Received: 6 December 2023

| Revised: 16 February 2024

| Accepted: 7 March 2024

DOI: 10.1111/gcbb.13141

REVIEW

Enviro-­economic and feasibility analysis of industrial

hemp value chain: A systematic literature review

Rajan Budhathoki | Tek Maraseni | Armando Apan

Institute for Life Science and

Environment, University of Southern Abstract
Queensland, Toowoomba, Queensland, A recent renaissance of industrial hemp has been driven by a plethora of eco-
Australia
logically amicable products and their profitability. To identify its environment
Correspondence and economic fate across the value chain (VC), this study conducts a systematic
Rajan Budhathoki, Institute for Life review of 98 studies published in ScienceDirect, Web of Science, and Scopus-­
Science and Environment, University
of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba,
indexed journals. The thematic content of the articles is categorized using three
Qld 4350, Australia. deductively derived classification categories: lifecycle analysis (n = 40), VC analy-
Email: [email protected] sis (n = 30), and feasibility analysis (n = 28). Bibliometric analysis indicates that
and [email protected]
the majority (>90%) of the studies were conducted in selected regions of Europe
or North America, with further findings around regionally prioritized industrial
hemp products, such as hempcrete in Southwest Europe, solid biofuel in North
European states, and textile fiber and bio-­composites in East Europe and North
America. Lifecycle analysis studies highlight nitrogenous fertilizer use during in-
dustrial hemp cultivation as a major ecological hotspot, which is taking a toll on
the climate change index. However, hemp-­based products are generally climate-­
friendly solutions when contrasted against their fossil fuel counterparts, with
hempcrete in particular a highly touted carbon-­negative (−4.28 to −36.08 kg CO2
eq/m2) product. The review also identifies key issues within the hemp VC and
presents innovative solutions alongside the recognition of value-­adding opportu-
nities. Furthermore, feasibility analysis indicates unprofitability in using hemp
for bioenergy production and there is a relative cost worthiness of hemp bio-­
composites and hempcrete at the upstream level. Positive returns are observed
under co-­production schemes. In contemplating the literature findings, we dis-
cussed and identified gap in existing literature for future exploration, including
more studies to provide insights from the Global South, and the production of
industrial hemp under a biophysically constrained landscape.

KEYWORDS
enviro-­economic, feasibility, industrial hemp, systematic review, value chain

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited.
© 2024 The Authors. GCB Bioenergy published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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2 of 27 |    BUDHATHOKI et al.

1 | I N T RO DU CT ION individually and thoroughly. This involves examining the

whole product value chain (VC), from cultivation, to pro-
Cannabis sativa L., synonymously called “hemp,” is a cessing, to manufacturing, to use, and, finally, to disposal
prehistorically iconic crop, heralded for its millennia-­ (Zuiderveen et al., 2023). To this end, life cycle assessment
old source of utility fibers, foods, and pharmaceuticals (LCA) offers a methodological tool to quantify environ-
(Farag & Kayser, 2017). In Europe and East Asia, as mental impacts related to the entire production chain of
“Industrial hemp,” it was introduced and grown as a pro- a product (Tukker, 2000). During the conduct of LCA, im-
lific fiber-­bearing crop having only an iota of intoxicating portant phases of a product are divided into segments to
∆9-­tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) (Clarke, 1999). However, enable the meticulous examination and recording of data
due to its morphological similarity to THC enriched drug related to the most significant inputs and outputs around
(marijuana) biotypes (Yang et al., 2020), most countries resource and energy (Rebitzer et al., 2004). Then, based on
imposed a blanket ban on all C. sativa forms at the begin- the types and magnitude of input used, output impact cat-
ning of the 20th century (Cherney & Small, 2016). After egories (e.g., climate change impact, eutrophication, and
the initial six decades of the 20th-­century government ecotoxicity) are quantified.
prohibition, interest in this prehistorically iconic crop re-­ So far, LCAs have been utilized across numerous
ignited globally, in part due to the recognition of a diverse hemp-­based products, including hemp-­for-­textile fibers
range of hemp products (Dhondt & Muthu, 2021). (Van Eynde, 2015), hemp-­ reinforced automotive parts
Some estimates have identified a repertoire of 25,000 (Wötzel et al., 1999), hemp-­ based insulation solution
industrial hemp-­based products derived from its seed and (Zampori et al., 2013), and hemp shives for ethanol pro-
biomass (Fike, 2016). Hemp seeds have more of a nutri- duction (González-­García et al., 2012). Some assessments
tional and therapeutic value (García-­Tejero et al., 2019), also include life cycle costing (LCC) to estimate the eco-
while the fiber-­rich stem (outer phloem fiber and inner nomic aspects across the life phases (Harvey et al., 2016;
xylem wood) of hemp biomass is deemed economically Mastura et al., 2018; Torres-­Rivas et al., 2018). The system-
valuable (Cherney & Small, 2016; Kremensas et al., 2017). atic integration of evaluated results on individual hemp
The latter is due to a diverse range of applications for bio- products helps make a lucid statement about the sustain-
mass, ranging from textiles (Gedik & Avinc, 2020; Pergamo ability performance of particular products compared to
et al., 2018), to construction (Kallakas et al., 2018; Liao other bio-­based or petrochemical substitutes. Regarding
et al., 2022; Martínez Martínez et al., 2022; Yadav & this, some specific reviews on products, such as hemp-
Saini, 2022), and to the automobile industry (Chen crete (Di Capua et al., 2021; Füchsl et al., 2022; Ingrao
et al., 2017). et al., 2015), hemp fiber composites compared with glass
Accrued global interest in industrial hemp is not just fibers (Shahzad, 2012) and reinforced composites (Manaia
because of its myriad of products, but also for its capacity to et al., 2019) have been conducted. However, a comprehen-
provide eco-­friendly alternatives that lower over-­reliance sive systematic review quantifying the environmental ef-
on conventional fossil-­based materials (Summit, 2020). fects associated with a range of hemp products compared
For example, textile quality hemp fiber has potential to with other bio-­based and fossil fuel alternatives has not
lower the dependency on both fossil-­derived synthetic fi- yet been performed.
bers (Aishwariya & Jaisri, 2020) and (water and fertilizers) The recent development in the hemp sector has also
input demanding cotton (Abbas et al., 2022). Additionally, garnered the interest and involvement of various eco-
the use of lightweight hemp fiber-­built components in nomic actors and stakeholders, resulting in the value
vehicles (Chen et al., 2017) in lieu of glass or carbon fi- chain analysis (VCA) of industrial hemp becoming an-
bers can curtail petroleum oil consumption (Nachippan other field of interest (Ceyhan et al., 2022). As such, due
et al., 2021), with a subsequent reduction in climate rele- to this rapid evolution of the hemp industry and with mul-
vant CO2 emissions (Wazeer et al., 2023). tiple hemp products (Aryal et al., 2023), the economics of
However, like most bio-­ based products, industrial hemp has become more complex, leading to economic
hemp can have agricultural input related consequences, uncertainties among the VC actors (Mark & Will, 2019).
such as eutrophication and ozone layer depletion during Thus, a study that aggregates global VC knowledge pools
the biomass cultivation phase (Weiss et al., 2012). There can help identify market economic products, improve eco-
is also the impact of land use change on greenhouse gas nomic attractiveness of the products, and increase oppor-
(GHGs) emissions (Lange, 2011). As is common across tunities within the hemp VC.
the wide categories of bio-­based products (Zuiderveen Scientific queries on the feasibility analysis of hemp
et al., 2023), hemp-­based products may also have vari- seed and fibers (Aydoğan et al., 2020; Fortenbery &
ation in their environmental impacts. Therefore, the Bennett, 2004; Fortenbery & Mick, 2014; Hanchar, 2019;
sustainability of hemp products should be assessed Schluttenhofer & Yuan, 2017) show regional variability
BUDHATHOKI et al.    | 3 of 27

