PSYCHOLOGY AND ITS EDUCATIONAL APPLICATIONS:

Brief introduction to Psychology

Psychology is an offspring of the subject Philosophy. In other words it has its roots in Philosophy. With the
passage of time, psychology has undergone a transformation from concern with sheer speculation as is the case
with philosophy to a concern with scientific procedure. The emergency of psychology as a separate discipline is
generally dated at 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt opened the first psychological laboratory at the University of
Leipzig in Germany. Wundt and his co-workers were attempting to investigate ‘the mind’ through introspection
[observing and analyzing the structure of their own conscious mental processes]. The emphasis on measurement
and control used in introspection marked the separation of psychology from its parent discipline of philosophy.
Introspectionism was challenged by the early twentieth century particularly by an American psychologist, John
B. Watson who believed that the results of introspection could never be proved or disproved. Consequently,
Watson [1913] proposed that psychologists should confine themselves to studying behavior, since only this is
measurable and observable by more than one person.
Watson’s form of psychology was known as behaviorism. A reaction against both introspection OR
structuralism and behaviorism came from the gestalt school of psychology, which emerged in the 1920s in
Australia and Germany. Gestalt psychologists were mainly interested in perception, and believed that perceptions
couldn’t be broken down in the way that Wundt proposed. The gradual divergence of this subject from philosophy
to science has been responsible for the change in its meaning from time to time.

Definition
The word psychology is derived from Greek psyche [mind, soul or spirit] and logos [discourse or study].
Literally, then, psychology is the ‘study of the mind’. In simple terms Psychology can be defined as the
science of mind and behaviour.
It concerns itself with how and why organisms do what they do.

i. Why birds sing

ii. Why some insects fly and not others
iii. Why plants transpire
iv. Why children learn

All these are behaviours and psychology is the science that studies them.
According to Bernstein [2000] Psychology is the science that seeks to understand behaviour and mental
processes and applies that understanding in the service of human welfare.
Goals of Psychology
The goals of Psychology are similar to those of any other science.
To describe
After observing and measuring behaviour and mental processes the psychologist has to describe the
aforementioned.
To explain
The meaning of data collected in study.
Quite often, psychologists explain data by formulating a theory.
A theory is a coherent group of assumptions that can explain data.
To predict
Behaviour and mental processes by using a set of circumstances to anticipate what will happen next.
To use
Utilization or application of the knowledge gained through study to promote human welfare.

1
 Meaning of the term behaviour
The term behaviour is taken in its totality connoting a wide and comprehensive meaning:
 Any manifestation of life is activity’ says Woodworth [1948] and behaviour is a collective name for
these activities.
 The term behaviour therefore includes all the motor or cognative activities [like walking, swimming,
dancing etc], cognitive activities[like thinking, reasoning, imagining etc], and affective activities[ like
feeling happy, sad, angry etc].
 It also includes not only the conscious behaviour and activities of the human mind but also the
subconscious and unconscious. Consequently, it covers not only the overt behaviour but also the
covert behaviour involving all the inner experiences and mental processes.
 It is not limited to the study of human behaviour. The behaviour of animals, insects, birds and plants
is also covered in psychology.
In a nutshell the term behaviour refers to the entire life activities and experiences of all the living
organisms.
Nature of Psychology
1. Psychology has both theoretical and applied aspects like any other science.
2. Like any other science psychology believes in cause and effect relationships hence emphasizing that every
behaviour has its roots---the factors of its causing and nurturing.
3. Psychology like any other science does not believe in mere heresy. It uses the scientific methods of
inquiry----like observation and experimentation in studying behaviour.
4. What is established and discovered in science is always open to verification and alteration---tentative and
subject to change. The same is true with psychology.
5. Like any other science the established facts, laws and principles of psychology enjoy universal
applicability.
Methods of research in psychology
Naturalistic observation
This research paradigm involves observing or studying animals or people in their natural habitats. For
example students are best studied in a classroom environment. The researcher does not interfere with the
behaviour of the observed to avoid bias. Such observer bias is also denoted the guinea pig effect or the
Pygmalion effect.
Case study
With the purpose of generating hypothesis psychologists examine an individual’s personal life, such as
how a teacher plans a lesson.
Survey
This method uses questionnaires administered to samples of people from what is referred to as a
population to find out about attitudes and behaviour.
First identify the group of subjects he/she may wish to survey- population.
Second select the subjects to participate in the survey at random- sample.
This ensures that every subject or respondent is given an equal chance of being involved in the study.
Correlational study
In this research paradigm psychologists consider the relationship between two or more variables which
can either be positive or negative. A correlation coefficient is computed to establish either a positive or
negative relationship between the variables under study. Once an association between variables is
established, it becomes possible for one to predict important events with regard to the variables. Many
variables can be studied using this method. However, it should be remembered that correlation does not
mean causality. Correlation cannot establish cause and effect but can only predict.
Experimentation
In this research paradigm psychologists treat an object of study in a specific way and then observe the
effects of that treatment. Whereas correlational research only predicts about behaviour experiments can
be able to establish cause and effect------that is roots and nurturance of behaviour. In experiments,

