PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

LESSON #1 | WHAT IS RESEARCH?

WHAT IS RESEARCH? Scientific Approach:

●​ Innovations and breakthroughs that you ●​ Science involves a systematic approach

come to know and enjoy are products of to gaining new knowledge. It aims to

research. describe, explain, and predict events

through thorough observations and

●​ Etymologically, the word ‘research’ controlled methods. Scientific knowledge

comes from the Middle French term relies on objective evidence rather than

‘recherché,’ which means ‘the act of personal views.

searching closely.’ Additionally, the term

‘research’ is a combination of the prefix Research Validity:

‘re-’ (meaning ‘again’) and the word ●​ Scientific research is more accurate,

‘search’ (meaning ‘to look for’). reliable, and valid because it follows
rigorous procedures and relies on

●​ In summary, research is the process of meticulously designed studies.

seeking information once again.

Skepticism and Casual Observation:

●​ Its main objective is to answer

questions and acquire new information, ●​ Research based on casual observation

whether to solve a problem or shed light and opinions is more susceptible to

on confusing facts. skepticism, even if it provides answers.

Scientific research ensures accuracy and
RESEARCH AND SCIENCE benefits by embedding science in its
process.

Curiosity and Doubt:

●​ When you’re curious and doubtful about

existing phenomena, you seek better
knowledge. You gather information from
books, the internet, and questions to
clarify or expand your ideas.

Informal Research:
●​ This process of informal research doesn’t
strictly follow procedures but relies on
various sources to find answers and
solutions to pressing problems.
 SCIENTIFIC METHODS IN RESEARCH ●​ Statistics provide numerical evidence of
validity and reliability.

Empirical Approach: ●​ Minimize the chance of faulty

●​ Knowledge is gained through direct conclusions.

observation and experimentation.

●​ Only data derived from scientific Conclusion:

procedures are considered factual. ●​ Inferences should rely on concrete data,

●​ Disregard preconceived notions and avoiding subjective opinions.

personal feelings. ●​ A conclusion must be objective and

supported by meticulous data analysis.

Observation: ●​ Avoid adding information beyond what is

●​ Your awareness of the environment available in the study results.

generates ideas. ●​ For example, if student scores increased

●​ Relying solely on awareness can lead to after tutorial classes, focus on that

information bias. specific data rather than introducing

●​ To enhance validity, use appropriate unrelated factors.

instruments to measure observations

precisely. Replication:
●​ Replication involves repeating the same

Question: study with different participants.

●​ Knowledge comes from answerable ●​ Its importance varies by discipline.

inquiries.
●​ Unanswerable questions are impossible Purposes of replication:

to explore realistically. ●​ Establishing reliability of findings.

●​ Questions must yield obtainable answers ●​ Discovering new knowledge or additional

based on current scientific procedures. information.

●​ Assessing generalizability of results to

Hypotheses: other participant groups.

●​ An educated guess explains phenomena.

●​ Formulate testable hypotheses for
analysis and prediction.
●​ Experimentation validates hypotheses.

Experiments:
●​ Testable hypotheses ensure accurate
and reliable results.
●​ The process of experimentation itself
demonstrates scientific procedures.

Analyses:
●​ Data undergo statistical analysis.
 WHAT ARE THE GOALS OF RESEARCH ●​ For example, height is a variable with
descriptions like small, average, and tall.

DESCRIBE To standardize and quantify variables,

●​ Refers to defining, classifying, and they become the focus of study.

categorizing the phenomena being

studied. Direct observation variables

●​ Goal: Provide essential information. ●​ are easily gauged by the senses (e.g.,
size, brightness, odor, taste).

PREDICT
●​ Involves stating possible consequences Indirect observation variables

of present events based on existing ●​ require tools or instruments (often

knowledge. abstract constructs).

●​ Goal: Control actions and behavior

through careful planning. Variables must be measured to generate data
for analysis.

UNDERSTAND/EXPLAIN
●​ Analyzing information to find causes Before measuring a variable, define it based on

behind phenomena. its purpose in the study (operational definition

●​ Requires an established relationship not lexical).

between events. Other explanations of

causality must be ruled out. KIND OF VARIABLES

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

●​ Knowledge establishment. ●​ Manipulated variables that cause a
●​ Correction of perceptions. change in another variable. Often
●​ Validation of phenomena. treatments or conditions that produce
●​ Testing effectiveness of solutions. varied responses or effects.
●​ Problem-solving. ●​ Example: In a study on reducing test
anxiety, the “peace-loving learning
CONSTRUCTS environment” is the independent

●​ Constructs are mental abstractions variable.