in profit (Dogbe & Revoredo-­Giha, 2022; Johnson, 2013). phases (e.g., raw material extraction, processing, manu-
Additionally, many studies (e.g., Brar et al., 2022; Finnan facturing, transportation, use, etc.) of the products, LCA
& Styles, 2013; Prade, 2011; Rehman et al., 2013) are un- components (of VCA) examine environmental impacts
equivocal about the economic benefit of hemp feedstocks as they pass through these phases. VCA can typically
for bioenergy generation. Recent studies comparing the capture the economic dimension of the products along
cost efficiency of manufactured hemp-­ based products the chain from the financial perspective (Maraseni
against the slew of bio-­ based and synthetic bio-­ based et al., 2018). However, based on the assumption that
products has resulted in ambiguity about the relative hemp VC studies are in their early stages, we propose
competitiveness of individual hemp products. So, the rec- further classification bubble to assess the economics of
ognition of regional feasibility, actual fate, and relative individual hemp-­based products. Thus, three classifica-
competitiveness of industrial hemp products needs care- tion bubbles evaluate the enviro-­economic aspects of in-
ful consideration. dustrial hemp chains.
To address these issues, this study aims to system-
atically review the current state of research articles
that focus on the environmental and economic facets 2.2 | Systematic review and protocol
of industrial hemp products and associated VCs. The
specific objectives are to (a) identify and document key This systematic review adopts the reporting protocol
bibliometric information of ongoing studies on the topic called the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic re-
under consideration; (b) analyze the industrial hemp VC views and Meta-­Analysis (PRISMA; Moher et al., 2010).
from an economic and environmental perspective based Key characteristics of a systematic literature review
on the analysis and synthesis of emerging literature; and are that it minimizes the authors' propensity towards
(c) find the research lacuna where further studies are the research topic, ensures replicability, and im-
needed. parts clarity in the review and synthesis process (Lau
& Kuziemsky, 2016; Grant & Booth, 2009; Mengist
et al., 2020). In addition, PRISMA is a robust report-
2 | M ET H ODS ing format prominently used in health sector research
(Liberati et al., 2009), while also gaining in popularity in
2.1 | Classification framework research realms such as social and agriculture sciences
research (Nor Diana et al., 2021).
The study considers VCA, LCA, LCC, and economic
feasibility analysis of the hemp value/supply chain and
associated products. The deductively derived classifica- 2.3 | Eligibility criteria
tion framework for analysis, consistent with the objec-
tives of the study, is presented schematically in Figure 1. The list of eligible articles considered for final review was
While VCA is a wider concept that analyses different guided by the PICO (Population Intervention Comparison

Environmental Economic

Life cycle analysis Value chain analysis

Feasibility analysis
(Hemp-based products)

F I G U R E 1 Classification framework
for enviro-­economic analysis of industrial
hemp. Enviro-economic analysis
4 of 27 |    BUDHATHOKI et al.

and Outcome) framework (Methley et al., 2014). PICO is 2.4 | Search strategy and
a tool that originated from health and allied sciences to article screening
critically search and assess relevant literature (Eriksen &
Frandsen, 2018). We modified the decision criteria of the Three online database platforms were used with the aim
PICO scheme in our context to remain within the scope of extracting the maximum number of relevant articles: (1)
of our study (see Table 1). We discarded all articles that Web of Science (WOS); (2) ScienceDirect; and (3) Scopus.
considered medicinal, and pleasure uses of hemp, only Both ScienceDirect and Scopus are internationally ac-
populating our results with studies related to industrial knowledged databases that index the largest number of
hemp use. In subsequent rounds, the articles that dealt scientific articles across the globe (Bhattarai et al., 2022;
just with products physical or mechanical properties Karki et al., 2021; Maflahi & Thelwall, 2016; Meechang
characterization were dropped and those studies with in- et al., 2020). WOS was used due to the high prevalence of
tervening parts leading to improvements in product value agriculture-­related articles (Mongeon & Paul-­Hus, 2016)
were considered. Then, we excluded perspective and nar- and to acquire related articles not found in the previous
rative papers with no formal comparators. During our in- two databases. Identical search strings of (“cannabis” OR
clusion stage, we retained literature with approaches that “hemp”) AND (“chain” OR “LCA” OR “economic” OR
compared industrial hemp products against alternative “financial” OR “profitability” OR “feasibility”) were ap-
bio-­based and synthetic products, demonstrated spatial plied to the title and/or abstract and/or keywords fields
comparison across nations or landscapes, compared dif- (see Table 2) to source the repertoire of articles. There
ferent production processes and/or factors such as inputs was no restriction on the publication year and included
use and edaphic conditions. Finally, the outcome crite- English peer-­reviewed articles only. Initially, these data-
rion was comprised of results showing the qualitative and bases yielded 8684 hits of publications, which were then
quantitative variations concerning the comparators or the narrowed down to 7864 hits by applying a database filter
intervention. to include only research, review, and data papers. This list

T A B L E 1 Population, intervention,
Included Excluded
comparator, and outcome (PICO)
Population Articles related to industrial hemp Articles of therapeutic and framework for inclusion and exclusion
recreational cannabis decision.
Intervention Technological, scientific, or policies Hemp-­based product
leading to improvement in characterizations
production chain and product value
Comparator • Intercomparison between alternative Opinion papers; perspective
products papers; narrative reviews
• Spatial (between different
geographical locations)
• Comparison within hemp genotypes,
hemp-­based products, under
different climatic and edaphic
conditions
Outcomes Articles focusing on how strategic
shift leads to knowledge creation;
position relative to the comparators
(outputs)

T A B L E 2 Combinations of keywords
Title-­abstract-­key words
and Boolean operators for literature
Operator Aspect of analysis Boolean search.

