## Lecture Notes: Computation, Math & Computation Interactions, and Computational Complexity
Theory
**I. Computation: A Foundation**
Computation, at its core, is the process of transforming input data into output data according to a
defined set of rules. This process can be performed by various means, including:
* **Human computation:** Manual calculations and problem-solving.
* **Mechanical computation:** Using tools like the abacus or slide rule.
* **Electronic computation:** Utilizing computers and algorithms.
Regardless of the method, computation involves:
* **Input:** The data provided to the computational process.
* **Algorithm:** A precise sequence of steps to transform the input.
* **Output:** The result of the computation.
* **Storage:** (Often implicit) A place to hold intermediate results or data.
**Key characteristics of computation:**
* **Determinism:** Given the same input, a deterministic computation always produces the same
output.
* **Non-determinism:** The output might vary even with the same input, often due to randomness or
external factors.
* **Efficiency:** The resource usage (time and space) needed to complete the computation. This is
central to computational complexity theory.
**II. The Interplay of Mathematics and Computation**
Mathematics and computation are deeply intertwined. Mathematics provides the theoretical framework
and tools for:
* **Algorithm design:** Mathematical concepts like logic, set theory, and graph theory are crucial for
creating efficient and correct algorithms. For example, understanding graph theory is essential for
designing algorithms for network routing or social network analysis.
* **Algorithm analysis:** Mathematical techniques are used to analyze the efficiency (time and space
complexity) of algorithms. This often involves using asymptotic notation (Big O, Big Omega, Big Theta).
* **Data structures:** Mathematical principles underpin the design and analysis of data structures that
organize and manage data efficiently (e.g., trees, graphs, hash tables).
* **Numerical computation:** Solving mathematical problems computationally, like numerical
integration, differential equations, or linear algebra problems. This field relies heavily on numerical
analysis techniques.
* **Cryptography:** Number theory and abstract algebra underpin the security of modern
cryptographic systems.
Conversely, computation empowers mathematics by:
* **Solving complex problems:** Computation enables the solution of mathematical problems that are
intractable by hand.
* **Generating and exploring mathematical structures:** Computers can generate and analyze vast
amounts of data, leading to new mathematical discoveries and conjectures. Examples include the
exploration of fractals or the automated theorem proving.
* **Visualizing mathematical concepts:** Computation and graphics facilitate the visualization of
abstract mathematical concepts, making them more accessible and intuitive.
**III. Computational Complexity Theory**
Computational complexity theory studies the resources (primarily time and space) required to solve
computational problems. It aims to classify problems based on their inherent difficulty.
**Key Concepts:**
* **Time complexity:** Measures the amount of time an algorithm takes to run as a function of the
input size (n). Expressed using Big O notation (e.g., O(n), O(n log n), O(n²), O(2ⁿ)).
* **Space complexity:** Measures the amount of memory an algorithm uses as a function of the input
size (n). Also expressed using Big O notation.
* **Complexity classes:** Groups of problems with similar complexity characteristics. Important
classes include:
* **P (Polynomial time):** Problems solvable in polynomial time (e.g., O(n³)). These are considered
"efficiently solvable".
* **NP (Nondeterministic Polynomial time):** Problems whose solutions can be *verified* in
polynomial time. A major unsolved problem in computer science is whether P = NP.
* **NP-complete:** The hardest problems in NP. If a single NP-complete problem could be solved in
polynomial time, then all problems in NP could be.
* **NP-hard:** Problems at least as hard as NP-complete problems (may not be in NP themselves).
* **Reductions:** Techniques to show that one problem is at least as hard as another. If problem A
can be reduced to problem B, and B is solvable in polynomial time, then A is also solvable in polynomial
time.
**Examples of Complexity Classes:**
* **P:** Sorting, searching, matrix multiplication.
* **NP:** Traveling salesman problem, Boolean satisfiability problem (SAT), graph coloring.
* **NP-complete:** SAT, Hamiltonian cycle problem, clique problem.
* **NP-hard:** Halting problem.
**Significance of Computational Complexity Theory:**
* **Algorithm design:** Guides the development of efficient algorithms.
* **Problem classification:** Helps understand the inherent difficulty of problems.
* **Resource allocation:** Informs decisions about resource allocation in computing systems.
* **Cryptography:** Underpins the security of many cryptographic systems.
This lecture note provides a foundational overview. Each topic warrants deeper exploration through
further reading and research. Remember to explore specific algorithms and complexity classes in more
detail to gain a comprehensive understanding of these critical concepts.