2
 psychologists study animals as well as people. Animals are studied either out of interest in animals
themselves or as models for human behaviour. This may create misconceptions two of which are:
Anthropomorphic fallacy- tendency to treat animals as if they have human characteristics.
Rattomorphic fallacy- tendency to treat human beings as if they were rats.
What kind of science is Psychology
Psychology is a behavioural science. Unlike the natural sciences of Physics, Chemistry, and Mathematics
which are concerned with matter-----Psychology deals with the behaviour of organisms. And behaviour is
quite dynamic and unpredictable.
Scope of Psychology
The scope of a subject denotes
 Its limits of operation as well as its branches.
Psychology is divided into two major branches which have their sub-branches and these are applied
psychology and pure psychology.
Branches of pure psychology
1. General psychology
2. Abnormal psychology
3. Social psychology
4. Experimental psychology
5. Physiological psychology
6. Para-psychology
7. Geo-psychology
8. Developmental psychology
Branches of Applied psychology
Concerned with the application of theories, principles and techniques of psychology includes:
1) Clinical psychology
2) Industrial psychology
3) Legal psychology
4) Military psychology
5) Political psychology
6) Organizational psychology
7) Marketing psychology
8) Educational psychology

What is introspection in psychology?

Introspection is to investigate ‘the mind’ by observing and analyzing the structure of one’s conscious
mental processes through questions. The emphasis on measurement and control used in introspection
marked the separation of psychology from its parent discipline of philosophy

Advantages and disadvantages of introspection

The introspection method has advantages as well as disadvantages. First, let us consider the advantages.

Advantages of Introspection Method:

i. It is an easy and simple method and provides direct observation of mental processes. By other scientific
methods, the mental processes cannot be directly observed since those are purely private and personal
experiences. Introspection is the only method by which the person can be directly aware of his own
experiences.

3
 ii. While using experimental method to study the mental activities, a laboratory and scientific instruments
are required. But for the use of introspection method, no laboratory or test materials are required. So
introspection method can be used at any time and at any place.

iv. The subjective observation method provides an opportunity to check the results obtained through other
methods. For example, the general finding is that the pleasant materials are better remembered than the
unpleasant materials. Suppose, in an experiment the results suggested that the unpleasant materials were
better remembered than the pleasant materials. The reason for this unexpected finding can be found from
the introspective report given by the subject. The subject might have reported that he was inattentive or
mentally disturbed or feeling unwell when the pleasant materials were presented to him. Here the
introspective report would be helpful in explaining the results.

In spite of some advantages, the method of introspection or subjective observation has some
disadvantages.

Disadvantages of Introspection Method:

i. The observer is expected to perform two mental activities simultaneously. He experiences his mental
processes, and at the same time analyzes what these experiences were like. At the same time, he acts as
the 'observed', and the 'observer'. Obviously, his mental experiences would be distorted, and not reflect
the true nature of mental activities.

ii. The subjective observational report provided lacks objectivity, as the verbal report of the subject
cannot be verified by other scientists. Furthermore, the experiences of one person cannot be generalized
to understand the mental activity of another person. A universal principle concerning the mental processes
cannot be stated, as mental processes would differ from person to person. Thus, the method lacks
scientific validity.

iii. Most persons would not like to reveal their private experiences such as the feelings of guilt and shame.
The report in such cases would be distorted

iv. The method of subjective observation cannot be applied to the study of the mental activities of the
animals, children, insane, and persons having language disabilities. The behaviors of these subjects are of
interest to the psychologists. Thus, introspection has only a limited applicability.

v. The unconscious experiences cannot be accessed through introspection. The psychoanalytic school
founded by Freud argues that most of human behaviors are influenced by the unconscious motives and
urges. A person cannot observe his unconscious mental processes, which means that the method of
subjective observation leaves out a large chunk of relevant mental experiences.

Personality

Personality is enduring distinctive thoughts, emotions and behavior that characterize the way an individual
responds to and adapts to the environment. It is the sum total way of behavior of an individual. The word person
means mask. Hence personality can be defined as masked behaviors over an individual at a certain time . It can be
termed as the combination of qualities mental, physical and moral that set one apart from others. Personality can
be termed as the combination of qualities – mental, physical, and moral that sets one part from others. Having a
strong personality is the key to success. This is also a key determinant of good leadership. A good personality
enables one to establish self-control and self-direction to discover the reality of freedom of choice. A person with
a positive attitude can direct his thoughts, control his emotions and regulate his attitude.

4
Environmental factors that influence personality

The following factors influence the development of personality in human beings.

Family factors:

Family and social factors are also important in giving the shape to an individual’s personality. It initially starts
with contact with the mother and later with other members of the family. Later still, the contact with social group
influences an individual’s personality. The personality of an individual is also influenced by the home
environment. There is evidence to indicate that the overall environment at home created by parents is critical to
personality development.

Apart from the family background, social class also leaves an imprint on the personality of an individual.

