A comprehensive packaging line can significantly influence a company's success,
particularly when handling large quantities of products quickly. Although the initial investment in
such machinery can be substantial, it is often justified by the efficiency and quality improvements it
brings over time.
Total Cost of Ownership – One of the key factors to evaluate is the total cost of ownership. Effective
packaging machines can reduce the need for a large workforce, leading to lower labor costs. Despite
their high purchase price, when compared to manual labor, automated machinery often proves to be a
more cost-effective solution in the long run.
Speed – Automated packaging systems can process a higher number of packages per hour compared
to manual methods. For businesses where rapid product delivery is crucial, having efficient packaging
machinery is essential for maintaining competitive advantage.
Reliability – Unlike human workers, packaging machines do not require personal time off, sick leave,
or vacations. While occasional mechanical failures may occur, these can typically be addressed with
routine maintenance. This reliability helps prevent costly downtime and inefficiencies, ultimately
saving both time and money.
Disadvantages of Packaging Equipment
Some of the disadvantages of packaging equipment include:
Cost – The addition of packaging can significantly increase production expenses and, consequently,
the retail price of products. In certain sectors, such as cosmetics, packaging can account for up to 40%
of the product's final selling price. Developing new packaging solutions can also be expensive,
impacting the overall product cost.
Landfill Impact – Packaging contributes heavily to waste production. In the USA, it is responsible for
approximately one-third of municipal waste. Although some packaging materials can be recycled,
many cannot. For instance, recycled plastics are often not used for food packaging, despite their
origins. As a result, a substantial portion of packaging waste ends up in landfills.
Production Footprint – Increased packaging results in higher resource consumption. For example,
the production of shopping bags in the USA consumes around 12 million barrels of oil annually, while
over 10 million barrels are used for manufacturing water bottles. The production process also requires
energy, often derived from fossil fuels, and can contribute to water and air pollution.

PACKAGING SYSTEMS/METHODS

Types of Packaging:

Primary Packaging: Protecting the Product Directly

 Packaging that directly protects or houses the product is known as primary packaging. This is the main
layer between the consumer and the product, and oftentimes primary packaging houses the product
while it is in use. Primary packaging is any packaging that is in direct contact with the product. This
type of packaging preserves, contains, and protects the product. Primary packaging is also where you
would find labels with important information for the consumer, such as the ingredients or any toxicity
warnings.

Primary Packaging Examples

Several components of a product’s packaging can be considered primary packaging. For example, a
cosmetic lotion is housed in a bottle, and it also contains a label and lid. All three components, the
bottle, label, and lid, are considered primary packaging.

The packaging of a technology product, like a phone that comes packaged in a corrugated fiberboard
box, in this case, the cardboard box and all the subsequent components protecting the phone, would be
considered the primary packaging. These primary packaging materials are the final barriers between
the product and the consumer.

Some other examples of primary packaging include:

 Protective film
 Glass bottles
 Protective plastic bags
 Glass jars
 Metal cans
 Tin cans
 Wrappers
 Skin packs
 Flexible pouches
 Blister packs
 Kraft paper around food items
The main purpose of primary packaging is to contain, protect, and provide important information
about the product to consumers. It should be designed to fulfill this purpose effectively while
emphasizing the visual appeal and brand identity to attract consumers and stand out from the
competition. Primary packaging also plays a vital role in keeping consumable products, such as food
and medications, safe from contamination.

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED WHILE SELECTING PRIMARY PACKAGING MATERIALS

When discussing primary packaging material considerations, you're delving into the initial layer of
packaging that directly contains and protects the product. This packaging is critical not just for
protection but also for information, compliance, and user experience, so the type of material you use
will have a significant impact. Here are some top considerations:

Product Compatibility

The chosen material must be compatible with the product to prevent reactions that could degrade the
product or the packaging. For instance, acidic products may require specific barrier properties to avoid
corroding the package, while food items will require packaging that is deemed safe for consumables.

Protection and Preservation

Primary packaging should effectively shield the product from environmental elements like moisture,
oxygen, and light that could cause degradation over time. Additionally, it must offer physical
protection against harm brought on by handling and transportation. You’ll want to perform thorough
testing to ensure that your packaging is suitable for your products.

Regulatory Compliance

Depending on the industry and the geographical location, there may be regulations governing
packaging materials. For food safety and pharmaceutical products, packaging materials need to
comply with safety standards set by regulatory bodies like the FDA in the United States or the EMA in
Europe. Additionally, many hazardous materials require UN rated packaging to ensure safe handling
and transportation.

Sustainability

With increasing awareness of environmental issues, selecting sustainable packaging materials that are
recyclable, biodegradable, or derived from renewable resources can be a significant consideration.
This aspect not only appeals to eco-conscious consumers but can also help companies meet corporate
sustainability goals.

Barrier Properties

Primary packaging material needs to have the appropriate barrier properties to protect the product
from various elements, including gases, vapors, and liquids. Different products will have different
requirements. For example, perishable goods might need a high barrier to oxygen to extend shelf life.

User Convenience
The ease of use for the end consumer is crucial. This includes considerations like resealability, ease of
opening, and the ability to dispense the product efficiently. Packaging that enhances user experience
can significantly impact consumer satisfaction. However, if usability is challenging, it can result in lost
sales and reflect poorly on the brand.