OR, AND Value chain analysis from enviro-­ (“cannabis” OR “hemp”) AND
economic perspective (“chain” OR “LCA”)
Economic feasibility analysis (“cannabis” OR “hemp”) AND
(“economic” OR “financial”
OR “profitability” OR
“feasibility”)
BUDHATHOKI et al.    | 5 of 27

was imported into the Zotero library and, using dedupli- each article. The outcomes were then synthesized, evalu-
cation, the number of hits was reduced to 5906. A sub- ated, and discussed within the established themes.
sequent 199 articles remained after manually screening
at both the title and abstract level. Finally, after the full
paper screening process, 98 articles published from 2003 3 | RESULTS
to 2023 were considered for an extensive review process
(see Figure 2). 3.1 | Bibliometric overview

The 98 articles deemed eligible for this systematic review

2.5 | Bibliometric analysis were published in 52 different journals (see Figure 3). The
Journal of Cleaner Production held the maximum record
In this step, the included articles were descriptively char- of publications (11), followed by Industrial Crops and
acterized to establish a foundation for evaluating them Products with nine publications. The third most prolific
across different themes. This analysis encompassed the one, the Journal of Industrial Hemp (seven publications),
distribution of articles by journal, spatiotemporal distri- surprisingly published related articles for only until 2009.
butions, regional distributions of hemp products, and wise As shown in Figure 4, the included articles were pub-
segregation based on approach and methodology. lished between 2003 and 2023 (22/3/2023) and more than
half (52%) of the total number of articles were published
from 2019 onwards. Out of the total, 40 articles dealt with
2.6 | Categorical identification the LCA of industrial hemp, while 30 and 28 articles
were related to the VC and feasibility analysis categories,
In first step, selected studies were classified across the de- respectively.
ductively derived categories (i.e., VCA, LCA, and feasibil- The spatial distribution of selected articles (Figure 5)
ity analysis) based on the evaluation of the abstract and shows that, more than 90% of the studies were con-
key findings. Next step involved identification of key re- ducted in European Union (EU) states, particularly Italy
search themes through inductive analysis of the content of and France, and North American countries the United

As of 22/03/2023
Initial search

Web of Science Science Direct Scopus

Database n= 4137 n= 638 n= 3909

Exclusion: Encyclopedia,
Database Book chapters,
filters conference abstracts,
n= 3919 n= 522 n= 3423 case reports,
Inclusion: Inclusion: Inclusion: correspondence,
Step 1
Articles, Review articles Research articles, Review Articles and Review article discussions, editorials,
and Data paper articles and Data articles practical guidelines,
Screening

and Mini reviews news, others

Screening

After De-duplication Exclusion: Therapeutic,

n= 5906 Mental or Psychological,
Substance use, Sunn
Title-abstract level screening hemp, Chemical
Manual analysis, Kenaf, Ramie,
screening Marijuana, Drugs,
Zotero library
n= 199 Health, Disease,
Step 2 Medical, Adolescent,
Genes
Full paper reading

Exclusion: Irrelevant
papers and not
retrieved for full text
Articles
reading
considered for
review
n= 98

FIGURE 2 Literature search and screening process.

 6 of 27 |    BUDHATHOKI et al.

OCL - Oilseeds and fats, Crops and Lipids 2 F I G U R E 3 Journal-­wise distribution

GCB -Bioenergy 2 of published articles.
Materials 2
Journal of Cannabis Research 2
Bioresource Technology 2
Energies 2
Journal of Natural Fibres 2
Polymer 2
Resources, Conservation and Recycling 3
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 3
Energy and Buildings 3
Sustainability 4
Biomass & Energy 6
Journal of Industrial Hemp 7
Industrial Crops and Products 9
Journal of Cleaner Production 11

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

18 120 F I G U R E 4 Annual distribution of

LCA VCA Feasibility Cummulative articles across the domains of analysis
16
100 (n = 98).
14

12 80
Nr. of articles

10
60
8

6 40

4
20
2

0 0

Years

States and Canada. Very few (<4%) studies emerged from economic value of hemp products. Similarly, based on
the Global South with no research from Africa or South the empirical evidence the products were valued mostly
America. in financial terms (see Annex 3). Researchers then used
Figure 6 illustrates the regional distribution of hemp-­ content, modeling, case-­based or other approaches to
based products based on the bibliometrics analysis of descriptively analyze the topics, explore new ideas, and,
the articles, highlighting their regional prioritization. to a lesser extent, prescribe future recommendations.
In Western and Southwest Europe (e.g., Italy), hemp- Meanwhile, all LCA studies followed a common system-
crete received more attention, while Northern European atic LCA approach and methodology (see Annex 1) to
states also emphasized solid biofuel alongside hemp- evaluate the environmental impacts of hemp products
crete. East European countries, namely, Hungary and against other product substitutes. These studies mostly
Poland, focused mainly on textile fiber, while in North assessed from cradle (materials extraction) to gate (man-
America, bio-­composites seemingly received more re- ufactured product outlets) segments of the product's life
search priority. across several indices, such as global warming potential,
The research approach and methodology employed eutrophication, and fossil fuel depletion.
by the researchers are presented in Figures 7 and 8, re-
spectively. Across both the VC and feasibility dimen-
sions, the highly sought-­out research approaches were 3.2 | Categorical identification
experimental designs with an empirical nature. In par-
ticular, field and laboratory-­based studies were used, In this section, we inductively categorized articles based
in which researchers investigated ways to enhance the on the emerging themes across a deductively derived
BUDHATHOKI et al.    | 7 of 27

FIGURE 5 Map of the world showing the number of publications by countries.

classification framework (see Figure 9): LCA (n = 40), VC VCs. In all, LCA has been the most comprehensively
(n = 30) and feasibility analysis (n = 28). Collectively, the studied among the three deductive categories. As such,
thematic content of VC articles was found to be product un- consideration of a wide range of close comparators, dis-
specific or multi-­product, while the LCA and feasibility ar- tinct boundaries, and units of analysis have attributed to
ticles dealt with specific hemp products. Notably, only two the analytical rigor of LCA studies (Annexes 2 and 3 ).
articles, one each under the LCA and feasibility analysis
categories, were related to “Phytoremediation,” indicating
that very few articles built upon the narrative of industrial 3.2.2 | VC analysis
hemp performing well under marginal land conditions.
Under the VC category, the 10 initial articles studied eco-
nomic VC actors and their roles within the chain. In other
3.2.1 | Life cycle analysis articles from the most recent decade, eight identified
critical intervention areas and explored intervening tech-
Articles under the LCA category assessed the environ- niques, while nine articles simultaneously recognized the
mental burden of industrial hemp products, mostly con- value-­adding opportunities to convert raw hemp compo-
sidering cradle-­to-­gate boundaries across environmental nents into high-­value products. Two articles studied the
indices. As shown in Annex 1, these included global prospects of novel blockchain technology to solve issues
warming potential, eutrophication, acidification, and ec- in the hemp VC. Finally, one article explored competi-
otoxicity. Under the LCA category, hempcrete has been tive hemp products for marginal land through multiple
studied the most (20% or 50% of the total), followed by European nations' stakeholders' social-­VCA.
bio-­composites (7) with four articles belonging to pulp
and three articles related to solid/biofuels, three for fib-
ers, one each related to phytoremediation, hemp oil and 3.2.3 | Feasibility analysis
green protein respectively. The five hempcrete and three
bio-­composite related articles co-­studied LCC, which es- Industrial hemp as an energy crop for producing biofuels
timates costs incurred by actors of respective (product) (bioethanol, biodiesel, and methane) and solid biofuels
 8 of 27 |    BUDHATHOKI et al.

