Unit 1

 Environmental Studies-Introduction:- Definition, scope and importance

 Measuring and defining development indicators

Unit 2

• Environmental and Natural Resources: Renewable and non-renewable resources

• Natural resources and associated problems
• Forest Resources-Use and over-exploitation, deforestation, case studies
• Water Resources-Use and over utilization of surface and ground water-Floods, drought,
conflicts over water.
• dams-benefits and problems
• Mineral resources: Use and exploitation, environmental effects of extracting and using
mineral resources, case studies
• Food resources: Growing energy needs, renewable and non-renewable energy sources
use of alternate energy
• sources Land resources: Land as a resource, land degradation, man induced landslides,
soil erosion and desertification.

Unit 3

• Basic Principles of Ecosystems Functioning: Concept of an ecosystem.

• Structure and function of an ecosystem.
• Forest ecosystem
• Grassland ecosystem
• Desert ecosystem

Unit 4

• Biodiversity and its conservation introduction

• Definition: genetic, species and ecosystem diversity
• Value of biodiversity, Biodiversity at global, national and local levels.
• India as a mega-diversity nation
• Hotspots of biodiversity
• Threats to biodiversity, habitat loss, poaching of wildlife, man-wildlife conflicts
• Endangered and endemic species of India Conservation of biodiversity

Unit 5

Environmental Pollution: Definition, Cause, effects and control measures of

a) Air pollution

b) Water pollution

c) Soil pollution

d) Marine pollution

e) Noise pollution

Thermal pollution

g) Nuclear hazards
Solid waste Management: Causes, effects and control measures of urban and industrial wastes

Role of an individual in prevention of pollution.

Pollution case studies.

Disaster management: floods, earthquake. cyclone and landslide

Unit 6

• Social Issues and the Environment. From unsustainable to sustainable development

• Urban problems related to energy
• Water conservation, Resettlement and rehabilitation of people, its problems and
concerns. Case Studies
• Environmental ethics: Issues and possible solutions.
• Climate change, global wanning, acid rain, ozone layer depletion
• Case Studies-Wasteland reclamation Consumerism and waste products.
• Env Protection Act.
• Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act.
• Water (Prevention and control of Pollution) Act
• Wildlife Protection Act
• Forest Conservation Act Issues involved in enforcement of environmental legislation.

Unit 7

• Human Population and the Environment: Population growth, variation among nations.
Population explosion
• Family Welfare Programmes
• Environment and human a health.
• Human Rights.
• Value Education.
• HIV/AIDS.
• Women and Child Welfare Environmental

UNIT – 1 : Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies.

Definition:

 It is connected to all subjects – biology, chemistry, geology, physics, engineering, health,

statistics, economics, computers.
 It deals with every issue of an organism
 It is a multidisciplinary approach that brings about an appreciation of our natural world and
human impacts on its integrity.
 It looks for practical answers to make civilization sustainable on earth resources.

Scope:

 Surroundings are original with natural landscapes – forests, rivers, mountains, grassland,
deserts.
 Most of us live in these surrounding villages which are dependent on these natural
landscapes for resources – water for agriculture, fuel, wood, fodder, fish, food.
 Our daily life is linked with the surroundings – as we depend on keeping it vital systems as
intact as possible.
 Our dependence on nature is so high that we have to protect it (resources).
o Non-renewable – minerals, oils, gases
o Renewable – timber and water (regrowth and rainfall).
 All natural landscapes are modified by humans for modern lifestyle in villages, towns or
cities.
 Over past 200 years modern societies believed more resources can be produced by means of
technological innovations.
Ex :- growing more food by using fertilizers and pesticides, irrigating farmland through mega
dams and developing industry.
 Development led to rapid economic growth and the ill effects of this type of development
led to environment degradation.
 The industrial development and intensive agriculture use up large amounts of natural
resources such as water, minerals, wood, petroleum products.
 Non-renewable resources will be exhausted in the future such as minerals and oil.
 Renewable resources can be regenerated by natural processes such as regrowth or rainfall
such as timber and water.
 But renewable resources will be depleted if continue to use them faster than nature can
replace them.
Ex: if the removal of timber and firewood from forest is faster than the regrowth and
regeneration of trees.
 Loss of forest cover not only depletes the forest of its resources but also affects the water
resources (ground water).
 Natural forest acts like a sponge which holds the water and releases it slowly.
 Deforestation leads to floods in the monsoon and dry rivers once the rains are over.
 Unsustainable utilization can result from overuse of resources because population increase
than we really need.