Situational Factors:

Situational factors also influence the human personality. The effect of environment on personality is quite strong.
Knowledge skill and language are acquired by a person and can be termed as learned modifications of behavior.
These learned modifications cannot be passed on to the children. The children in turn must acquire them through
their personal effort, experience and the interaction with the environment. Many a times the actions of the person
are determined more by the situation, rather than his behavior. Therefore, the situation may potentially have a
very big impact on the actions and expressions.

The three aspects of the human mind according to psychoanalysts.

i. Conscious level- intentions, actions, behavior and feelings at any given time.
ii. The subconscious level –readily available in the memory eg recalling ones name
iii. The unconscious level- we are not aware of and cannot be deliberately brought to memory,
unaware and cannot explain but actively direct our behavior.

Personality structure as per Sigmund Freud Sub divided into 3 parts

The Id- Operates in unconscious level on pleasure principle.
Develops from infancy libido which gratifies for immediate satisfaction.
Has no contact with reality is self-centered and always seeks immediate pleasure, satisfaction and avoidance of
pain.

The Ego – Deals with demands of reality

 Makes rational decisions
 Abides by the principle of reality which tries to bring the individuals pleasure within the reality of rules
and objective norms found in individuals and society.
 Control higher mental process e.g. reasoning , problem solving and decision making (reversing the real
reasoning and deciding process)
 Help a person adapt successfully in social environment
 It keeps a healthy balance between the demands of the Id and those of the superego.

The Superego
 Moral branch of personality
 Takes into account whether something is right or wrong
 Is the conscience

5
  Stands for moral upright
 It deals only with ideal morality values, norms and principles
 Wrong doing punished by guilt diminishing with guilt, right behaviour is rewarded with joy. (3 marks).
(b)Psychosexual Stages Theory of Development According To Freud

According to Freud, a human being goes through a sequence of developmental stages.to him, early childhood
experiences have an impact on later development.

Movement from one stage to another is biologically determined and it centers around an erogenous zone an area
when stimulated provides pleasure and gratification to the individual.

Oral Stage (0-1 year)

In the first stage of personality development the libido is centered in a baby's mouth. It gets much satisfaction
from putting all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy the libido, and thus its id demands. Which at this stage in
life are oral, or mouth orientated, such as sucking, biting, and breast-feeding.

Freud said oral stimulation could lead to an oral fixation in later life. We see oral personalities all around us such
as smokers, nail-biters, finger-chewers, and thumb suckers. Oral personalities engage in such oral behaviors
particularly when under stress.

Anal Stage (1-3 years)

The libido now becomes focused on the anus and the child derives great pleasure from defecating. The child is
now fully aware that they are a person in their own right and that their wishes can bring them into conflict with
the demands of the outside world (i.e. their ego has developed).

Freud believed that this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty training, in which adults impose
restrictions on when and where the child can defecate. The nature of this first conflict with authority can
determine the child's future relationship with all forms of authority.

Early or harsh potty training can lead to the child becoming an anal-retentive personality who hates mess, is
obsessively tidy, punctual and respectful of authority. They can be stubborn and tight-fisted with their cash and
possessions. This is all related to pleasure got from holding on to their faeces when toddlers, and their mum's
then insisting that they get rid of it by placing them on the potty until they perform!

Not as daft as it sounds. The anal expulsive, on the other hand, underwent a liberal toilet-training regime during
the anal stage. In adulthood the anal expulsive is the person who wants to share things with you. They like
giving things away. In essence they are 'sharing theirs' an anal-expulsive personality is also messy, disorganized
and rebellious.

Phallic Stage (3 to 5 or 6 years)

Sensitivity now becomes concentrated in the genitals and masturbation (in both sexes) becomes a new source of
pleasure. The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the conflict between
erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which Freud called the Oedipus complex (in boys) and the
Electra complex (in girls). This is resolved through the process of identification, which involves the child
adopting the characteristics of the same sex parent.

Oedipus complex
The most important aspect of the phallic stage is the Oedipus complex. This is one of Freud's most controversial
ideas and one that many people reject outright. The name of the Oedipus complex derives from Greek myth where

6
Oedipus, a young man, kills his father and marries his mother. Upon discovering this he pokes his eyes out and
becomes blind. This Oedipal is the generic (i.e. general) term for both Oedipus and Electra complexes.

In the young boy, the Oedipus complex or more correctly conflict, arises because the boy develops sexual
(pleasurable) desires for his mother. He wants to possess his mother exclusively and get rid of his father to enable
him to do so. Irrationally, the boy thinks that if his father were to find out about all this, his father would take
away what he loves the most. During the phallic stage what the boy loves most is his penis. Hence the boy
develops castration anxiety.

The little boy then sets out to resolve this problem by imitating, copying and joining in masculine dad-type
behaviors. This is called identification, and is how the three-to-five year old boy resolves his Oedipus complex.
Identification means internally adopting the values, attitudes and behaviors of another person. The consequence
of this is that the boy takes on the male gender role, and adopts an ego ideal and values that become the superego.
Freud (1909) offered the Little Hans case study as evidence for the Oedipus complex.