FIGURE 6 Map of the world showing regional distribution of hemp products as emphasized by the selected articles' country of origin.

30 Feasibility analysis F I G U R E 7 Approach-­wise

VCA distribution of articles.
25

20
Nr. of articles

15

10

Approach

30 F I G U R E 8 Methodology-­wise
VCA distribution of articles.
25 Feasibility analysis

20
Nr. of articles

15

10

0
Empirical Descriptive Perspective Exploratory

Methodology
BUDHATHOKI et al.    | 9 of 27

Others, 3 Fiber, 3
Phytoremediation, 1

Bio-composite, 2 Co-products, 6

Solid/biofuels, 12 Hempcrete, 1

(d)

Bio-composite, 3

Feasibility of fiber/-composites chain, 4

Phytoremediation, 1 Others, 2 LCC, hempcrete, 5

Blockchain , 2 Social-VCA, 1
Fiber, 3
Hempcrete, 20 Economic performance
Pulp, 4
Critical interventions drivers , 10
areas , 8

Bio-composites, 7
Solid/biofuels, 3 Value addition, 9
(b) Enviro-economic assessment of hemp (c)
Fiber supply chain, 1
(a)

F I G U R E 9 Emerging themes of included research articles. The center bubbles (a) indicate broad (deductive) categories and three
pie charts around the bubbles show the number of articles with inductively derived themes across each category. (b, d) corresponding to
the respective LCA and feasibility bubbles show product-­specific themes, while (c) which corresponds to VCA contains themes related to
different VC dynamics. The numerals indicate number of articles. N > 98 due to overlapping themes.

(briquettes and pellets) were the most extensively studied and feasibility assessments of industrial hemp are con-
products under the feasibility analysis category (n = 13). ducted in Europe or North America. More than half
Next, concurrent products (i.e., fibers and biofuel, and of them were published in the past 5 years. This can
fiber and seed) (n = 6), fiber (n = 3), bio-­composites (n = 2), be attributed to the recent lenient and lucid EU regu-
phytoremediation (n = 1) and hempcrete (n = 1), and two lations for industrial hemp (Sorrentino, 2021), which
others (hemp oil and seed) were prioritized hemp prod- has enabled an environment for conducting research.
ucts studied from a feasibility perspective. Half of the The surge of US interest in hemp research followed
studies undertaking feasibility analysis solely considered the authorization of the Farm Bill 2018 that also led
the “cost” of industrial hemp products from manufactur- to a substantial rise in publications (Abernethy, 2019).
ers and the user perspective, while the other half studied Moreover, the increasing interest in the topic of the en-
factors like benefits and profit margins. This leaves a gap vironmental and economic sustainability of industrial
in literature regarding the profitability of some hemp hemp among scholars of the Western world can be ex-
products. plained by the EC's extended commitment toward the
Finally, one of the articles encompassed all three cate- circular economy 2015 (EC, 2024). This envisages and
gories, comparing GHG emission and economic feasibility encourages a harmony between economic development
(yield/cost/price) from industrial hemp tailored to bioen- and environmental protection (Domenech & Bahn-­
ergy production, against those of wheat and poplar. Walkowiak, 2019). However, there is a clear dearth of
research on industrial hemp in related facets in other
parts such as vast areas of the Global South.
4 | DI S C USSION Hemp products prioritized by the studies tended to
have regional prioritization. In general, hempcrete with
4.1 | Revisiting the bibliometric environmental amicability was the most highly sought
overview product in the European research papers. Indeed, the use
of hempcrete for insulation purposes is one of its main ap-
The spatiotemporal trend of selected articles reveals that plications in Europe (Carus & Sarmento, 2016). Of particu-
over 90% of studies that consider the enviro-­economic lar significance, our results emphasize regional specificity,
10 of 27 |    BUDHATHOKI et al.

with papers from Southern European countries (i.e., Spain Moreover, above discussions are based on the research
and Portugal) mostly highlighting hemp-­for-­pulp and East findings of industrial hemp grown in the dedicated agri-
European countries favoring textile fibers. The specific cultural land under input intensive production system.
product focus across these country-­specific studies can be The performance of industrial hemp with minimal inputs
explained by regional factor; for instances, the Spanish cli- and in marginal landscapes could be a good discussion
mate that limit the application of industrial hemp to only topic in future studies. To this end, a pioneering study by
pulp paper and the East European condition suitable for Todde et al. (2022) showed the relative energy saving of
textile quality yarn production (Gorchs & Lloveras, 2003). 36.8 GJ and emission reduction by 641 CO2 eq/ha from
industrial hemp under contaminated soil and a low-­input
scenario, when tailored to bioenergy production. More
4.2 | Environmental assessment of empirical studies are needed to widen our understanding
industrial hemp of how hemp will perform and what hemp products can
be produced with low environmental trade-­offs, under
The selected 40 articles conducted LCAs of major hemp given unconducive scenarios in particular regions.
products with main focus on the global ecological index
such as carbon emissions (CO2) associated with global
warming, as well as local/regional eutrophication and acid- 4.3 | VCA of industrial hemp
ification indices. Some of the identified carbon hotspot are
the yarn production phase during textile manufacturing Based on the analysis of included VC articles, the stake-
(Turunen & Van Der Werf, 2007), the functionalization holder rendezvous at the Canada AgFibe 2002 conference
phase for use as composite fiber, and use of lime binder can be considered a significant milestone for industrial
during hempcrete formation (Pretot et al., 2014). However, hemp VC studies. Back then, the linkage between VC
hempcrete related emissions are counterbalanced to actors (e.g., producers, processors, and buyers) in the
carbon-­ negative values because of photosynthetic CO2 fiber supply chain was critical in the Canadian fiber VC
fixation during the growth phase and CO2 absorption (via. (Hanks, 2003). The French system also demonstrated
carbonation) during the use phase (Arehart et al., 2020). how linkages between VC actors were crucial (Alex
Estimated net carbon storage potential of (m2) unit hemp- et al., 2005). The study recognized the need of network
crete insulation wall (of varying thickness) ranges from consortium among farmers and primary processors to en-
4.28 kg CO2 eq (Zampori et al., 2013) to 36.08 kg CO2 eq sure the continuous supply of high-­quality textile fibers.
(Ip & Miller, 2012). Shortening the supply chain phase Over the course of time, expanding industrial applications
of resource extraction (Di Capua et al., 2021) and the use demanded increasingly economical production of high-­
of unfired binders alternatives (Florentin et al., 2017) in- quality diversified raw material components, including
stead of lime binder (Pretot et al., 2014) can further reduce fiber, hurds, and seed. Consequently, the thematic focus
hempcrete-­associated emissions. of the most recent decade on VC research shifted towards
The application of (nitrogenous) fertilizer and pesti- the identification and workings of technical or production
cides during cultivation of industrial hemp has been the process-­oriented issues, with a strong focus on extracting
subject of ecological concern, leading to regional conse- raw materials for market competitive diverse hemp prod-
quences such as eutrophication, (Bernas et al., 2021), acid- ucts in more economical ways.
ification (Casas, 2005), and ecotoxicity (Seile et al., 2022).
Owing to these environmental constraints on input use,
hemp as a pulp for paper remains less sustainable than flax 4.4 | Potential areas for improving
(González-­García, Hospido, et al., 2010; González-­García, economic performance
Teresa Moreira, et al., 2010), eucalyptus (Da Silva Vieira
et al., 2010), and woody perennials (Sun et al., 2018). In general, hemp harvesting (Pari et al., 2015) and fiber
Regarding the ecological footprint associated with hemp processing (Vandepitte et al., 2020) have been identified
hurds derived biofuels (e.g. bioethanol), the pros of re- as key intervention areas for global hemp VC development
duced fossil fuel demand and photooxidation (González-­ (Müssig et al., 2020). Due to a slow harvesting and com-
García, Moreira, et al., 2010) can be counterbalanced by ponents extraction process, the traditional manual hemp
reallocating the environmental burdens of by-­products harvesting method is no longer feasible, especially in parts
such as glycerine, cakes, and straw. Other energy crops of the industrialized world with expensive labor charges.
like triticale, wheat, sugar beet, and maize were consid- So, these exigent circumstances drive the need for mecha-
ered more carbon and energy-­efficient than hemp for bio- nization. Various researchers have conducted trials using
fuels, as illustrated by Börjesson et al. (2015). currently available harvesters. For instance, Vandepitte
BUDHATHOKI et al.    | 11 of 27