Cost-Effectiveness

While it's essential to meet all the product's protective and regulatory needs, a cost-effective packaging
solution is essential. This means considering the material cost, production, and filling process
efficiency, and the impact of the packaging design on shipping costs.
Brand Presentation
The primary packaging is often the first point of physical interaction between the finished product and
the consumer. It needs to accurately reflect the brand image, attract the customer's attention, and
communicate essential information about the product.
Tamper Evidence
For many products, especially in the food and pharmaceutical sectors, packaging must provide
evidence if tampering has occurred. This can be achieved through the use of tamper-evident seals.
Shelf Life Extension
The right packaging materials can help extend a product's shelf life by protecting against degradation
factors. This is particularly important for food products and pharmaceuticals, where the quality and
safety of the product over time are essential. Utilizing the right packaging materials can shield these
products from external influences, preserving the integrity and quality of the product inside.
SECONDARY PACKAGING: Enhancing protection and presentation
Secondary packaging is the second layer of packaging for the product, following the primary
packaging. This layer of packaging serves multiple purposes, but its main function is to provide
additional protection for transporting and storing products. It helps keep bulk products organized and
provides an additional layer for branding and marketing by using printed graphics, text, and artwork
on the packaging material.In industries like food, cosmetics, over-the-counter medications, and
beverages, secondary packaging is frequently used. It simplifies the processes of unitizing, labeling,
and palletizing. Secondary packaging is widely used from both logistically practical and aesthetic
perspectives.Secondary packaging also plays a crucial role in transporting goods from the
manufacturer to the retailer or consumer. When not intended to be visible to the end user, it can serve a
more utilitarian purpose than aesthetics or marketing. The ideal secondary packaging should provide
adequate protection for the product while being easy to open, allowing employees easy access to the
product for restocking without causing damage.
Other types of packaging that can serve as secondary packaging include:
• Pouches
• Plastic bags
• Paper packaging
• Bubble mailers
• Trays
• Cartons
• Paperboard boxes and other paperboard packaging
• Bubble wrap
• Gift packaging
Functions of Secondary Packaging
Secondary packaging’s primary function is to provide additional protection for the primary packaging.
It also allows retailers to display products more effectively for consumers to buy while serving as
another place for brand messaging to be communicated to customers.
Tertiary Packaging: Ensuring Safe Transportation and Handling
Tertiary packaging includes shipping containers, transit packaging, and boxes used to ship products to
retailers or consumers. It is durable and designed to group multiple items into one load for transport.
This packaging is usually discarded before a product is shown to a customer unless the product ships
directly to the customer.Tertiary Packaging Examples. Some common packaging materials that are
used in tertiary packaging include:
• Corrugated cardboard boxes
• Rigid boxes
• Wood pallets
• Stretch film and shrink film
• Shipping and transit containers

Functions of Tertiary Packaging:

The primary function of tertiary packaging is holding products during shipping. It provides additional
protection of the product by encasing the secondary and primary packaging in the transit process.The
primary materials for tertiary packaging are wood, plastic, and cardboard. There are many factors to
consider to help reduce your shipping cost, but the following considerations are a good place to start:•
 Weight considerations: Since most shipping involves weighing the product, considering the
weight of the packaging will help make the process more affordable.
 Ease of Use: Tertiary packaging needs to be simple to put together, fill, and close for efficient
shipping operations.
 Eco-Friendly Materials: Using recyclable materials, like paper-based materials or plant-based
materials, allows your brand to lessen your carbon footprint.
 .Right-Sized Packaging: Choose tertiary packaging that is properly sized for the products it
contains to reduce weight and waste. Remember that this type of packaging comes in all
different shapes to properly hold your item.
TRADITIONAL PACKAGING SYSTEM
Glass
Glass is a common packaging material which is used mostly for packaging processed foods especially
where moisture and oxygen barrier is mostly required . The significant advantage of glass packaging is
it does not impact odour to the product and it is resistant to moisture. It gives pleasant physical
appearance that adds values in marketing prospects . The raw materials like soda ash, sand and
limestone used for making glass containers are molten with temperatures more than 1500 ℃ and
formed with compressed air. The hot glass is heated by an annealing oven to about 600 ℃ and cooled
down slowly to 60 ℃ to ensure an even cooling. The high energy impact and the carbon dioxide
vapours out of the glass during the process can cause high Global warming impact .
Paper and cardboard
Wood, plants, recycled paper and cardboard waste are used to make paper and cardboard . Paper has
an environmental label linked .to it, making it the preferred material in the food industry based on its
grade, smoothness and treatment given to pulp and paper . With good mechanical strength, flexibility,
lightweight, recyclability, and low cost, paper and cardboard are popular green packaging materials.
They are mostly made of cellulose, a biodegradable and compostable material. This polysaccharide is
a biopolymer that is renewable, water-insoluble, and biodegradable .
Metal
Aluminium, tin plate, tin-free steel, stainless steel, and metal-based packaging products in rigid and
semi-rigid forms, like cans, foil wraps, and retort pouches, are the most often used metals for food
packaging applications . Tinplate and aluminium are the most popular metals used in food packaging.
Although aluminium is one of the safest packing materials, it can be easily affected by acidity. These
metals come into touch with a wide range of foods and beverages, so a greater understanding of their
behaviour as packaging materials is required, especially in crucial applications . Coatings derived from
oil (e.g., lipids, petroleum) are used by the metal packaging industries to protect metal containers. It
may then be assumed that the manufacturing procedures of synthetic resins like epoxy based used in
food coatings, produce significant CO2 emissions .
Plastic
Plastics are most commonly used for a wide range of food packaging applications. Food packaging
containers that were formerly made of conventional materials were increasingly manufactured using
plastics, allowing for better food preservation . Plastic packaging is becoming more popular, owing to
the desire to reduce food waste and rising demand as a result of population development and market
expansion. However, there are growing concerns about the environmental and human health
consequences. Littering and the accumulation of nondegradable plastics in the environment, the
production of secondary microplastics and nano plastics, and the release of hazardous chemicals
during manufacturing process and use, as well as, incineration, or improper disposal, all contribute to
environmental pollution .
SMART PACKAGING METHODS
4.1 Aseptic packaging

Aseptic packaging is a method in which food is sterilized or commercially sterilized outside of the can,
usually in a continuous process, and then aseptically placed in previously sterilized containers which
are subsequently sealed in an aseptic environment. After cooling, the sterile food product is pumped to
an aseptic packaging system where the food is filled and hermetically sealed into previously sterilized
containers. Aseptically processed foods can be packaged in the same types of containers used for
retorted foods. However, another advantage of aseptically processed foods is that they can be
packaged in containers that do not have to survive the conditions of a retort. These include
LDPE/Pb/LDPE/AL/LDPE laminate cartons and multilayer plastic flexible packaging that has cost
and convenience advantages.