Electra complex
For girls, the Oedipus or Electra complex is less than satisfactory. Briefly, the girl desires the father, but realizes
that she does not have a penis. This leads to the development of penis envy and the wish to be a boy.The girl
resolves this by repressing her desire for her father and substituting the wish for a penis with the wish for a baby.
The girl blames her mother for her 'castrated state' and this creates great tension. The girl then represses her
feelings (to remove the tension) and identifies with the mother to take on the female gender role.

Latency Stage (5 or 6 to puberty)

No further psychosexual development takes place during this stage (latent means hidden). The libido is dormant.
Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage and sexual energy can be sublimated
(re: defense mechanisms) towards school work, hobbies and friendships. Much of the child's energies are
channeled into developing new skills and acquiring new knowledge and play becomes largely confined to other
children of the same gender.
Genital Stage (puberty to adult)
This is the last stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of personality development and begins in puberty. It is a
time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is settling down in a loving one-to-
one relationship with another person in our 20's. Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than
self-pleasure like during the phallic stage.

For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual intercourse. Fixation and
conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual perversions may develop. For example, fixation at the
oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure primarily from kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual
intercourse.

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
Educational psychology is the study of the learner, learning and teaching. In some more comprehensive way it is
the study of the ways in which the learner can most effectively be brought into successful interaction with the
material to be learnt, the learning situation and the teacher who provides the learning opportunity

Key components of Educational Psychology

The learner
The learning process
The learning situation

7
The learner
Is the most important of the three elements. Not only because people are more important than processes or
situations, but primarily because without the learner there is no teaching. The learner is the focus of any teaching.
It is obvious that, unless someone is learning there is no teaching, just as there is no selling unless someone is
buying. The word ‘Learner’ is used for persons who individually or collectively comprise the class and on whose
behalf educational programmes exist and operate.

Factors considered when a teacher focuses on learners include:

Family background
Prior knowledge
Motivation
Developmental level
Interests
Attitude
All these factors influence how learners acquire knowledge.
The learning process
Is next in order of importance. It refers to the process by which people change their behaviour, improve
performance, reorganize their thinking or become familiar with new concepts and information.
Important aspects of this element include:
When people learn, the change in their behaviour may not be directly observed [perceiving, thinking,
remembering and identifying] or it may be observed [writing, attending and talking].
Learning is an ongoing process that begins at birth and continues in some form or another until one dies.
Learning can be explained in terms of what happens when students learn, why and how they learn, what
teachers want them to learn and why they learn what teachers do not want them to learn.
The learning situation
Refers to the environment where learners find themselves and where the learning process takes place. Some parts
of the environment may be immediate such as the classrooms and the library. Other aspects may be remote but
relevant, such as the relationship between the school committee and the head teacher.

The roles of Educational Psychology in the teaching/learning process

1. To understand how learning processes can be effectively guided by taking into account the special
circumstances of the student’s setting.
2. To determine how teaching can be made more effective, how educational goals can be made more
meaningful, and how desirable educational goals can be achieved.
3. To evaluate and influence the curriculum changes which may be needed to make learning more relevant to
the cultural setting.
4. To help solve learning problems and select suitable materials that relate to the student’s background.
5. To guide or indicate how children can receive social learning and how they should be challenged to
perform social services that may develop their community.
Importance of Educational psychology to teachers
Educational psychology serves as a foundation discipline in education in the same way that physical science
serves engineering [Gage, Berliner, 1999].
Educational psychology serves as a guideline to educational practice.
For example it offers important ideas about learning and about the influences that families, business, industry and
the community have on learning.
In very specific ways Educational psychology may help a teacher to:
 Understand the nature of the learner and the learning process. This means taking into consideration
growth and development patterns of learners to maximize learning opportunities.
 Understand the many variables that interact as learning takes place in the classroom.
This ensures greater understanding of the learning environment to help pupils achieve their best,

8
  Understand the role of the teacher in the classroom in view of the social interactions within the
classroom and other psychological variables that affect social behaviour.
 Structure subject matter, learn how materials are transferred in teaching and evaluate what has been
taught.
 Understand oneself as both a teacher and a person which is necessary so that a teacher controls role
conflict.
Role of educational Psychology to a teacher/ educator/occ health officers, nurses etc

A study of educational psychology helps the teacher /educator to understand the following:

i. To understand how learning processes can be effectively guided by taking into account the special
circumstances of the student’s setting.
ii. To determine how teaching can be made more effective, how educational goals can be made more
meaningful, and how desirable educational goals can be achieved.
iii. To evaluate and influence the curriculum changes which may be needed to make learning more relevant
to the cultural setting.
iv. To help solve learning problems and select suitable materials that relate to the student’s background.
v. To guide or indicate how children can receive social learning and how they should be challenged to
perform social services that may develop their community.
vi. The process of carrying out assessment and interpretation of learners’ results uses educational psychology
needs some psychological tests Educational psychology serves as a guideline to educational practice. For
example it offers important ideas about learning and about the influences that families, business, industry
and the community have on learning.
vii. To understand the nature of the learner and the learning process. This means taking into consideration
growth and development patterns of learners to maximize learning opportunities.
viii. To understand the many variables that interact as learning takes place in the classroom.
This ensures greater understanding of the learning environment to help pupils achieve their best.
ix. To understand the role of the teacher in the classroom in view of the social interactions within the
classroom and other psychological variables that affect social behaviour.
x. To Structure subject matter, learn how materials are transferred in teaching and evaluate what has been
taught.
xi. To understand oneself as both a teacher and a person which is necessary so that a teacher controls role
conflict.