et al. (2020) adapted agronomic practices to acquire the products obtained through the acidogenic fermentation of
desired size of hemp stalks that fit within the arc of au- hurds, leaves, and inflorescence (Moscariello et al., 2022).
tomated flax harvesters. Meanwhile, Assirelli et al. (2020) Furthermore, mercerization and subsequent enzymatic
reduced the rotary cutter of self-­propelled forage harvest- treatment (George et al., 2015) or tall oil application (George
ers to separate fibers right from standing. These harvest- et al., 2016) are demonstratable techniques for removing
ing techniques excelled in speed of operation alongside the hydrophilic hemicellulose content of hemp fibers to
reduced labor with enhanced quality of component fiber enhance its thermal properties. Capitalising on valorization
(tow and long fibers) and shives yields. The sunflower opportunities will enhance the economic value of indus-
head assembled combined harvester is one recently tested trial hemp products. The development and scaling-­up of
technique that enables the acquisition of valuable thresh- laboratory-­demonstrated techniques to an industrial level
ing residues during seed harvesting (Assirelli et al., 2022). will ensure extra income generation.
At the fiber processing stage, decortication (Gratton &
Chen, 2004) and spinning steps (Zimniewska, 2022) have
been a recurring concern (Wang et al., 2018). Fibernova D7 4.6 | Economic feasibility of
type decorticator was proposed previously, but with high hemp-­based products
moisture retention (70.5%) in hurds, it is economically
unviable at the farmers' level (Riddlestone et al., 2006). Hemp as a feedstock for bioenergy generation entailing bi-
Similarly, a linen spinning technology can be adjusted for ofuels (e.g., bioethanol, biodiesel, and biogas), briquettes,
hemp yarn production, but this system demands a special- and pellets were the most studied products among articles
ized implementation configuration that is inaccessible in included under the feasibility analysis category. However,
most markets (Zimniewska, 2022). Other identified issues industrial hemp for bioenergy production in Northern
in the hemp VC include funding sources and traceabil- Europe did not look economically sanguine under the
ity, with one potential solution being the proposed adop- current levels of feedstock productivity, input cost, and
tion of novel blockchain technology (Ferrández-­ Pastor energy price. In the Irish context, Rice (2008) calculated
et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2023). a negative gross margin of energy hemp at the prevailing
energy price of US$4.06/Gj (peat as fuel). Highly optimis-
tic scenarios including 14 t/ha DM yield, organic fertilizer
4.5 | Value addition input, and start-­up grant availability may provide a profit
margin of US$1123/ha (Finnan & Styles, 2013). But the
Researchers have explored various opportunities within maximum yield potential of European hemp cultivars'
the industrial hemp VC that showcase ways to add value is 10.7 t/ha (Kolarikova et al., 2015). In Estonia, finan-
to the products. For example, the blend of hemp fibers dur- cially remunerative hemp briquette necessitated a surge
ing composite knitting step can create UV-­resistant high-­ in price from 130.63 US$/t to at least 199.47 US$/t (Alaru
value apparels (Kocić et al., 2019; Müssig et al., 2020). et al., 2013). The prospect of hemp pellets production is
Similarly, hemp seed is valued for human food fortifica- also disarming, with an estimated input (tillage and seed
tion, to both enhance protein content and stabilize the fertilizer) cost of 432 US$/t DM, which is at least 52.9
physico-­bio-­chemical properties of food products (Burton US$/t DM higher than other energy crops like reed canary
et al., 2022). grass and other crop by-­products such as shavings and
Valorization is one such technique that can convert low-­ straw (Nilsson et al., 2011). Additionally, methane pro-
value biomass into value-­added bioproducts and chemicals duction from hemp biomass in Europe is not fortuitous
(Loow et al., 2016). Moreover, various biophysical pretreat- (Gissén et al., 2014). The estimated hemp feedstock yield
ment and accompanying recovery procedures (Murthy of 80 Gj methane/hac is only half of sugar beet (including
& Madhava Naidu, 2012) have been the basis of several tops) yield and, with a feedstock production cost of 15.12
experiments (Figure 10) to produce high-­value commer- US$/Gj, profit realization cannot be expected.
cial products with a range of applications. Hemp hurd, a Nonetheless, due to a relatively low-­ input demand
by-­product of the textile industry (Dang & Nguyen, 2006), and high productivity, the use of hemp fibers can be more
can be valorized into textile fibers and nanocellulose cost-­effective than cotton for textile industries (Duque
through a route called Organosolv pulping (Muangmeesri Schumacher et al., 2020). Similarly, the application of
et al., 2021). Sonication–microwave–alkali treatment pro- hemp fiber composites such as in automobiles (Hagnell
cedure is another way to convert fibers into nanocrystal- et al., 2020), in bioplastic production (La Rosa et al., 2013),
line cellulose suitable for bio-­composite reinforcement (Xu and in manufacturing conduits and fittings (Haylock &
et al., 2013). Similarly, volatile fatty acids (e.g., single-­cell Rosentrater, 2018) have shown considerable cost reduc-
proteins and polyhydroxy butyrates) are high-­end market tions when compared to petrochemical-­ derived glass
12 of 27 |    BUDHATHOKI et al.