IMPORTANCE

a) We live in a world where natural resources are limited.

b) To sustain we have to know how to use the resources.
c) To understand the different aspects of our environment – we need to understand biology,
chemistry, physics, geography, resource management, economics and population issues.
d) The scope of environment studies is extremely wide and covers some aspects of nearly every
major discipline.
e) Water, air, soil, minerals, oil, the products we get from forests, grasslands, oceans and from
agriculture and livestock are all a part of our life supports systems. Without them, life itself
would be impossible.
f) Polluted water bodies – industrial waste, solid, plastics – leads to health issues.
g) Polluted air – leads to breathing problems – asthma, lung diseases.
h) We have to take action to preserve our environmental resources – it is our responsibility to
save by living sustainable lifestyle – life itself is impossible without natural resources.

Values

PRODUCTIVE VALUE

a) New advances in field of biotechnology

 b) The new materials are used in developing modern medicines and industrial products
c) Species are vital for future development of man
d) If we degrade their habitat then these species will become extinct
e) There is close link between agriculture and forest which illustrate its productive value
 For crops to be successful – the flowers of fruit trees and vegetables must be
pollinated by insects, bats and birds

AESTHETIC VALUE

a) A true wildness experience has recreational value and incredible learning experience
b) Understanding of the oneness of nature and the fact that we are entirely dependent upon
the intricate functioning of ecosystems
c) The natural resources express the beauty, magnificence and power and diversity
d) Artists are inspired by nature and develop visual arts and writings
e) We get natural, adventurous and wild or adventure tourism which deep respect and love for
culture

OPTION VALUE

a) We utilize several goods and services and enjoy its benefit

b) We are all recourses and species of planet and animals become extinct, pollute air and
water, create enormous quantities of waste and degrade land
c) Nature provides us with various options of how we utilize its good and services
d) We can use up goods and services greedily and destroy its integrity and long-term values or
we can use its resources sustainably

NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS

a) Natural resources are being used at a fast pace

b) Non -renewable resources cannot be replaced
c) Fossil fuels take millions of years to form
d) To save environment -stop pollution-each of us have a role to play in environment
management
e) We play a major role by reducing wastage of natural resources
f) We are endangering our environment- animal and plant species are becoming instinct
g) We must take part to save nature-prevention is better than cure
h) Information can be shared through media (newspaper, television, radio) to influence the
public
i) Remember resources are limited-use sustainably
j) Practice and promote civic sense

UNIT 2: Natural Resources

a) The natural resources include-air, water (rivers, ponds, streams, lakes, springs), soil, minerals,
land (mountains, forests, deserts, grasslands) along with climate and solar energy which form
abiotic (non-living) part of nature
b) The biotic (living) of nature consists of plants, animals including microbes

c) The interaction between the biotic and abiotic of nature form the ecosystem of various types

d) Plants and animals can only survive as communities-all closely linked to each other in their
habitat and requiring specificabiotic conditions

e) Many living things are directly used as food resources where some are less directly linked. But
natural resources are modified for our requirement

 Forest, wetlands and grasslands are converted into agricultural lands

 Natural ecosystems are developed into agricultural lands

 Land had been taken for industry and urban sectors

f) We are using fertilizers and pesticides to boost the production of food

g) Dams are built to store water but they cause damage to environment and tribal people

h) Mankind is overusing and depleting natural resources

i) Pollution to air, water, soil and land cause serious health issues

j) Rural and tribal are dependent on forest, wetlands, grassland , river and lakes for livelihood
 A natural resource may be defined as any material given to us by nature which can be
transformed in a way that it becomes more valuable and useful
Ex: wood is used for making furniture. yarn obtained from cotton is used for
weaving cloth. likewise, various machine, tools, and household goods are made of
metals

Four spheres of Earth

1. Atmosphere

a. oxygen is important for human respiration

b. oxygen for wild fauna in natural ecosystems and domestic animals used by man as food

c. oxygen as a part of CO2 is used by plants for growth

d. it is protective layer over the earth

e. the lowest layer is troposphere - in which we survive and it is warm and 12 kilometres
thick

f. second layer is stratosphere which is 50 meters and contains sulphates which is

important for the formation of rain

g. stratosphere also contains ozone layer which absorbs UV rays known to cause cancer

h. major air pollutants are created by industrial units that release gases - carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide and toxic fumes. it is also polluted by burning fossil fuels

I. the buildup of carbon dioxide is known as greenhouse effect which leads to global
warming and acid rains

j. the growing number of scooters, motorcycles, cars, buses, and trucks run on fossil fuels
are major causes of air pollution in cities and highways

k. air pollution causes many health issues - lung infections, asthma, and even cancer

l. air must be kept clean to support life

m. the atmosphere is not uniformly warmed by the sun. this leads to air flows and
variations in climate, temperatures and rainfall in different parts of the earth