Motivation
This refers to the desire to perform a behavior in order to get an out word / external or an internal reward by an
individual at a given time. For example, a student may be motivated to work hard and pass the exams so as to be
given a gift by the subject teacher, to be praised, to get good grades or to get money.

Nature and importance of motivation

From a historical perspective ‘Motivation comes from Latin root moveers which mean to move. Hence,
motivation is the process of arousing movement in an organism. This movement is produced and regulated
through the release of energy within the tissues.

Motivation is a theoretical construct used to explain behavior. It represents the reasons for people's actions,
desires, and needs (Maslow, 1954). Motivation can also be defined as one's direction to behavior or what causes a
person to want to repeat a behavior and vice versa. A motive is what prompts the person to act in a certain way or
at least develop an inclination for specific behavior. For example, when someone eats food to satisfy the need of

9
hunger, or when a student does his/her work in school because they want a good grade. Both show a similar
connection between what one does and why he/she does it.

Types of Motivation

There are two types of motivation, Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation. It's important to understand that we are not
all the same; thus effectively motivating your employees requires that you gain an understanding of the different
types of motivation. Such an understanding will enable you to better categorize your team members and apply the
appropriate type of motivation. You will find each member different and each member's motivational needs will
be varied as well. Some people respond best to intrinsic which means "from within" and will meet any obligation
of an area of their passion. Quite the reverse, others will respond better to extrinsic motivation which, in their
world, provides that difficult tasks can be dealt with provided there is a reward upon completion of that task.
Become an expert in determining which type will work best with which team members.

Intrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic motivation means that the individual's motivational stimuli are coming from within. The individual has
the desire to perform a specific task, because its results are in accordance with his belief system or fulfills a desire
and therefore importance is attached to it. Our deep-rooted desires have the highest motivational power.

Below are some examples:

a) Acceptance: We all need to feel that we, as well as our decisions, are accepted by our co-workers.
b) Curiosity: We all have the desire to be in the know.
c) Honor: We all need to respect the rules and to be ethical.
d) Independence: We all need to feel we are unique.
e) Order: We all need to be organized.
f) Power: We all have the desire to be able to have influence.
g) Social contact: We all need to have some social interactions.
h) Social Status: We all have the desire to feel important.

Extrinsic Motivation

Extrinsic motivation means that the individual's motivational stimuli are coming from outside. In other words, our
desires to perform a task are controlled by an outside source. Note that even though the stimuli are coming from
outside, the result of performing the task will still be rewarding for the individual performing the task. Extrinsic
motivation is external in nature. The most well-known and the most debated motivation is money. Below are
some other examples:

a) Employee of the month award

b) Benefit package
c) Bonuses
d) Organized activities

Theories of motivation; Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow (1954) attempted to synthesize a large body of research related to human
motivation. Prior to Maslow, researchers generally focused separately on such factors as biology,
achievement, or power to explain what energizes, directs, and sustains human behavior. Maslow
posited a hierarchy of human needs based on two groupings: deficiency needs and growth needs.

10
Within the deficiency needs, each lower need must be met before moving to the next higher level.
Once each of these needs has been satisfied, if at some future time a deficiency is detected, the
individual will act to remove the deficiency. The first four levels are:

1) Physiological: hunger, thirst, bodily comforts, etc.;

2) Safety/security: out of danger;

3) Belongingness and Love: affiliate with others, be accepted; and

4) Esteem: to achieve, be competent, gain approval and recognition.

According to Maslow, an individual is ready to act upon the growth needs if and only if the deficiency
needs are met. Maslow's initial conceptualization included only one growth need--self-actualization. Self-
actualized people are characterized by: 1) being problem-focused; 2) incorporating an ongoing freshness
of appreciation of life; 3) a concern about personal growth; and 4) the ability to have peak experiences.
Maslow later differentiated the growth need of self-actualization, specifically identifying two of the first
growth needs as part of the more general level of self-actualization (Maslow & Lowery, 1998) and one
beyond the general level that focused on growth beyond that oriented towards self (Maslow, 1971). They
are:

5) Cognitive: to know, to understand, and explore;

6) Aesthetic: symmetry, order, and beauty;

7) Self-actualization: to find self-fulfillment and realize one's potential; and

8) Self-transcendence: to connect to something beyond the ego or to help others find self-fulfillment and
realize their potential.

Maslow's basic position is that as one becomes more self-actualized and self-transcendent, one becomes more
wise (develops wisdom) and automatically knows what to do in a wide variety of situations. Daniels (2001)
suggested that Maslow's ultimate conclusion that the highest levels of self-actualization are transcendent in their
nature may be one of his most important contributions to the study of human behavior and motivation.