The disadvantage of these packages is that they are not as easily recycled as metal and glass
containers. Aseptic filling systems have also been developed for HDPE and PET bottles. Aseptic
filling of PET containers may have a cost advantage over hot filling of heat-set PET containers.
Another advantage of aseptically processed foods is that they can be filled into drums, railroad tank
cars, tank trucks and silos that have been previously sterilized with steam. The food can be later
reprocessed and packaged to meet market demands. The sterilization agents available for aseptic
packaging include heat, chemical treatment with hydrogen peroxide and high energy irradiation (UV
light or ionizing (gamma) irradiation). A combination of hydrogen peroxide and mild heat is most
commonly used with plastic and paperboard-based laminate packaging.

The most commercially successful form of aseptic packaging utilizes paper and plastic materials
which are sterilizes, formed, filled and sealed in continuous operation. The package may be sterilized
with heat or combination of heat and chemicals. In some cases, the disinfectant property of hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2) is combined with heated air or ultra violet light to make lower temperatures effective
in sterilizing these less heat resistant packaging materials.

Aseptic packaging is also used with the metal cans as well as large plastic and metal drums or large
flexible pouches. Great quantities of food materials are used as intermediates in the production of
further processed foods. This frequently requires packaging of such items as tomato paste or apricot
puree in large containers. The food manufacturer then may use the tomato paste in the production of
ketchup or the apricot puree in bakery products. If such large volumes were to be sterilized in drums,
by the time the cold point reached sterilization temperature the product nearer the drum walls would
be excessively burned. Such items can be quickly sterilized in efficient heat exchangers and aseptically
packaged.

4.2 Modified Atmosphere Packaging

Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) is a procedure which involves replacing air inside a package
with a predetermined mixture of gases prior to sealing it. Once the package is sealed, no further
control is exercised over the composition of the in-package atmosphere. However, this composition
may change during storage as a result of respiration of the contents and/or solution of some of the gas
in the product. Vacuum packaging is a procedure in which air is drawn out of the package prior to
sealing but no other gases are introduced. This technique has been used for many years for products
such as cured meats and cheese. It is not usually regarded as a form of MAP.

The gases involved in modified atmosphere packaging, as applied commercially are carbon dioxide,
nitrogen and oxygen. Carbon dioxide reacts with water in the product to form carbonic acid which
lowers the pH of the food. It also inhibits the growth of certain microorganisms, mainly moulds and
some aerobic bacteria. Lactic acid bacteria are resistant to the gas and may replace aerobic spoilage
bacteria in modified atmosphere packaged meat. Most yeasts are also resistant to carbon dioxide.
Anaerobic bacteria, including food poisoning organisms, are little affected by carbon dioxide.
Consequently, there is a potential health hazard in MAP products from these microorganisms. Moulds
and some gram negative, aerobic bacteria, such as Pseudomonas spp, are inhibited by carbon dioxide
concentrations in the range 5–50%. In general, the higher the concentration of the gas, the greater is its
inhibitory power. The inhibition of bacteria by carbon dioxide increases as the temperature decreases.
Nitrogen has no direct effect on microorganisms or foods, other than to replace oxygen, which can
inhibit the oxidation of fats. As its solubility in water is low, it is used as a bulking material to prevent
the collapse of MAP packages when the carbon dioxide dissolves in the food. This is also useful in
packages of sliced or ground food materials, such as cheese, which may consolidate under vacuum.
Oxygen is included in MAP packages of red meat to maintain the red colour, which is due to the
oxidation of the myoglobin pigments. It is also included in MAP packages of white fish, to reduce the
risk of botulism. Other gases have antimicrobial effects. Carbon monoxide will inhibit the growth of
many bacteria, yeasts and moulds, in concentrations as low as 1%.

However, due to its toxicity and explosive nature, it is not used commercially. Sulphur dioxide has
been used to inhibit the growth of moulds and bacteria in some soft fruits and fruit juices.

Argon, helium, xenon and neon, have also been used in MAP of some foods. MAP packages are either
thermoformed trays with heat-sealed lids or pouches. With the exception of packages for fresh
produce, these trays and pouches need to be made of materials with low permeability to gases (CO 2,
N2, and O2). Laminates are used, made of various combinations of polyester (PET), polyvinylidene
chloride (PVdC), polyethylene (PE) and polyamide.

5.2 Active packaging

Active packaging refers to the incorporation of certain additives into packaging film or within
packaging containers with the aim of maintaining and extending product shelf life. Packaging may be
termed active when it performs some desired role in food preservation other than providing an inert
barrier to external conditions. Active packaging includes additives or ‘freshness enhancers’ that are
capable of scavenging oxygen, adsorbing carbon dioxide, moisture, ethylene and/or flavor/odor taints,
releasing ethanol, sorbates, antioxidants and/or other preservatives and/or maintaining temperature
control.

Active packaging techniques for preservation and improving quality and safety of foods can be
divided into three categories; absorbers (i.e. scavengers, releasing systems and other systems.
Absorbing (scavenging) systems remove undesired compounds such as oxygen, carbon dioxide,
ethylene, excessive water, taints and other specific compounds. Releasing systems actively add or emit
compounds to the packaged food or into the head-space of the package such as carbon dioxide,
antioxidants and preservatives. Other systems may have miscellaneous tasks, such as self-heating, self-
cooling and preservation. The main active packaging systems are:

5.2.1 Oxygen scavenger:

The most common oxygen scavengers take the form of small sachets containing various iron-based
powders containing an assortment of catalysts. These chemical systems often react with water supplied
by the food to produce a reactive hydrated metallic reducing agent that scavenges oxygen within the
food package and irreversibly converts it to a stable oxide. The iron powder is separated from the food
by keeping it in a small, highly oxygen permeable sachet.

5.2.2 Carbon Dioxide Scavengers/Emitters

There are many commercial sachet and label devices that can be used to either scavenge or emit
carbon dioxide. The use of carbon dioxide scavengers is particularly applicable for fresh roasted or
ground coffees that produce significant volumes of carbon dioxide. Fresh roasted or ground coffees
cannot be left unpackaged since they absorb moisture and oxygen and lose desirable volatile aromas
and flavors.