derived from an area of interest or a

problem. They represent ideas that need DEPENDENT VARIABLES

investigation. ●​ Affected by independent variables. Also

called the outcome variable. Represent

VARIABLE responses or effects resulting from

treatments or conditions.
●​ In research, constructs are called
variables. Variables can be understood
●​ Example: In the same study, “test anxiety”
differently due to differences in values.
is the dependent variable.
CONFOUNDING/EXTRANEOUS VARIABLE CONTINUOUS VARIABLE
●​ Impact the dependent variable. ●​ Continuous data have an infinite number
●​ Need to be controlled to minimize their of potential values between any two
effect. points.
●​ Confounding or Extraneous Variables: ●​ These variables can take on any numeric
●​ Example: Family background of grade value within a defined range.
school students affecting the impact of ●​ They can be meaningfully split into
the learning environment variable. smaller parts, allowing for fractional and
decimal values.
CATEGORICAL VARIABLES Examples:
●​ Describe data quality. ​ Height of individuals.
●​ Classified into mutually exclusive ​ Temperature (measured with decimal
categories (nominal) or ordered places).
categories (ordinal). ​ Time taken to complete a task.
●​ Examples: Civil status (single, married, ​ Weight.
widowed) and size (small, medium, QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES​
large).
●​ Provide details about the number or level
DISCRETE VARIABLES of something.
●​ Discrete data cannot have fractional or ●​ Count frequency of responses or effects.
decimal values. ●​ Example: Popularity contest votes.
●​ These variables can only assume QUALITATIVE VARIABLES
specific, distinct values that you cannot ●​ Represent kinds or types of objects.
subdivide. ●​ Often synonymous with categorical
●​ Typically, you count them, and the results variables.
are integers. ●​ May use numeric codes for
measurement.
Examples:
​ The number of cats in an animal shelter. Why is it important to study the levels of
​ The number of books you check out from measurement?
the library.
​ The number of heads in a sequence of PROPER INTERPRETATION OF DATA
coin tosses. ●​ Understanding levels of measurement
​ The result of rolling a die. helps interpret data related to variables.
​ The population of a country (since it’s ●​ For example, when gender is categorized
counted in whole numbers). as male and female, knowing the
quantity of participants in each category
is essential
Decisions on Statistical Analysis: ●​ Uses zero as base point.
●​ The choice of statistical analysis ●​ Allows comparison of differences and
depends on how a variable is measured. relative magnitudes.
●​ If comparing the quantity of males vs. ●​ Examples: Height, weight, age.
females, simple frequency and averages
suffice. Ratio data have equal intervals and a true zero
point. True zero means “nothing” (e.g., weight of
FOUR LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT 0 kg means no weight).
Ratios make sense (e.g., 20 kg is twice as heavy

Nominal Scales as 10 kg).

●​ Concerned with names and categories. Examples: Weight, height, age—all

●​ Examples: Nationality, hair color. QUANTITmeasured in real units.

Ordinal Scales: MAJOR APPROACHES

●​ Used for ranked data.