FIGURE 10 Illustration of different routes of valorization proposed by different authors.

fiber and non-­renewable talc. However, bio-­composites costs has led to relative cost inefficiencies at the upstream
sourced from flax fiber and date palms were cheaper than level as compared to alternative bio-­based solutions such
hemp bio-­composites for the automobile industries (Al-­ as miscanthus (Schulte et al., 2021). From the producer's
Oqla et al., 2015). perspective, high input costs may infer low relative profit-
The cost competitiveness of hempcrete for hous- ability, regardless of the ultimate use.
ing insulation can vary with region. In Italy, Annibaldi
et al. (2020) estimated installation costs for the inner sur-
face (wall) was 22.88 US$/m2, which was 24.24 US$/m2 4.6.1 | Co-­production scheme
cheaper than alternative insulation materials like aerogel,
cork, calcium silicate, and polystyrene. It also had a low Profitability of industrial hemp can be assured through a
life cycle NPV costing (3024.9 US$/m3) compared to either production scheme that considers multiple co-­products.
synthetic polyurethane (3217.34 US$/m3) and mineral Figure 11 presents pooled data indicating positive returns
rock wool (3122.5 US$/m3; Rocchi et al., 2018). In France, from bioethanol and grain co-­products, with a range of 640
insulation solutions like glass wool, cellulose fiber, rigid US$/ha to 2632 US$/ha across hemp varieties and geograph-
foam polyurethane expanded-­ polystyrene (XPS), and ical location, while there is a profit loss under a bioethanol-­
extruded-­polystyrene (EPS) were more economical (Colli only production scheme. This was observed directly in
et al., 2020). Moreover, the economic viability of hemp fi- several regional localities. For example, a dual production
bers for various applications depends on the cost-­effective scheme of fiber and seed in Turkey (Ceyhan et al., 2022) or
acquisition of fiber material, influenced by fluctuations a combination of concurrent products of biodiesel, fiber,
in the fiber process (Seile et al., 2022). In fact, high cul- or seed in Malaysia (Szulczyk & Badeeb, 2022), were seen
tivation (particularly N fertilization) and manufacturing as profitable. However, hemp fiber production only in
BUDHATHOKI et al.    | 13 of 27

F I G U R E 1 1 Comparison between
revenue generation from ethanol and
co-­product ethanol and grain. Based on
the pooled revenue figures of different
nations estimated by Parvez et al. (2021),
Das et al. (2017, 2020) and Buck and
Senn (2016).

both the Turkish (Ceyhan et al., 2022) and the Malaysian industrial hemp vis-­à-­vis profitability. To illustrate this,
edapho-­climatic scenarios (Wimalasiri et al., 2021, 2022) in France, Institut Technique du Chanvre (2007) rec-
resulted in a monetary loss of −555 US$/ha and −2000 ommended a nitrogen (N) fertilizer rate of 120 kg/ha
US$/ha to −1800 US$/ha, respectively. Other findings in- (Abernethy, 2019) for achieving optimum economic re-
dicate that in a co-­production scheme profitability could be turns from industrial hemp (Alaru et al., 2013). Thus,
further enhanced through biotechnological advancements the environmental consequences of field nitrogen appli-
that increase the amount of products with highest price, cation are evident. A study by Finnan and Styles (2013)
such as increasing hemp plant lipid content to enhance suggested that organic fertilizers such as low or no-­cost
high-­priced biodiesel production processes over ethanol sludge applications are both environmentally friendly and
production (Viswanathan et al., 2021). economical, and therefore make profitable yield alterna-
The current body of evidence suggests positive re- tives. However, their findings indicated lucrative hemp
turns on concurrent hemp products. However, hemp as biomass yield from organically grown hemp is more
a dedicated crop in the arable landscape should also be likely case or context sensitive and cannot be general-
financially competitive with other conventional crops. ized. Rather, a premium price received by the producers
Future studies should therefore investigate the relative for delivering eco-­friendly (organic) products can be a key
profitability of industrial hemp as compared to estab- profitability factor. Therefore, understanding consumers'
lished arable crops. Furthermore, current findings are perceptions toward hemp bioproducts and their willing-
region-­specific, with most observed in developed nations ness to pay premium prices should drive future research.
and cannot be generalized to other parts of the world. The Additionally, the price competitiveness of all the eco-
Global South, for example, is home to the vast majority nomic actors involved in the industrial hemp VC could
of smallholder farmers, who are characterized by low-­ be another important aspect for further analysis. For this,
input farming systems and cheap labor forces (La Rosa & a feasibility study should be conducted from the vantage
Grammatikos, 2019). These regions can potentially host of the VC, aiming to quantify the monetary flow across all
more economically viable industrial hemp production sys- the actors along the entire chain.
tems; however, countries in the Global South producing
industrial hemp from this aspect are yet to be studied.
5 | CONC LUSION

4.7 | Enviro-­economic linkages To recapitulate the major findings of our bibliometric

analysis, above 90% of the studies were conducted in the
Overall, it may be surmised that the arable landscape of the regions of Europe and North America. The results revealed
Global North cannot have environmentally sustainable regionally prioritized hemp products, such as hempcrete
14 of 27 |    BUDHATHOKI et al.

in Southwest Europe (Italy), biofuel in Northern European part of the Wiley - University of Southern Queensland
states, and textile fiber and bio-­composites in Eastern agreement via the Council of Australian University
Europe, Asia, and North America. These findings empha- Librarians.
size the large concentration of studies on hemp products
in the Global North, with insights from the Global South FUNDING INFORMATION
remaining uncaptured. None.
LCA studies show that industrial hemp can provide
environmentally benign products for transportation to CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
the construction sectors as compared to fossil fuel alter- The authors declare that they have no known competing
natives. In particular, hempcrete is an equivocally touted financial interests or personal relationships that could
climate-­friendly construction solution, with net carbon have appeared to influence the work reported in this
storage from at least 4.28 CO2 eq/m2 to 36.08 kg CO2 eq/ paper.
m2 due to carbon assimilation during growth phase and
carbon absorption during use phase. However, alterna- DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
tive bio-­based solutions from flax, palm, or eucalyptus Data will be made available upon request.
can be more ecologically amicable. Moreover, the appli-
cation of fertilizers and pesticides during the biomass ORCID
production stage of industrial hemp can incur an envi- Rajan Budhathoki https://orcid.
ronmental risk. org/0000-0002-8569-8051
The most recent decade on VC research recognized the
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ANNEX 1 Summary of LCA of different hemp products, methodology, unit of analysis, span, and considered environmental indicators.
LCA methodology Considered (major) environmental impacts

Span
Reference Products Country Study approach Comparators Unit (years) GW E A T OD FD PM LU O
BUDHATHOKI et al.