2. Hydrosphere

a. it covers three quarters of the earth’s surface [71%]

b. the earth's hydrosphere is 97% salt water (marine & sea) and 2.5% is fresh water (rivers,
lakes, ponds) - only 0.3% is fresh water is accessible to humans

c. it includes both liquid and frozen water

d. it includes water in oceans, lakes, ponds, streams, rivers, groundwater, glaciers and
other forms of ices (snow, icebergs and frost)

e. earths hydrosphere is constantly changing due to water cycle and global warming

f. deforestation caused serious changes in hydrosphere - rain erodes the soil which is
washed into the sea and no groundwater

g. water exists in all forms - liquid, solid and gaseous (vapor)

h. water is using for drinking, washing, cooking, agriculture and industry and to generate
electricity
 I. food resources also come from water - fish, seaweed, crustaceans, aquatic plants

j. water is polluted by human activities

1. chemicals from industries

2. sewage find their way into rivers and sea
3. building dams
4. deforestation is removing soil and groundwater

k. water pollution threatens the life and health of humans and other living organisms

l. water flowing down from mountains ranges is harnessed to generate electricity in

hydro-electric projects

m. a major part of hydrosphere is the marine ecosystem in the ocean while only part
occurs in fresh water

n. some of the fresh water lies in underground aquifers

o. chemicals from industry and sewage flow into rivers and finally into sea

p. water pollution threatens the health of communities as all our lives are dependent on
the availability of clean water

3. Lithosphere

a. lithosphere began as a hot ball of matter which formed the earth about 4.6 billion
years
b. all masses on earth is lithosphere (crust, mantle and core)
c. the crust of the earth is 6 to 7kms thick and lies under the continents
d. out of 92 elements in the lithosphere – only eight are common constituents of crystal
rock
i) 47% oxygen
ii) 29% silicon
iii) 8% aluminium
iv) 5% iron
v) 4% sodium, magnesium, potassium, calcium
e. all elements together form about 200 common mineral compounds
f. rocks are broken down to form soil on which man is dependent for his agriculture
g. soil in formed naturally from rocks which break down into smaller parts as climate and
weather acts on them
h. minerals are also the raw material used in various industries
i. Micronutrients flora, small soil fauna and fungi in soil are important living organisms of
the lithosphere – which break down plant litter and animal wastes to provide nutrients
for plants
k. micronutrients in soil are essential for plant growth
l. oil, coal and gas are extracted from underground which provide power for vehicles,
agricultural machinery, industry and for our homes
m. the lithosphere – the crust of earth moves and change is causing – earthquakes,
volcanoes, deep ocean trenches and tsunami
n. weathering and erosion is caused by wind (atmosphere) and rain (hydrosphere)
4. Biosphere

a) Food from crops and domestic animals provide to human requirements

b) Timber and other construction materials
c) Biomass fuel wood collected from forests and plantations along with other forms of organic
matter is used as a source of energy
d) All living and non-living forms structural and functional ecosystems
Ex: pond – size, depth and quality of water – each provide specific plant and animal
communities
e) Relatively a thin layer on the earth in which life can exist – within it is air, water, rocks, soil
and living creatures which form structural and functional ecosystems
f) All four spheres are closely inter-linked systems – the linkages between them are mainly in
the form of cycles
1. Hydrological cycle – atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere
 Water cycle – water evaporates from hydrosphere (water bodies) and
forms clouds in the atmosphere. This becomes rain which provides
moisture for lithosphere on which life depends
 Soil – rain acts on the rocks as an agent of erosion and over millions of
years, soil is formed. Atmospheric movement in the form of winds, break
down rocks into soil

g) Biosphere form has countless associations with different parts of the three other `spheres`
h) The most sensitive and complex linkage are those between the atmosphere, the hydrosphere
and the lithosphere on one hand and on which millions of living organisms in the biosphere
on the other.