●​ Allows comparison of degree. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
●​ Examples: First, second, third; good,
better, best. ●​ Qualitative research aims to provide a
detailed understanding of
Ordinal Scales: characteristics, kinds, and quality related
●​ Used for ranked data. to a subject or event. Researchers use
●​ Allows comparison of degree. methods like in-depth interviews and
●​ Examples: First, second, third; good, narrative descriptions.
better, best. ●​ Data Type: Qualitative variables
(non-numerical data) are obtained.
Interval Scales: Examples: Studies on lived experiences of male
●​ Equal units of measurement. convicts, emotions of people who suffered loss,
●​ No true zero point. or a politician’s perspective on morality.
●​ Examples: Temperature, attitude, IQ.
Advantages:
Think of interval data like measuring ●​ Provides rich descriptions of real
temperature. We use Celsius or Fahrenheit. experiences.
The intervals between values are equal (e.g., the ●​ Allows for in-depth exploration and
difference between 10°C and 20°C is the same elaboration by participants.
as between 20°C and 30°C). ●​ Helps understand abstract factors
But there’s no true zero point (0°C doesn’t mean (customs, traditions, family roles, etc.).
“no temperature”).
Example: If it’s 20°C today and 10°C tomorrow, it’s Disadvantages:
not twice as hot—it’s just a difference. ●​ Lack of statistical analysis due to
non-numeric data.
Ratio Scales: ●​ Limited sample size affects data
●​ Highest level. credibility.
 ●​ Subjective bias from the researcher’s ●​ Rich Explanation: Qualitative data
perspective. provides a deeper understanding.
●​ Validity and Reliability: Combining both
methods enhances the study’s validity
QUANTITATIVE and reliability.
●​ Quantitative research systematically
describes large collections of things. It Disadvantages:
involves hypothesis testing and ●​ Time-Consuming: Integrating both
mechanistic understanding. approaches takes longer.
●​ The quantitative approach involves ●​ Guideline Challenges: Few guidelines for
making predictions and describing applying both methods can lead to
events using numerical figures. It relies discrepancies in findings.
on statistical analysis to interpret data.
●​ Data Type: Quantitative variables Main Characteristics of Quantitative Approach
(numeric data) are collected.
Examples: Surveys, experiments, statistical Data Collection:
analyses. ​ Quantitative research gathers data using
structured research instruments (e.g.,
Advantages: questionnaires or surveys).
●​ Generates reproducible knowledge.
●​ Allows statistical analysis. Sample Sizes:
●​ Confirmatory Method: It follows a ​ Results are based on larger sample sizes
scientific method by testing hypotheses. that represent the population.
●​ Bias Reduction: By examining numerical
data, bias is minimized. Replicability:
●​ Generalizability: Findings can be applied ​ The study can be replicated or repeated
to larger populations due to operational due to its high reliability.
definitions of variables.
Disadvantages: Clearly Defined Research Question:
●​ Requires larger samples. ​ Researchers seek objective answers to
●​ Statistical training needed for analysis. well-defined research questions.
●​ Limited Focus: Only focuses on the object Careful Design:
under investigation. ​ All study aspects are carefully planned
●​ Narrow Explanations: Interpretations are before data collection.
based solely on statistical data. Numerical Data:
MIXED METHODS ​ Data are expressed in numbers and
●​ Researchers combine both qualitative statistics.
and quantitative approaches. Generalization and Prediction:
●​ Useful for comprehensive analysis and ​ The approach allows generalizing
addressing diverse research questions. concepts widely, predicting future
outcomes, and investigating causal
Advantages: relationships.
 ​ Collect data to test hypotheses or
Broad Study Scope: describe study variables.
​ Quantitative research involves a greater ●​ Data Collection:
number of subjects, enhancing result ​ Typically numeric data gathered
generalization. through surveys, interviews, or
Objectivity and Accuracy: observations.
​ Study results are more objective and
accurate. ●​ Application:
Replicability:
​ When the right procedures are followed, ​ Common in science, technology,
quantitative research can be replicated engineering, and social sciences.
and compared with similar works.
Summarizing Information: CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
​ Researchers can summarize extensive ●​ Purpose:
data sources and make cross-category ​ Determine the level of relation
comparisons. between quantifiable variables.
Avoiding Bias: ●​ Correlation:
​ By maintaining distance from subjects ​ Does not imply causation but
and using neutral facilitators, personal helps predict variable values.
bias can be minimized.
CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE RESEARCH
Limitations of Quantitative Approach ●​ Purpose:
​ Establish cause-effect

Contextual Limitation: relationships.

​ While quantitative data can test ●​ Independent Variable:

hypotheses, they may be limited in ​ Often a demographic factor (e.g.,

explaining context. The focus on gender, race).

numerical results sometimes overlooks Example: Low joblessness reduces a country’s

the broader context. poverty rate.

Artificial Setting: EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

​ Research is often conducted in controlled ●​ Purpose:

environments, which may not fully reflect ​ Measure the effect of an

real-life situations. Additionally, research independent variable (cause) on

tools may introduce bias from the a dependent variable (effect).

researcher’s perspective. ●​ Control:

​ Researchers can manipulate

TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH independent variables, and

participants are randomly
assigned.
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
●​ Purpose:
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH Review of Related Literature
●​ Purpose:
​ Determine causes and effects literature review
when full experimental control is ●​ Literature Review is the documentation of
not possible. a comprehensive review of the published
●​ Application: and unpublished work from secondary
​ Used for naturally occurring sources of data in the areas of specific
phenomena and their impact on interest to the researcher.
people. ●​
●​ It should give a theoretical base for the
research and help you determine the
nature of your research. The literature
review acknowledges the work of
previous researchers, and in so doing,
assures the reader that your work has
been well conceived.
●​
●​ It is assumed that by mentioning a
previous work in the field of study, that
the author has read, evaluated, and
assimilated that work into the work at
hand.

Purpose of Literature Review

●​ to determine the similarities and

differences of the findings between the
past and present studies
●​ to gain insight into the aspects of the
problem that are critical and
controversial
●​ provides the researcher a background
regarding the aspects which have been
studied and not yet studied.
●​ assists the researcher on what to do on
the components of the research process.
●​ gives the researcher ideas to proceed
with his study until its completion
 RELATED LITERATURE