Direct plant
products
Van Der Werf (2004) Fiber France Cradle-­to-­farm gate Fiber hemp versus arable crops × × × × × ×
Turunen and Van Der Fiber Hungary Seeding-­to-­spinning Fiber hemp versus Flax fiber across 100 kg yarn × × × × × ×
Werf (2007) of yarn different rating scenarios
Bernas et al. (2021) Edible oil Czech Cradle-­to-­gate Hemp oil versus traditional oilseed 1 m3 edible oil and parcel of land -­ × × × × ×
Republic crops required for this production
volume
Campiglia et al. (2020) Seed Italy Cradle-­to-­gate Different hemp genotypes 1 kg seed × × × × × × × × ×
Fiber composites
Recupido et al. (2023) Italy Cradle-­to-­gate Among different types of hemp-­based 5.9 gm filler — × × × × × × ×
(factory) fillers
Seile et al. (2022) Latvia Cradle-­to-­gate Among hemp/− and flax/PLA and 1000 × 500 mm dimension — × × × × × ×
(factory) between non-­renewable polyamide composite
composite
Ead et al. (2021)
Haylock and US Cradle-­to-­grave Hemp fiber (PLA composite) filler 10, 100 and 1000 gm fillers × × × × × ×
Rosentrater (2018) versus other renewable non-­
renewable fillers
La Rosa et al. (2014) Italy Cradle-­to-­gate Sandwich panel manufactured with 0.4 × 0.4 × 0.02 m dimension — × × × × × × ×
(factory) hemp/ bio-­epoxy resin versus sandwich panel
conventional epoxy/glass fiber
Ramesh et al. (2022) India — Review — — × × × × × × ×
Building
materials
Haik et al. (2023) Hempcrete Israel Attributional or Lime hempcrete versus hempcrete with 1-­storey building 50 ×
consequential unfired binders as a substitute
Mouton et al. (2023) Belgium Cradle-­to-­grave Bio-­based dwelling components 1 m2 of purposed building elements 60 × × ×
Vilaboa Díaz Portugal — Materials from agricultural waste 1 kg of bio-­based materials ×
et al. (2022)
Colli et al. (2020) France Hempcrete versus bio-­based and 1 m2 of insulating materials × × × ×
synthetic insulation solutions
Ip and Miller (2012) UK Attributional Exploratory study 1 m2, 0.3 m thick hempcrete wall 100 ×
3
Di Capua et al. (2021) Italy Cradle-­to-­gate Hempcrete vs conventional construction 1 m wall -­ × × ×
  

materials
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LCA methodology Considered (major) environmental impacts

Span
  

Reference Products Country Study approach Comparators Unit (years) GW E A T OD FD PM LU O

Pittau et al. (2020) Italy Hempcrete blocks as a surface Historical industrial building × × × × × × × × ×
insulator versus another insulation
choice with refurbishment and
reconstruction case
Scrucca et al. (2020) France Cradle-­to-­gate Exploratory study (hurds for building 1 kg hemp hurds × ×
sector)
Arehart et al. (2020) US Cradle-­to-­gate Exploratory study (hempcrete for 1 m2 wall × ×
insulation material)
Heidari et al. (2019) France — Treated hemp hurd versus untreated 1 kg hemp hurd and sol–gel 60–120 × × × ×
hurd and reference wall materials (coating)/1 m2 insulation wall
Sinka et al. (2018) Latvia Cradle-­to-­gate Lime hempcrete versus hempcrete 1 m2 wall × × × × × ×
with magnesium binder as lime
substitute
Mungkung et al. (2016) Thailand Cradle-­to-­gate Hempstone versus artificial stone Hempstone sheet × × ×
(3.04 L × 0.82B × 0.012H m3)
Pretot et al. (2014) France Cradle -­to-­grave Hempcrete walls with different coating 1 m2 hempcrete wall having 27 cm 100 × × × × × ×
compositions thickness (incl. 2 cm and 1 cm
external and internal coating)
Hult and Insulation Sweden — Hemp fiber versus conventional Nuclear family home 50 ×
Karlsmo (2022) insulation solution
Dickson and Ireland — Hemp versus conventional insulation 1 m2 insulation materials × × × × × ×
Pavía (2021)
Schulte et al. (2021) Germany Cradle -­to-­grave Among materials of biological (incl. 1 m2 external wall 70 × × × × × × × × ×
hemp) origin and between
non-­renewables
Florentin et al. (2017) Israel Hemp-­lime insulation versus 110 m2 Residential building 50 ×
conventional insulation solution apartment
Zampori et al. (2013) Italy Cradle-­to-­gate Hemp fiber insulation versus rockwool 1 m2 insulation panel — × × × × × × ×
insulation
Rocchi et al. (2018) Italy Among renewables (hemp and kenaf) 1 m2 insulation panel 25 × × ×
and between non-­renewables
Kiesse et al. (2017) Germany Environmental impacts resulting from 1 m2 insulation panel and wall 50/100 × × × × ×
various potential actions
Pulp and paper
González-­García, Spain Cradle-­to-­gate Hemp versus flax fiber 1-­ton fiber — × × × × ×
Hospido,
et al. (2010)
BUDHATHOKI et al.
 BUDHATHOKI et al.

ANNEX 1 (Contiuned)
LCA methodology Considered (major) environmental impacts

Span
Reference Products Country Study approach Comparators Unit (years) GW E A T OD FD PM LU O

González-­García, Spain Cradle-­to-­gate Hemp versus flax fiber × × × × ×

Teresa Moreira,
et al. (2010)
Da Silva Vieira Portugal Cradle-­to-­pulp Hemp versus eucalyptus paper 1-­ton paper manufactured -­ × × × ×
et al. (2010)
Sun et al. (2018) China Cradle-­to-­gate Hemp and flax pulping versus straw-­ 1 ton of wheat straw pulp — × × × × × × ×
based pulping
Bioenergy
González-­García, Ethanol Spain — Hemp hurd feedstock versus alternative 1 km distance travelled by flexi fuel — × × × × ×
Moreira, lignocellulosic feedstocks vehicle
et al. (2010)
González-­García Spain — Hemp hurd feedstock-­based bioethanol 1 km distance travelled by flexi fuel — × × × × ×
et al. (2012) at varying blends vehicle
Börjesson et al. (2015) Methane Sweden Field to tank Biogas production from hemp versus 1 GJ of biogas produced ×
different crop biomass
Todde et al. (2022) Electricity Italy Cradle-­grave Electricity generation using hemp 1 kg dry biomass and 1 ha
biomass versus traditional sources phytoremediation area
Casas (2005) Biodiesel Spain Cultivation to fuel Biodiesel versus diesel × × × × × ×
manufacturing
Abbreviations: A, acidification; E, eutrophication; FFD, fossil fuel depletion; GW, global warming potential; LU, land use; O, others; OD, ozone depletion; PM, particulate matter; T, toxicity.
  
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24 of 27 |    BUDHATHOKI et al.

ANNEX 2 Summary of the studies on value chain analysis of industrial hemp, approach, methodology used, their
applications, and country.