5.2.3 Ethylene Scavengers

Ethylene (C2H4) is a plant hormone that accelerates the respiration rate and subsequent senescence of
horticultural products such as fruit, vegetables and flowers. Many of the effects of ethylene are
necessary, e.g. induction of flowering in pineapples and colour development in citrus fruits, bananas
and tomatoes, but in most horticultural situations it is desirable to remove ethylene or to suppress its
effects. Effective systems utilize potassium permanganate (KMnO 4) immobilized on an inert mineral
substrate such as alumina or silica gel. KMnO4 oxidizes

ethylene to acetate and ethanol and in the process a change colour from purple to brown and hence
indicates its remaining ethylene-scavenging capacity. KMnO 4-based ethylene scavengers are available
in sachets to be placed inside produce packages or inside blankets or tubes that can be placed in
produce storage warehouses.

5.2.4 Ethanol Emitters

The use of ethanol as an antimicrobial agent is well documented. It is particularly effective against
mould but can also inhibit the growth of yeasts and bacteria. Ethanol can be sprayed directly onto food
products just prior to packaging. The size and capacity of the ethanol-emitting sachet used depends on
the weight of food, aw of the food and the shelf life required. When food is packed with an ethanol-
emitting sachet, moisture is absorbed by the food and ethanol vapor is released and diffuses into the
package headspace.

5.2.5 Preservative Releasers

One most commonly used preservative releaser is a synthetic silver zeolite that has been directly
incorporated into food contact packaging film. The purpose of the zeolite is apparently to allow slow
release of antimicrobial silver ions into the surface of food products. Many other synthetic and
naturally occurring preservatives have been proposed and/or tested for antimicrobial activity in plastic
and edible films. These include organic acids, e.g. propionate, benzoate and

sorbate, bacteriocins, e.g. nisin„ spice and herb extracts, e.g. from rosemary, cloves, horseradish,
mustard, cinnamon and thyme, enzymes, e.g. peroxidase, lysozyme and glucose oxidase, chelating
agents, e.g. EDTA, inorganic acids, e.g. sulphur dioxide and chlorine dioxide, and anti-fungal agents,
e.g. imazalil and benomyl. The major potential food applications for antimicrobial films include meats,
fish, bread, cheese, fruit and vegetables.

5.2.6 Moisture Absorbers

Excess moisture is a major cause of food spoilage. Soaking up moisture by using various absorbers or
desiccants is very effective at maintaining food quality and extending shelf life by inhibiting microbial
growth and moisture-related degradation of texture and flavor. Moisture absorber sachets for humidity
control in packaged dried foods, several companies manufacture moisture drip absorbent pads, sheets
and blankets for liquid water control in high aw foods such as meats, fish, poultry, fruit and vegetables
are available.

5.2.7 Flavour/Odor Adsorbers

The interaction of packaging with food flavors and aromas has long been recognized, especially
through the undesirable flavor scalping of desirable food components. Two types of taints amenable to
removal by active packaging are amines, which are formed from the breakdown of fish muscle
proteins, and Aldehydes that are formed from the autoxidation of fats and oils. Volatile amines with an
unpleasant smell, such as trimethylamine, associated with fish protein breakdown are alkaline and can
be neutralized by various acidic compounds [89]. The bags that are made from film containing a
ferrous salt and an organic acid such as citrate or ascorbate are claimed to oxidize amines when they
are absorbed by the polymer film. Odor and Taste Control (OTC) technology removes or neutralizes
aldehydes.

Table 4.1 Selected active packaging systems

S.N
Systems Mechanisms Food application
.

1. Iron-based
Bread, cakes, cooked rice,
2. Metal/acid
biscuits, pizza, pasta, cheese,
3. Metal (e.g. platinum)
1. Oxygen scavengers cured meats, cured fish, coffee,
catalyst
snack foods, dried foods
4. Ascorbate/metallic salts
and beverages
5. Enzyme-based

2. Carbon dioxide scavengers/ 1. Iron oxide/calcium Coffee, fresh meats, fresh fish,

emitters hydroxide nuts, other snack food products

2. Ferrous carbonate/metal and sponge cakes

 halide

3. Calcium oxide/activated

charcoal

4. Ascorbate/sodium

bicarbonate

1. Potassium permanganate
Fruit, vegetables and other
3. Ethylene scavengers 2. Activated carbon
horticultural products
3. Activated clays/zeolites

1. Organic acids

2. Silver zeolite

3. Spice and herb extracts Cereals, meats, fish, bread,

4.
Preservative releasers 4. BHA/BHT antioxidants cheese, snack foods, fruit and

5. Vitamin E antioxidant vegetables

6. Volatile chlorine dioxide/

sulphur dioxide

1. Alcohol spray Pizza crusts, cakes, bread, biscuits,

5. Ethanol emitters
2. Encapsulated ethanol fish and bakery products

6. Moisture absorbers 1. PVA blanket Fish, meats, poultry, snack

 2. Activated clays and

minerals foods, cereals, dried foods,

3. Silica gel sandwiches, fruit and vegetables

1. Cellulose triacetate

2. Acetylated paper
Fruit juices, fried snack foods,
3. Citric acid
7. Flavour/odour adsorbers fish, cereals, poultry, dairy
4. Ferrous salt/ascorbate
products and fruit
5. Activated carbon/clays/

zeolites

1. Non-woven plastics

2. Double-walled
containers
Temperature control Ready meals, meats, fish,
8.
3. Hydro fluorocarbon gas
packaging poultry and beverages

4. Lime/water

5. Ammonium nitrate/water

The shelf life of packaged food is dependent on numerous factors, such as the intrinsic nature of the
food (e.g. pH, water activity, nutrient content, occurrence of antimicrobial compounds, redox
potential, respiration rate, biological structure) and extrinsic factors (e.g. storage temperature, relative
humidity, surrounding gaseous composition). These factors directly influence the chemical,
biochemical, physical and microbiological spoilage mechanisms of individual food products and their
achievable shelf life. By carefully considering all of these factors, it is possible to evaluate existing
and developing active packaging technologies and apply them for maintaining the quality and
extending the shelf life of different food products.