11
 Norwood (1999) proposed that Maslow's hierarchy can be used to describe the kinds of information
individual's seek at different levels of development. For example:

a) Individuals at the lowest level seek coping information in order to meet their basic needs. Information that is
not directly connected to helping a person meet his or her needs in a very short time span is simply left
unattended.
b) Individuals at the safety level need helping information. They seek to be assisted in seeing how they can be
safe and secure.
c) Enlightening information is sought by individuals seeking to meet their belongingness needs. Quite often this
can be found in books or other materials on relationship development.
d) Empowering information is sought by people at the esteem level. They are looking for information on how
their egos can be developed. Finally, people in the growth levels of cognitive, aesthetic,
e) Self-actualization seeks edifying information. While Norwood does not specifically address the level of
transcendence, it is safe to say that individuals at this stage would seek information on how to connect to
something beyond themselves or to how others could be edified.

Maslow published his first conceptualization of his theory over 50 years ago (Maslow, 1943) and it has
since become one of the most popular and often cited theories of human motivation. An interesting
phenomenon related to Maslow's work is that in spite of a lack of empirical evidence to support his
hierarchy, it enjoys wide acceptance (Wahba & Bridgewell, 1976; Soper, Milford & Rosenthal, 1995).

The few major studies that have been completed on the hierarchy seem to support the proposals of
William James (1892/1962) and Mathes (1981) that there are three levels of human needs. James
hypothesized the levels of material (physiological, safety), social (belongingness, esteem), and spiritual.
Mathes proposed the three levels were physiological, belonginess, and self-actualization; he considered
security and self-esteem as unwarranted. Alderfer (1972) developed a comparable hierarchy with his ERG
(existence, relatedness, and growth) theory. His approach modified Maslow's theory based on the work of
Gordon Allport (1960, 1961) who incorporated concepts from systems theory into his work on
personality.

Techniques for Motivating Learning:

1. Communicate high expectations.

2. Make assignments clear and set specific criteria.
3. State objectives in class and provide previews or advance organizers.
4. Help students link their effort with achieved outcomes.
5. Use novelty.
6. Encourage exploration by presenting challenges that are puzzling and use instructional strategies that
encourage discovery.
7. Capitalize on students’ interests and expertise.
8. Help students’ link content to their values and interests.
9. Contextualize the content within real-world significance.
10. Give prompt feedback on exams and assignments.

Behaviorism

Theorists associated with Behaviorism: J.B Watson, E. L Thorndike, B.F Skinner and others

A Description of Behaviorism

12
The concern or emphasis of Behaviorism is observable indicators that learning is taking place.
Contrasting this view of learning is the emphasis of cognitive psychologists who equate learning with the
mental processes of the mind. Behaviorists do not deny the existence of these mental processes. In fact,
they acknowledge their existence as an unobservable indication of learning.

The focus of Behaviorism is on the conditioning of observable human behavior. J. B Watson, the father of
Behaviorism, defined learning as a sequence of stimulus and response actions in observable cause and
effect relationships. The behaviorists' example of classical conditioning demonstrates the process
whereby a human learns to respond to a neutral stimulus in such a manner that would normally be
associated with an unconditioned stimulus. The supporting example often cited with classical
conditioning is the case of Pavlov's dog. The focus of Pavlov's experiment was the digestive process in
animals. In conducting the experiment, Pavlov noticed that the dog would salivate (response), upon
hearing the ringing of a bell. This occurred because the dog had learned to associate its unconditional
stimuli (normally feeding), with the neutral stimuli of the bell ringing simultaneously with the feeding
process. Watson, believed that the stimuli that humans receive may be generated internally (for example
hunger), or externally (for example, a loud noise). B.F. Skinner expanded on the foundation of
Behaviorism, established by Watson, and on the work of Edward Thorndike, by focussing on operant
conditioning. According to Skinner, voluntary or automatic behavior is either strengthened or weakened
by the immediate presence of a reward or a punishment. "The learning principle behind operant
conditioning is that new learning occurs as a result of positive reinforcement, and old patterns are
abandoned as a result of negative reinforcement. In his book entitled, The Technology of Teaching,
Skinner wrote:

The application of operant conditioning to education is simple and direct. Teaching is the arrangement
of contingencies of reinforcement under which students learn. They learn without teaching in their
natural environments, but teachers arrange special contingencies which expedite learning, hastening
the appearance of behavior which would otherwise be acquired slowly or making sure of the
appearance of behavior which otherwise never occur.

Skinner believed that more complex learning could be achieved by this process of contingencies and
reinforcement "... through successive stages in the shaping process, the contingencies of reinforcement
being changed progressively in the direction of the required behavior

Applying the theoretical principles of Behaviorism to learning environments, it is easy to recognize that
we have many "behaviorist artifacts" in our learning world. A dissection of the traditional teaching
approaches used for years would reveal the powerful influence that Behaviorists have had on learning.
The concept of directed instruction, whereby a teacher is providing the knowledge to the students either
directly or through the set up of "contingencies", is an excellent example of the Behaviorist model of
learning. The use of exams to measure observable behavior of learning, the use of rewards and
punishments in our school systems, and the breaking down of the instruction process into "conditions of
learning" (as developed by Robert Gagne), are all further examples of the Behaviorist influence.