●​ any written materials such as book,

RELATED READINGS journal, magazine, novel, poetry,
●​ laws and department directives such as yearbook, and encyclopedia are
circulars, orders, memoranda, and others considered as literature.
which are related to the present study ●​ any written materials such as book,
●​ These laws and department directives journal, magazine, novel, poetry,
serve as legal bases for the paradigm of yearbook, and encyclopedia are
the study. This also presents the study as considered as literature.
having direct or indirect implications to ●​ The presentation of related literature is in
the government thrusts. chronological order either from past to
●​ In presenting the related readings, the present or vice versa.
researcher has to arrange related ●​ Some universities allow an arrangement
readings chronologically either from the by topic order while others allow an
past readings to most recent readings or alphabetical arrangement.
vice versa.
●​ In presenting the related readings, the EXAMPLES
researcher has to arrange related Neem Tree
readings chronologically either from the Neem tree. The neem tree, one of the most
past readings to most recent readings or promising of all plants, may eventually benefit
vice versa. every person on the planet. Probably no other
Example: plant yields as many varied products or has as
many exploitable by-products. Indeed, as
PRESIDENTIAL DECREE No. 984 known as "National foreseen by some scientists, this tree may usher
Pollution Control Decree of 1976” in a new era in pest control; provide millions with
Statement of Policy: inexpensive medicines; cut the rate of
It is a national policy to prevent, abate and population growth; and perhaps even reduce
control pollution of water, air and land for the erosion, deforestation, and the excessive
more effective utilization of the resources of the temperature of an overheated globe (Neem: A
country. Tree for Solving Global Problems 1992) .

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9168 known as "Philippine Plant Organic Pollutants

Variety Protection Act of 2002" Organic Pollutants. Organic pollutants include
Statement of Policy: pesticides such as DDT and lindane, industrial
AN ACT TO PROVIDE PROTECTION TO NEW PLANT chemicals such as polychlorinated biphenyls
VARIETIES, ESTABLISHING A NATIONAL PLANT (PCBs), and substances such as dioxins, which
VARIETY PROTECTION BOARD AND FOR OTHER are the unwanted by-products of
PURPOSES. manufacturing and combustion processes. It
has long been known that specific toxins
accumulate in the natural environment and in
living organisms, causing damage to health. As
a result, …. (“Organic Pollutants in Water” 2010) .
 RELATED STUDIES RATIONALE

●​ Related studies involve analyzing the ●​ So, why did you conduct the study? STATE
work of other researchers. These studies YOUR PURPOSE.
focus on the results and findings ●​ GLOBAL, NATIONAL, LOCAL
obtained by others.
●​ Here, recency matters significantly. 1. Background and Gap Identification:
Researchers focus on recent studies ●​ Begin by providing background
(usually within the last 5 years) to information on your research topic.
understand the current state of ●​ Discuss existing studies, theories, and
knowledge. Recent findings are more observations related to your area of
relevant because they reflect the latest interest.
advancements, methodologies, and ●​ Identify gaps or unresolved issues in the
trends in the field. literature.

EXAMPLE: 2. Justify the Need for Research:

●​ Comparative Isotherms Studies on ●​ Convince the reader that your study isn’t
Adsorptive Removal of Congo Red from redundant.
Wastewater by Watermelon Rinds and ●​ Explain why additional research is
Neem-Tree Leaves essential.
●​ Leaf Extract of Azadirachta indica ●​ Show that your work builds upon existing
(neem): A Potential Antibiofilm Agent for knowledge and addresses specific gaps.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
3. Objectives and Significance:
A writer of a thesis or research paper should ●​ Clearly state your research objectives.
justify in this section the bearing of the related ●​ Highlight what you hope to discover or
studies upon the present study. The researcher achieve through your study.
should also justify the differences of the present ●​ Emphasize the potential impact or
study with the past studies. benefits of your research.

4. Methodological Approach:
●​ Briefly describe your research
methodology (quantitative, qualitative,
or mixed methods).
●​ Explain how your chosen approach aligns
with your research goals.
 Theoretical vs. conceptual framework

●​ theoretical and conceptual frameworks ●​ In quantitative studies, a conceptual

both aid in understanding research framework helps define variables,

problems and shaping the research hypotheses, and the logical connections

process between them. It aids in designing

●​ Consider using a conceptual framework surveys, experiments, or statistical

to guide your capstone study, especially analyses by providing a roadmap for

if you’re exploring complex phenomena data collection and interpretation.

or interdisciplinary topics. While

theoretical frameworks are more
common in quantitative research,
conceptual frameworks are also
valuable.

Theoretical Framework

●​ A theoretical framework consists of a

single formal theory. In studies designed
around a theoretical framework, the
theory serves as the primary lens for
understanding and investigating the
research problem.
●​ While theoretical frameworks are

Organi
commonly used in quantitative research,
they can also appear in qualitative
studies.

Conceptual Framework

c Pol
●​ A conceptual framework incorporates
one or more formal theories (either
partially or wholly) alongside other
concepts and empirical findings from
existing literature.
●​ It illustrates the relationships among
these ideas and their relevance to the
research study.
●​ Conceptual frameworks are frequently
employed in qualitative research within
social and behavioral sciences,
especially when a single theory cannot
fully address the phenomena under
study.