5.3 Intelligent packaging

Intelligent packaging includes indicators to be used for quality control of packed food. They can be so-
called external indicators, i.e., indicators which are attached outside the package (time temperature
indicators), and so-called internal indicators which are placed inside the package, either to the head-
space of the package or attached into the lid.

5.3.1 Time temperature indicator (TTI)

A time temperature indicator (TTI) can be defined as a simple device that can give the idea about
easily measurable, time-temperature dependent change which affects full or partial temperature history
of a food product to which it is connected. The principles of TTI operation are based on mechanical,
chemical, electrochemical, enzymatic or microbiological irreversible change.

5.3.2 Freshness indicators

Two types of the changes can take place in the fresh food product i.e.

(i) Microbiological growth and metabolism resulting in pH changes, formation of toxic compounds,
off-odors, gas and slime formation,

(ii) Oxidation of lipids and pigments resulting in undesirable flavors, formation of compounds with
adverse biological reactions or discoloration.

A freshness indicator indicates directly the quality of the product. The indication of microbiological
quality is based on a reaction between the indicator and the metabolites produced during growth of
microorganisms in the product. An indicator that would show specifically the spoilage or the lack of
freshness of the product, in addition to temperature abuse or package leaks, would be ideal for the
quality control of packed products.

5.3.3 Pathogen indicators

Commercially available Toxin GuardTM is a system to build polyethylene-based packaging material,
which is able to detect the presence of pathogenic bacteria with the aid of immobilized antibodies. As
the analyte (toxin, microorganism) is in contact with the material it will be bound first to a specific,
labelled antibody and then to a capturing antibody printed as a certain pattern. The method could also
be applied for the detection of pesticide residues or proteins resulting from genetic modifications.

Novel Food Packaging Techniques

Introduction
Novel food packaging techniques refer to innovative methods and technologies developed to protect
and preserve food products. These techniques go beyond traditional packaging approaches and aim to
enhance food safety, extend shelf life, improve convenience, and reduce environmental impact. Novel
food packaging technologies have emerged in response to consumers' increasing desire for convenient,
ready-to-eat, flavourful, and minimally processed food products that have a longer shelf life and
maintain their quality. Additionally, modern retail practices and evolving lifestyles have driven the
development of innovative packaging methods that do not compromise food safety and quality. The
rapid growth of novel packaging in the food industry is fuelled by the increasing consumption of
packaged foods, the demand for ready-made meals (such as microwaveable dishes), and the popularity
of smaller-sized food packages. Another significant driver for innovative food packaging is the rising
concern over foodborne microbial outbreaks, which necessitates packaging solutions with
antimicrobial properties while preserving food quality. Innovations in packaging began with the
introduction of electrically driven packaging machinery, followed by the development of metallic
cans, aseptic packaging, flexible packaging, Aluminium foils, and flexographic printing. Furthermore,
the introduction of various materials such as polyester, polypropylene, and ethylene vinyl alcohol
polymers led to a shift from traditional metal, paperboard, and glass packaging to plastic and flexible
packaging. In the 20th century, advancements in packaging technology gave rise to intelligent or smart
packaging and active packaging, which includes components like oxygen scavengers, antimicrobial
agents, and aroma/odour absorbers.
1. Reduced Oxygen Packaging
"Reduced Oxygen Packaging" (ROP) refers to a food packaging method that involves:
(i) Reducing the oxygen content within a package through one or more of the following techniques:
removing oxygen, displacing oxygen with another gas or a combination of gases, or otherwise
controlling the oxygen levels to a point below what is typically found in the surrounding air (which is
typically at 21 % oxygen content; thus, ROP involves maintaining oxygen levels below 21 %).
(ii) A process applied to foods that have specific hazards related to the growth of Clostridium
botulinum and Listeria monocytogenes, which need to be controlled in the final packaged form to
ensure food safety.

1.1 Typical applications for ROP include:

1.1.1 Vacuum packaging

Vacuum packaging involves the removal of air from the package and the application of a hermetic
seal. The air removal creates a vacuum inside the packs and lack of O2 in packages may minimise the
oxidative deteriorative reactions and aerobic bacterial growth.Vacuum packaging can considerably
extend the viable shelf life of many cooked foods. The use of vacuum packaging, in gas impermeable
and heat stable materials, has many advantages, which include; no or low risks of post pasteurisation
contamination, ease of handling, Inhibition of growth of aerobic spoilage organisms and inhibition or
slowing of deleterious oxidative reactions in the food during storage due to oxygen barrier properties
of the packaging material.
There are number of criteria required for the films used for vacuum packaging in large scale
production methods. These requirements include: high durability, ie. ability to withstand considerable
mechanical stresses during packaging, handling and transport, retention of flexibility even at low
temperatures (-2 to 4°C) to enable satisfactory handling in the packaging and refrigeration rooms,
ability to withstand heating to at least 150 °C without structural damage, leaching of potentially toxic
plastics or plasticisers, impermeability to liquids, including oils and fats and macromolecules,
impermeability to gases, in particular oxygen, so that oxidative deterioration of the packaged food
stuffs is limited or inhibited, manufactured from non-toxic, food acceptable, odourless materials and
must be able to create airtight durable heat seals to close packs. Many of these criteria have been met
by a range of materials mostly multilaminated plastics. Vacuum packed foods maintain their freshness
and flavor 3-5 times longer than with conventional storage methods, because they don't come in
contact with oxygen. Foods maintain their texture and appearance, because microorganisms such as
bacteria mold and yeast cannot grow in a vacuum. Freezer burn is eliminated, because foods no longer
become dehydrated from contact with cold, dry air. Moist foods won't dry out, because there's no air to
absorb the moisture from the food. Dry, solid foods, won't become hard, because they don't come in
contact with air and, therefore, can't absorb moisture from the air. Foods that are high in fats and oils
won't become rancid, because there's no oxygen coming in contact with the fats, which causes the
rancid taste and smell.