Application/
References Objective Approach Methodology products Country
Liu et al. (2023) To study the applicability of blockchain Content Descriptive Unspecific China
technology in supply chain
management
Moscariello Investigating valorization procedure on Experimental Empirical Multipurpose Italy
et al. (2022) hemp biomass to achieve high-­value (unspecific)
bioproducts
Ceyhan et al. (2022) To conduct a value chain analysis of Survey Descriptive Fibers and seed Turkey
industrial hemp from an economic
perspective in Turkey
Ferrández-­Pastor To suggest a model that parallelly Content Descriptive Unspecific Spain
et al. (2022) integrates experts' knowledge and
technology, that is, blockchain and
internet of things approach for
enhancing traceability of industrial
hemp chain
Burton et al. (2022) To review the studies about the Review Descriptive Seed Australia
applicability of hemp seed as a value-­
added human dietary ingredient
Zimniewska (2022) To review literature on fiber properties Review Descriptive Textile Poland
and processing identifying their
intervention nodes
Assirelli et al. (2022) To investigate a novel hemp seed supply Experimental Empirical Propagating seed Italy
chain through manipulation of sowing
time and harvesting practices
Panoutsou To conduct social perspective VCA Survey Descriptive Unspecific Europe
et al. (2022) of industrial hemp in marginal
agricultural land
Zhao et al. (2021) SWOT analysis of industrial hemp among Survey Perspective Unspecific China
different regions of China
Muangmeesri To demonstrate the valorization Experimental Empirical Multipurpose Sweden
et al. (2021) techniques converting low-­value hemp (unspecific)
stalks into high-­value compounds
Vandepitte To evaluate the fiber characteristics of Experimental Empirical Textile Belgium
et al. (2020) hemp varieties and their feasibility to
get processed into flex scutching line
Rupasinghe To provide an analytical review of Review Descriptive Seed and seed oil US
et al. (2020) industrial hemp about its potential
usage as a value-­added dietary
ingredient and physical well-­being
Colombo Value chain analysis of organically grown Case study Exploratory Seed oil Italy
et al. (2020) hemp for oil purposes in Sicily, Italy
Assirelli et al. (2020) To evaluate the efficiency of a mechanical Experimental Empirical Multipurpose Italy
harvester in separating different hemp (unspecific)
biomass components
Giupponi To examine the Italian hemp production Survey Descriptive Multipurpose Italy
et al. (2020) chain and overall usage (unspecific)
Grégoire et al. (2020) To investigate alternative fiber extraction Experimental Empirical Geotextiles/ France
processes and their effects on fiber Bio-­composite
morpho-­mechanical characteristics
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ANNEX 2 (Contiuned)

Application/
References Objective Approach Methodology products Country
Alonso-­Montemayor To explore the fate of polyamide 6 in Experimental Exploratory Bio-­composite Spain
et al. (2020) enhancing the mechanical strength of
hemp fiber composites
Kocić et al. (2019) To compare the properties of hemp fibers Experimental Empirical Textile Serbia
with other natural and synthetic fibers
concerning UV protection
Gusovius To compare the outcomes of various Experimental Empirical Bio-­composite Germany
et al. (2019) retting procedures enabling value-­
added chain and products
Wang et al. (2018) To compare the decortication efficacy of Experimental Empirical Unspecific Italy
hemp varieties at a laboratory scale
George et al. (2016) To analyze the effect of physical and Experimental Empirical Bio-­composite Canada
enzymatic treatment on the physical
and morphological properties of hemp
Bono et al. (2015) To explore areas for the development Content Perspective Multipurpose France
competitive industrial hemp value (Unspecific)
chain
Pari et al. (2015) To provide a review on hemp (and other Review Perspective Multipurpose China
blast fibers) harvesting strategies (Unspecific)
adopted in China and Europe and to
provide a way forward to enhance its
product value
George et al. (2015) To study the effect of physicochemical Experimental Empirical Bio-­composite Canada
treatment on enhancing fiber for high-­
value application
Xu et al. (2013) To demonstrate the fate of enzymatic Experimental Empirical Bio-­composite Canada
treatment in producing value-­added
products
Garnier et al. (2007) To analyze the marketing and economic Content Descriptive Multipurpose France
forces within the French hemp chain (unspecific)
Riddlestone To evaluate a technology aimed at Technology Descriptive Textile UK and
et al. (2006) addressing a nodal point Australia
Alex et al. (2005) To develop an economically resilient Case study Prescriptive Textile France
hemp value chain
Hanks (2003) To identify underlying problems of the Case study Descriptive Textile Canada
hemp value chain
Amaducci (2003) To develop a support system ensuring Interdisciplinary Empirical Textile Italy
high-­quality fibers
26 of 27 |    BUDHATHOKI et al.

ANNEX 3 Summary of the studies on economic feasibility assessment of different hemp products, approach,
methodology used, their applications, and country.

References Approach Methodology Factor Products Application Country

Wimalasiri et al. (2022), Modeling Descriptive Profit (NPVB) Fiber (and Unspecific Malaysia
Wimalasiri et al. (2021) seed)
Duque Schumacher Content Exploratory Cost Textile US
et al. (2020)
Pecenka et al. (2009) Content Descriptive Cost Unspecific Germany
Eerens (2003) Content Exploratory Cost/benefit Unspecific New Zealand
analysis
Salami et al. (2021) Experimental Empirical Cost VFAs Agro-­ Finland
biochemicals,
stimulants
Muneer et al. (2021) Experimental Empirical Cost/benefit Green protein Food and Feed Sweden
analysis
Devi and Khanam (2019) Experimental Empirical Cost Oilseed Edible Oil India
Gorchs and Lloveras (2003) Case study Descriptive Gross margin Fiber Paper Spain
Seile et al. (2022) Content Descriptive Price Reinforced Automotive Latvia
composite
Hagnell et al. (2020) Case study Descriptive Cost Automotive Sweden
Haylock and Modeling Descriptive Cost Pipes and fittings US
Rosentrater (2018)
AL-­Oqla et al. (2015) Modeling Descriptive Ranking Automotive Malaysia
La Rosa et al. (2013) Case study Descriptive LCC Pipes and fittings Italy
Schulte et al. (2021) Content Descriptive LCC Insulation Building Germany
materials
Colli et al. (2020) Case study Descriptive WLC (NPV) Building France
(hempcrete)
Annibaldi et al. (2020) Case study Descriptive Cost Building (inner Italy
wall)
Rocchi et al. (2018) Case study Descriptive LCC (NPV) Building (roof) Italy
Bioenergy
products
Rheay et al. (2021) Content Descriptive Cost Bioenergy Unspecific US
Finnan and Styles (2013) Experimental Exploratory Cost Fuel Unspecific Ireland
Prade et al. (2012) Experimental Descriptive and Economic Fuel Unspecific Sweden
and exploratory efficiency
modeling
Dornburg et al. (2005) Case study Descriptive Cost Fuel Unspecific Poland and
Netherland
Das et al. (2020) Experimental Empirical Revenue Ethanol US
(and co-­
products)
Das et al. (2017) Experimental Empirical Revenue and Ethanol US
cost (and co-­
products)
Buck and Senn (2016) Experimental Empirical Revenue Ethanol Fuel (vehicles) Germany
(and co-­
products)
Szulczyk and Badeeb (2022) Modeling Empirical Price Malaysia
Viswanathan et al. (2021) Modeling Descriptive Cost Diesel Fuel (vehicles) US
BUDHATHOKI et al.    | 27 of 27

ANNEX 3 (Contiuned)

References Approach Methodology Factor Products Application Country

Vávrová et al. (2022) Experimental Empirical Cost Briquettes CZ
and/or
pellets
Kolarikova et al. (2015) Experimental Empirical Cost/revenue/ CZ
profit
Gissén et al. (2014) Experimental Empirical Cost Methane Heating Sweden
Alaru et al. (2013) Experimental Empirical Price Estonia
Nilsson et al. (2011) System study Descriptive/ Cost Heating Sweden
Exploratory
Rice (2008) Content Descriptive/ Feasibility/ Biofuels Heating/power Ireland
Exploratory profitability generation