With the advent of the computer in school, computer-assisted instruction (C.A.I.) has become a prominent
tool for teaching, because from a Behaviorist perspective, it is an effective way of learning. CAI uses the
drill and practice approach to learning new concepts or skills. The question acting as the stimulus, elicits a
response from the user. Based on the response a reward may be provided. The "contingencies" of learning
are translated into different levels of the program. Rewarding the user to a different level for correct
responses follows exactly the approach of operant conditioning. Educators have espoused CAI as an
effective teaching approach because it allows for self-paced instruction and it liberates them from the
direct instruction of all their students so as to focus on those students with particular needs. The merits of

13
 Behaviorist learning theory and of their teaching practices are well documented. They have served well in
teaching a growing North American population over the past six decades. Behavioral learning theory
manifested itself in creating a systematic approach to teaching.

Stimulus Response Theory (Classical conditioning by Ivan Pavlov)

Around 20th century Pavlov studied the process of gastric secretion in dogs. He accidentally noticed that
a phenomenon of secretion of saliva in dogs on the sight of the food or the sound of a caretaker
approaching footsteps.

The salivating process before food in the dogs’ mouth was referred to as psychic secretions that involved
two forms of reflexes:-

i) Physiological reflex which is inborn process that controls the amount of gastric secretions depending on
the kind and amount of food in the stomach of the organism. .

ii) Psychic reflex which is sometimes referred to as conditional reflex that occurs only as a result of a
particular experience or learning.

Classical condition as a form of learning in which a neutral stimulus (bell) comes to bring about a response after
being associated with a natural stimulus (food) can be illustrated
Before condition
UCS – UCR

Neutral stimulus – No response

During conditioning
Neutral Stimulus UCS– UCR
After conditioning
Conditioned stimulus (CS) – Conditioned response
Meat/Fish – Unconditional stimulus
Salivation – Unconditioned response (Natural)
Bell- Conditioned stimulus
Salivation – Conditioned response (to bell) after conditioning

Implications in learning
1. Creating an atmosphere that attracts learners to school
2. Principle of association can be used to make children like subjects or topics which they fear or dislike by
using interesting and appealing methods.
3. Teachers to avoid punishments that create fear in learners which is an every to academic performance.
4. Let every child experience success in something
5. Use the principle of generalization for leaners to transfer knowledge & skills & attitudes from one topic
or subject to another
6. Use the principle of discrimination between stimuli to assist children in differentiating between concepts.

When Pavlov put food in the mouth of the dog, the dog salivates. Food becomes unconditional stimulus (UCS)
and the salivation of the dog is called unconditional response (UCR).Food is called (UCS) because it relays the
meaning that the response depends on no special condition. Unconditional response is unlearned and implies no
precondition. Pavlov introduced sound of the bell-neutral stimulus that did not evoke any response on the first
presentation. This stimulus is called conditional stimulus (CS). After pairing of UCS and CS, the conditioned

14
stimulus (CS) is then presented alone to the dog without (UCS). If CS succeeds in eliciting the response
(salivation) is called a conditional response (CR). This can be illustrated by the below processes:-

i. Meat powder salivation

(US) (UR)

ii. Bell No salivation

(CS)

iii. Meat powder + Bell Salivation

(US) (CS) (UR)

iv. Bell salivation (Conditioned/learnt)

(CS) (CR)
v. Bell no salivation(Extinction)
(CS)
vi. Bell salivation(Spontaneous recovery)

(CS) (CR)

The above processes illustrate classical conditioning in which the natural stimulus (food) when paired
with a neutral stimulus (bell), the neutral stimulus acquires the qualities of a neutral stimulus. This can
also be referred to as a substitute learning because natural stimulus is substituted with a neutral stimulus.
However, after sometimes extinction occurs due to lack of reinforcement (food). However, later on
spontaneous recovery may occur due to reminiscence/remembrance of earlier learning.

Principles of classical conditioning

1. Temporal relationship between (CS and UCS).

2. Reinforcement-repeat a behavior that led to the goal.

3. Extinction- the elimination of a CR because of withdrawal of reinforcement.

4. Stimulus generalization. The tenderness of responding to wide range of stimulus that is similar to
that conditioned stimulus.

5. Discrimination- learning to distinguish the particular (CS)

6. Spontaneous recovery- return of CR that suffered extinction.

7. Inhibition- a process of blocking a response that would otherwise occur. There are two types of
inhibitions:-

i) Internal inhibitions which occurs due to internal factors that are related to an organism that may block it
from responding to the stimulus e.g. health conditions.

ii) External inhibition- external factors may include noise that may draw attention of one so that it does
not respond to the stimulus.

Application of theory of classical conditioning in learning process

15
 1. Teachers and parents should avoid fear eliciting stimuli such as ridicule, bitter remarks, open hostility
in a classroom and at home otherwise a learner may learn (be conditioned) to fear or hate schools,
teachers , parents because of the painful experiences.