FIGURE-1

FIGURE 1 Vacuum packaging machine and Vacuum-packed fish

1.1.2 MODIFIED ATMOSPHERIC PACKAGING

Fresh fish is highly susceptible to spoilage from post mortem autolysis and microbial growth. The high
ambient temperature of our country favours rapid growth of microorganisms. Presently ice and
mechanical refrigeration are the most common means of retarding microbial and biochemical spoilage
in freshly caught seafood during distribution and marketing. However, as ice melts it tends to
contaminate fish accelerating spoilage and reduces shelf life. Modified atmosphere packaging, a
technologically viable method has been developed as a supplement to ice or mechanical refrigeration
to reduce the losses and extend the storage life of fresh seafood products. In modified atmosphere
packaging air is replaced with different gas mixtures to regulate microbial activity and /or retard
discolouration of the products. The proportion of each component gas is fixed when the mixture is
introduced into the package; however, no control is exercised during storage. The composition of the
gas mixture changes from its initial composition as a result of chemical, enzymatic and microbial
activity of the product during storage. It is primarily the enrichment of Carbon dioxide in the Training
compendium on storage atmosphere as a means of controlling microbial growth, which results in the
extension
of shelf life of products. Carbon dioxide lowers the intra and extracellular pH of tissues and possibly
that of microorganisms. Further it may affect the membrane potential of microorganisms and influence
on the equilibrium of decarboxylating enzymes of microorganisms. The gases normally employed are
carbon dioxide, mixtures of carbon dioxide and nitrogen, carbon dioxide and oxygen and carbon
dioxide, oxygen & nitrogen with the sole objective to extend the shelf life of the product beyond that
obtained in conventional refrigerated storages. Inhibition by Carbon dioxide manifests in an increased
lag phase and a slower rate of growth of microorganisms during logorathmic phase.Inhibition by
Carbon dioxide was found to be more effective when the product was stored at the lowest range of
refrigerated temperatures. Packaging materials generally employed for this purpose are flexible films
of nylon/surylyn laminates, PVC moulded trays laminated with polythene, polyester/low density
polythene film etc. The use of high barrier film along with MAP that contains CO2 effectively inhibits
bacterial growth during refrigerated storage of packaged fresh fishery products.The composition of the
gas mixtures used for MAP of fresh fish varies, depending upon whether the fish in the package is lean
or oily fish. For lean fish, a ratio of 30% Oxygen, 40% Carbon dioxide, 30% Nitrogen is
recommended. Higher values of Carbon dioxide are used for fatty and oily fish with a comparable
reduction in level of Oxygen in the mixture leading to 40-60% Nitrogen. By excluding oxygen, the
development of oxidative rancidity in fatty fish is slowed. On the other hand, oxygen can inhibit the
growth of strictly anaerobic bacteria like Clostridium botulinum although there is a very wide
variation in the sensitivity of anaerobes to Oxygen. It is also seen that inclusion of only some Oxygen
with Nitrogen or Carbon dioxide will not prevent botulism with absolute certainty.
1.1.3 Controlled Atmosphere Packaging (CAP)
It is a method of packaging food products in a modified atmosphere to extend their shelf life and
maintain their quality. In CAP, the composition of gases within the package is carefully controlled to
create an optimal environment for the specific food product.The main objectives of CAP are to control
the levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and sometimes nitrogen within the package. These gases are
selected based on the specific needs of the food product and its susceptibility to spoilage factors.
The benefits of CAP include:
1. Extended Shelf Life: By controlling the atmosphere within the package, CAP can slow down the
growth of spoilage microorganisms and enzymatic reactions that cause food deterioration, thereby
extending the product's shelf life.
2. Maintained Quality: CAP helps preserve the sensory attributes, colour, texture, and nutritional
content of the food by creating an environment that minimizes oxidative reactions and maintains
optimal conditions for the product. 3. Reduced Need for Preservatives: With controlled gas
composition, CAP can reduce the reliance on chemical preservatives, allowing for a more natural and
cleaner label approach to food preservation.
The specific gas composition and ratios used in CAP depend on the type of food product being
packaged. For example, some fruits and vegetables benefit from a lower oxygen level and higher
carbon dioxide level to slow down ripening and preserve freshness, while certain meats may require a
higher oxygen level to maintain the desired colour. It's important to note that CAP requires specialized
packaging materials, such as barrier films or trays with gas-permeable properties, to maintain the
desired gas composition and prevent gas leakage. Proper sealing and storage conditions are also
critical to ensure the effectiveness of CAP. The selection and implementation of CAP should be based
on scientific research, industry guidelines, and regulatory requirements to ensure food safety and
maintain product quality throughout the supply chain.
1.1.4 Cook chill packaging
Cook chill is a food preservation method that involves cooking food to the desired temperature,
rapidly cooling it, and then packaging it for later use. The process helps maintain the food's quality,
flavour, and safety while extending its shelf life. Cook chill packaging typically involves the following
steps:
 Cooking: The food is cooked thoroughly to the appropriate temperature to ensure
it is safe to consume.
 Rapid Cooling: After cooking, the food is rapidly chilled using specialized equipment, such as
blast chillers or cold-water baths. Rapid cooling inhibits bacterial growth and prevents the
food from spending too much time in the temperature danger zone where bacteria can multiply
quickly.
 Packaging: Once the food has been cooled, it is portioned and packaged in airtight containers,
such as vacuum-sealed bags or sealed trays. The packaging helps maintain the food's freshness
and prevents contamination.
 Storage: The packaged food is then refrigerated or frozen until it is ready to be consumed. The
controlled temperature storage further extends the shelf life of the cooked food.
1.1.5 Sous Vide Packaging
Sous vide is a cooking technique that involves vacuum-sealing food in a bag and cooking it at a
precisely controlled low temperature in a water bath. This method ensures consistent and evenly
cooked food with enhanced flavours and textures. Sous vide packaging typically includes the
following steps:
 Vacuum Sealing: The food, along with any desired seasonings or marinades, is placed in a
vacuum-sealed bag. The bag is sealed tightly to remove any air and create an airtight
environment for cooking.
  Temperature Control: The sealed bags of food are submerged in a precisely heated water bath,
which is set to a specific temperature based on the desired doneness of the food. The water
bath is typically maintained at a lower temperature than traditional cooking methods.
 Cooking Time: The food is cooked in the water bath for an extended period, allowing it to
slowly reach the desired internal temperature while retaining its moisture and flavour.
 Finishing: After the sous vide cooking process, some foods may be finished with additional
steps such as searing, grilling, or browning to add texture and colour.
2. Active Packaging
Active packaging is an innovative concept that can be defined as ‗a type of packaging that changes the
condition of the packaging and maintains these conditions throughout the storage period to extend
shelf-life or to improve safety or sensory properties while maintaining the quality of packaged food‘.
Active packaging (AP) performs some desired role other than providing an inert barrier between the
product and external conditions and combines advances in food technology, bio-technology,
packaging and material science, in an effort to comply with consumer demands for ‗fresh like‘
products. This involves incorporation of certain additives into the packaging film or within packaging
containers with the aim of maintaining and extending product shelf life. Active packaging technique is
either scavenging or emitting systems added to emit (e.g., N2, CO2, ethanol, antimicrobials,
antioxidants) and/or to remove (e.g., O2, CO2, odour, ethylene) gases during packaging, storage and
distribution. In case of a gas-scavenging or emitting system, reactive compounds are either contained
in individual sachets or stickers associated to the packaging material or, more recently, directly
incorporated into the packaging material. Major active packaging techniques are concerned with
substances that absorb oxygen, ethylene, moisture, carbon dioxide, flavours/odours and those which
release carbon dioxide, antimicrobial agents, antioxidants and flavours. The most important active
packaging concepts for fishery products include O2 scavenging, CO2 emitters, moisture regulators,
antimicrobial packaging concepts, antioxidant release are discussed here.
2.1 Oxygen (O2) scavenger
Fish products are highly susceptible to oxygen as it leads to the growth of aerobic microorganisms and
oxidation which causes undesirable colour changes (e.g., discolouration
of pigments such as myoglobin, carotenoids), off-odours and flavours (e.g., rancidity as a result of
lipid oxidation) and leads to loss of nutrients (e.g., oxidation of vitamin E, carotene, ascorbic acid)
which adversely affects the quality. Therefore, control of oxygen levels in food package is important
to limit the rate of such deteriorative and spoilage reactions in foods. Although O2- sensitive foods can
be packed appropriately using modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) or vacuum packaging, these
technologies do not always remove O2 completely. Moreover, the O2 that permeates through the
packaging film cannot be removed by these techniques. By use of an O2-scavenger, which absorbs the
residual O2 after packaging, quality changes of O2-sensitive foods associated with low residual
oxygen levels can be minimized. O2 scavengers were first commercialized in the late 1970s by
Japan‘s Mitsubishi Gas Chemical Company (Ageless®). O2 scavengers are able to eliminate oxygen
contained in the packaging headspace and in the product or permeating through the packaging material
during storage. O2 scavengers are efficient in preventing discolouration of fresh and cured fish,
rancidity problems, mould spoilage of intermediate and high moisture products or oxidative flavour
changes. O2 scavenging concepts are mainly based on iron powder oxidation, ascorbic acid oxidation,
photosensitive dye oxidation, enzymatic oxidation (e.g., glucose oxidase and alcohol oxidase),
unsaturated fatty acids (e.g., oleic or linolenic acid), rice extract or immobilized yeast on a solid
substrate. Structurally, the oxygen scavenging component of a package can take the form of a sachet,
label or film (incorporation of scavenging agent into the packaging film, which avoids the accidental
consumption of sachet), card, closure liner or concentrate.
2.2 CO2-emitter
The method of preserving food products using CO2 is not new. Modified atmosphere packaging which
mainly employs the gases like CO2, N2 and O2 has been in use for extending the freshness of fish
products since many decades. The high CO2-levels (10-80 %) are desirable for moist food products
like fish, shellfish and meat products which inhibit surface microbial growth and thereby extend shelf-
life. The overall effect of CO2 is to increase both the lag phase and the generation time of spoilage
microorganisms. Over the years this has been achieved by modified atmosphere packaging, in which a
package is flushed with a mixture of gases including carbon dioxide at sufficient levels. However, the
concentration of CO2 within the package will change due to the partial dissolution of CO2 in to the
product and permeability through the packaging film. Normally, the permeability of carbon dioxide is
3–5 times higher than that of oxygen in most plastic films, so it must be continuously
produced to maintain the desired concentration within the package. A carbon dioxide generating
system can be viewed as a technique complimentary to MAP to overcome the drawbacks. The
potential of CO2 in MAP and more recently generation of CO2 inside the packaging system have been
explored in relation to a number of commodities for their successful preservation. Such systems are
based on sodium bicarbonate, ferrous carbonate, ascorbate, citric acid etc. Sodium bicarbonate, when
used together with ascorbic acid or citric acid in the presence of sufficient moisture generates CO2.
This technique is very simple and economical as it does not require any costly equipment and pure
gases.
2.3 Moisture regulator
Wet food has a high vapour pressure, and hence the humidity in the food package increases. Apart
from this a certain amount of moisture will be trapped in the packaging due to temperature fluctuations
in high equilibrium relative humidity food packages or the drip of tissue fluid from cut fish and fish
products. If it is not removed, this moisture will be absorbed by the product or condense on the
surface, which cause microbial spoilage and/or low consumer appeal. An excessive level of water
causes softening of dry crispy products. On the other hand, excessive water evaporation through the
packaging material might result in desiccation of the packed foodstuffs. It may also favour rancidity of
lipids. The controllingof this excess moisture in food package is important to lower the water activity
of the product, thereby suppressing microbial growth and preventing foggy film formation. Apart from
this, removal of drip from chilled fish and melting water from frozen fish and shellfish makes the
package more attractive to the consumer. An effective way of controlling excess water accumulation
in a food package is the use of high barrier film material with the appropriate water vapour
permeability and use of moisture scavenger, such as silica gel, molecular sieves, natural clays, calcium
oxide, calcium chloride and modified starch etc. Among these, silica gel is the most widely used
desiccant because it is not toxic and noncorrosive. Drip-absorbent sheets for liquid water control in
high aw foods such as fresh fish and shellfish basically consist of a super absorbent polymer in
between two layers. Large sheets are also used for absorption of melted ice in packages of seafood
during air transportation. The preferred polymers for absorbing water are polyacrylate salts and graft
copolymers of starch. For dried fish applications, desiccants such as silica gel, molecular sieves, CaO