2. Teachers should give learners more opportunities to use and report the knowledge they have acquired
so that they master the same (several pairing).

3. When teaching, identify the most important aspect of the lesson and emphasize them. Also give clear
distinctions of similar concepts or topics for learners to distinguish them (discriminate)

4. Reinforce learners negatively in the classroom to extinguish undesirable behavior (principle of

extinction).

5. Teachers give pause to the learners and afterwards resume for them to internalize materials learnt/facts
(spontaneous recovery)

6. Teachers to review learnt materials to maintain connection for longer periods.

7. Behavior therapy specifies the maladaptive behaviors to be modified and the adaptive behavior to be
achieved as well as the specific learning principles or procedures to be utilized instead of exploring into a
conflict or attempting to have cognitive change. Behavior therapists attempt to modify behavior directly
by manipulating environmental contingencies i.e. by use of reward and punishment e.g. counter
conditioning where there are associates of a painful situation with a pleasant experience to reduce pain or
eliminate it.

8. Flooding- a technique of eliminating fear and phobias basing on the principles of classical conditioning
(systematic decentralization can also be used).

summary
Behaviorism is a theory of animal and human learning that only focuses on objectively observable behaviors and
discounts mental activities. Behavior theorists define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new
behavior.
Discussion
Experiments by behaviorists identify conditioning as a universal learning process. There are two different types
of conditioning, each yielding a different behavioral pattern:

Classic conditioning occurs when a natural reflex responds to a stimulus. The most popular example is Pavlov’s
observation that dogs salivate when they eat or even see food. Essentially, animals and people are biologically
“wired” so that a certain stimulus will produce a specific response.

Behavioral or operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is reinforced. Basically, operant
conditioning is a simple feedback system: If a reward or reinforcement follows the response to a stimulus, then
the response becomes more probable in the future. For example, leading behaviorist B.F. Skinner used
reinforcement techniques to teach pigeons to
dance and bowl a ball in a mini-alley. There have been many criticisms of behaviorism, including the following:

1. Behaviorism does not account for all kinds of learning, since it disregards the activities of the mind.
2. Behaviorism does not explain some learning–such as the recognition of new language patterns by young
children–for which there is no reinforcement mechanism.
3. Research has shown that animals adapt their reinforced patterns to new information. For instance, a rat can shift
its behavior to respond to changes in the layout of a maze it had previously mastered through reinforcements.

16
How Behaviorism Impacts Learning
This theory is relatively simple to understand because it relies only on observable behavior and describes several
universal laws of behavior.

Its positive and negative reinforcement techniques can be very effective–both in animals, and in treatments for
human disorders such as autism and antisocial behavior.

Teachers, who reward or punish student behaviors, often use behaviorism.

Piaget Cognitive development Theory

Introduction
Swiss biologist and psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is renowned for constructing a highly influential model
of child development and learning. Piaget’s theory is based on the idea that the developing child builds cognitive
structures–in other words, mental “maps,” schemes, or networked concepts for understanding and responding to
physical experiences within his or her environment. Piaget further attested that a child’s cognitive structure
increases in sophistication with development, moving from a few innate reflexes such as crying and sucking to
highly complex mental activities.
Discussion
Piaget’s theory identifies four developmental stages and the processes by which children progress through them.
The four stages are:

Sensorimotor stage (birth - 2 years old)–The child, through physical interaction with his or her environment,
builds a set of concepts about reality and how it works. This is the stage where a child does not know that physical
objects remain in existence even when out of sight (object permanence).

Preoperational stage (ages 2-7)–The child is not yet able to conceptualize abstractly and needs concrete physical
situations.

Concrete operations (ages 7-11)–As physical experience accumulates, the child starts to conceptualize, creating
logical structures that explain his or her physical experiences. Abstract
problem solving is also possible at this stage. For example, arithmetic equations can be solved with numbers, not
just with objects.

Formal operations (beginning at ages 11-15)–By this point, the child’s cognitive structures are like those of an
adult and include conceptual reasoning.

Piaget outlined several principles for building cognitive structures. During all development stages, the child
experiences his or her environment using whatever mental maps he or she has constructed so far. If the experience
is a repeated one, it fits easily–or is assimilated–into the child’s cognitive structure so that he or she maintains
mental “equilibrium.” If the experience is different or new, the child loses equilibrium, and alters his or her
cognitive structure to accommodate the new conditions. This way, the child erects more and more adequate
cognitive structures.
How Piaget’s Theory Impacts Learning
Curriculum–Educators must plan a developmentally appropriate curriculum that enhances their students’ logical
and conceptual growth.
Instruction–Teachers must emphasize the critical role that experiences–or interactions with the surrounding
environment–play in student learning. For example, instructors have to take into account the role that fundamental
concepts, such as the permanence of objects, play in establishing cognitive structures.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Gross, R [2001] Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behavior;
Kent: Greengate.

17
Kalat, J [1990] Psychology: An Introduction; Belmount: Wordsworthy.
Module [2001] Educational Psychology: Domasi College of
Education..
New Combe, N [1996] Child Development: Change over time, New York:
Harper Collins College Publishers.

18