and natural clays (e.g., montmorillonite) packed in sachets can be used.
2.4 Antimicrobial packaging
A significant portion of fish deterioration is related to microbial contamination and development,
which shortens food shelf life and raises the possibility of food borne illness.The use of antimicrobial
chemicals or salts as well as heat processing, drying, freezing, refrigeration, irradiation, and MAP are
traditional means of protecting fish from the effects of microbial development. However, some of
these methods can't be used on products made from fresh fish because they change the freshness of the
fish. A rapidly growing active packaging, particularly for fish and poultry items, is antimicrobial
packaging.Antimicrobial films primarily work by releasing antimicrobial substances into food,which
prolongs the lagged phase and shortens the growth phase of microbes, hence extending shelf life and
maintaining product quality and safety. Antimicrobial agents may be surface modified, immobilised,
coated, integrated, or immobilised onto packaging materials to give antimicrobial activity. In order to
prevent the growth of bacteria on food surfaces, promising active packaging solutions include
antimicrobial agents into the materials used to package food. The preservative is liberated from the
active substance and acts directly when it comes into touch with a moist food or a food that has a
liquid-like consistency. In both situations, the system's goal is to prolong the packed food's shelf life
by preventing microbial development and maintaining its qualities. Acid anhydride, alcohol,
bacteriocins, chelators, enzymes, organic acids, and polysaccharides are only a few of the classes of
antimicrobials. In addition to these, chitosan and other derivatives from plants and fishing waste can
be used in the packaging system as antimicrobials.
2.5 Antioxidant release
Antioxidants are frequently employed as food additives to enhance lipid oxidation stability and extend
shelf life, mostly for dried goods and O2-sensitive foods like fish due to their high content of
unsaturated fatty acids. Antioxidants can also be combined into plastic films to stabilise the polymer
and prevent deterioration. BHT, a butylated hydroxytoluene, is frequently used in packaging films as
an antioxidant. BHT's propensity to accumulate in human adipose tissue, however, has raised some
questions about the physiological implications of use. As a result, less artificial antioxidants are being
used in interaction with food. Therefore, it is preferable to use natural antioxidants that are safe. The
most prevalent natural antioxidants are vitamins E and C, and researchers are still exploring how to
incorporate them into polymer films to have antioxidative benefits. Vitamin E has great solubility in
polyolefins and is stable during processing. In addition to these, research is being done on the use of
natural antioxidants derived from plant and animal sources as packaging for antioxidants. 3. Active
Packaging Systems with Dual Functionality
The employment of multiple function active systems is a more advanced method of increasing the life
stability of packaged goods utilising active packaging systems. For instance, the storage of packaged
foods is greatly increased when oxygen scavengers are combined with carbon dioxide and/or
antibacterial / antioxidant releasing systems. When oxygen is removed from packages using an O2
scavenger alone, a partial vacuum is created, which could cause flexible packaging to collapse. In
addition, when a package is flushed with a gaseous mixture that includes carbon dioxide, the CO2
dissolves in the product, creating a partial vacuum, causes the permeation of CO2 through the
packaging film. However, in order to prevent the growth of surface microbes and increase shelf life,
high CO2 levels are required. The self-working devices, which absorb O2 and generate enough CO2,
will be promising in such situations for increasing the shelf life of goods, particularly fishery items. In
order to extend the shelf-life of various food systems, ICAR-CIFT has developed the technology for
these active packaging systems.
4. Intelligent Packaging
Intelligent packaging detects certain characteristics of food it contains or the environmental conditions
in which it is placed and notifies the people of the state of these properties. The attributes of intelligent
packaging could be employed to check the efficiency and reliability of active packaging systems.
Intelligent packaging has been described as ‗packaging technology that can monitor the state of
packaged foods to issue details about the quality of the packaged food during transport and storage‘. A
variety of indicators such as temperature, time temperature, pack integrity, microbial growth, product
authenticity and freshness are of interest to the fish packaging industry.
4.1 Time-temperature indicators
The basic idea behind this indicator is that the quality of food deteriorates more
Training compendium on rapidly at higher temperature due to biochemical and microbial reactions.
Operation of TTIs is based on mechanical, chemical, electrochemical, enzymatic or microbiological
change usually expressed as a visible response in the form of a mechanical deformation, colour
development or colour movement. The visible response thus gives a cumulative indication of the
storage temperature to which the TTI has been exposed. Essentially TTIs are small tags or labels that
keep track of time-temperature histories to which a perishable product like fish is exposed from the
point of production / manufacture to the retail outlet or end-consumer.Their use in fish and shellfish
products offers enormous potential where monitoring of the cold distribution chain, microbial safety
and quality are of paramount importance. Hence, a time-temperature indicator or integrator (TTI) may
be defined as a small measuring device that shows a time and temperature dependent, easily,
accurately and precisely measurable irreversible change that reflects the full or partial temperature
history of a food product to which it is attached.
4.2 Leakage indicator
The development of improved methods to determine food quality such as freshness,microbial spoilage,
oxidative rancidity or oxygen and/or heat induced deterioration is extremely important to food
manufacturers. In order to maximise the quality and safety of foodstuffs, prediction of shelf-life, based
on standard quality control procedures is normally undertaken. Replacement of such time-consuming
and expensive quality measurements with rapid, reliable and inexpensive alternatives has led to greater
efforts being made to identify and measure chemical or physical indicators of food quality.
Determination of indicator headspace gases provides a means by which the quality of a fish and meat
product and the integrity of the packaging in which it is held can be established rapidly and
inexpensively.One means of doing so is through the intelligent packaging incorporating gas sensor
technology for sensing the oxygen and CO2, as these two are the most commonly used gases.The
monitoring of these gases in the package helps in establishing the food quality. The profiles of oxygen
and carbon dioxide can change over time and are influenced by product type, respiration, packaging
material, pack size, volume ratios, storage conditions, package integrity etc. A number of analytical
techniques are available to monitor gas phases in MAP products. Instrumental techniques such as GC
and GC/MS require breakage of package