Renewable and non-renewable resources

a) Solar energy is the main driving force for the ecosystem – providing energy for growth of
plants, forests, grassland and aquatic ecosystems
b) The forests recycles its plant and animal material by returning its dead materials, leaves,
branches to the soil
c) The sun drives the water cycle
d) Our food comes from both natural and agriculture ecosystems
e) Traditional agricultural ecosystems that depended on rainfall have been modified in recent
times to produce more and more food
f) Modern agriculture creates a variety of food in more in quantity but are produced by adding
extra chemicals and water from irrigation system
g) They also create a variety of environmental problems – use of artificial fertilizer’s ruin the soil
quality – development of saline soil – cause health hazards – lead to formation of
unproductive land
h) Traditional farming depends on rainfall
i) Industries and manufacturing process cause damage to environment – watse products, gases
and chemicals
j) Land is getting degraded due to misuse – natural wetlands are being drained
k) Major part of natural resource’s are consumed by technically advanced and developed
countries
  USA with just 4% of the world population consumes 25% of the world’s resources
(fossil fuels)
l) Advanced countries produce 75% of the global industrial waste, urban sewage waste and
greenhouse gases
m) Energy from fossil fuels is consumed in relatively much greater quantities in developed
countries
n) Planning Land Use
 Land is major resource for food production, animal husbandry, industry and for
human settlements
 The ‘wild lands’ which are forests, grasslands, wetlands and deserts are frequently
extended and degraded
 Land as a resource is under serious pressure due to increasing ‘land hunger’
 Land is degraded and vanishing due to misuse – it is polluted by industrial waste and
rural and urban sewage
 Natural wetlands are drained for agriculture and other purposes
 Semi-arid land is being irrigated and overused
 The most damaging change in land use is demonstrated rapidly with which forests
have vanished during recent times
 Forests provide a variety of services
I. Maintaining oxygen levels in the atmosphere
II. Removal of CO2
III. Control over water regimes
IV. Slowing down soil erosion
V. Production of food, fuel, timber, fodder and medicinal plants
o) The quality of human life and the quality of ecosystem on earth are indicators of the
sustainable use of resources
p) Scientists today believe that at least 10 percent of land and water bodies of each ecosystem’s
must be kept as wilderness for the long-term needs of protecting nature and natural
resources
q) Sustainable lifestyles is important to conserve our biodiversity, prevention of degradation
and pollution of the environment
r) Non-Renewable resource
 Minerals, iron ore, coal and fossil fuels are formed in the lithosphere over millions of
years – they cannot be easily replaced
 These non-renewable resources, once used, remain on earth in a different form
 They become waste material after usage unless recycled
 Non-renewable resources are fossil fuels such as oil, coal, minerals and the end
products of fossil fuels
 The end products of fossil fuels are in the form of heat and mechanical energy and
chemical compounds which cannot be reconstituted as a resource
 The energy from the fossil fuel is consumed in much greater quantities in developed
countries
 The prevention of degradation and pollution of the environment is important for
sustainable life

s) Renewable resources
 Water and biological living resources are renewable only within certain limits
 Water is linked to natural cycles – as water cycle
 o Fresh water (even after being used) is evaporated by the sun’s energy,
forms water vapor and is reformed in clouds and falls on earth as rain
o Water sources can be so heavily polluted by sewage and toxic substances
that it becomes impossible to use the water
o Water sources can be overused or wasted to such an extent that they
locally run dry
 Minerals are also linked to cycles – when plants and animals are eaten by other
animals – flow of energy happens – later when animals die – the minerals are
returned back to soil after decomposition
 Forests take thousands of years to regrow into natural ecosystem with full
complements of species
 Forest is renewable if trees are planted otherwise forests behave like a non-
renewable resource if overused
 Aquatic food (fish) is over harvested by mechanized trawlers
 Population of plant and animal species is reduced by human activities – they are
becoming extinct affecting the ecosystem
1. Forest resources
a) India should have 33% of its land under forest – today only about 12% is left
b) People who live near forests know the value of the forest resources – their lives and live-li-
hood is depend directly on these resources
c) Water we use depends on the existence of forests on the watershed around the river valleys
d) It provides us food, medicinal plants, fodder, wood for furniture, paper, fuel, wood for
building homes, insects for clothing, wild honey
e) Clear air to breathe (oxygen)
f) Stops soil erosion during rains and floods
g) Ground water is stored – trees reduce runoff water
h) Tribal people grow agriculture on the land patches in the forest as soil is rich in minerals and
water – hunt animals and gather plants and live entirely on forest resources
i) Timber was extracted for building their ships in British times
j) Deforestation and over utilization causing serious environmental issues – both tribal people
and plants and animals are suffering
k) Tribal people lose their home and source of income
l) Animals and plants are becoming endangered and extinct’
m) Natural ecosystem is getting damaged and there is no balance of life
n) Local climate is maintained
o) Deforestation – the process of felling trees indiscriminately
 Cutting and clearing of trees and forest areas
 Trees are cut to build ships, houses and furniture (timber is over harvested)
 Forest needs to be cleared for urbanization and industrialization and building
modern roads
 Logging and mining are serious causes for loss of forests in our country
 Dams are built for hydroelectric power or irrigation have submerged forests and
have displaced tribal people whose lives are closely knit to the forest
 Forest degradation due to timber extraction and our dependence on fuel wood
 A large number of poor tribal people are still highly dependent on wood to cook
their meals and heat their homes
 Dams have submerged forests and replaced tribal people
  In these forests where development projects are planned, can displace
thousands of tribal people who lose their homes
 Felling of trees to meet the ever-increasing demand of the cities
Ex: Shivalik Sal forests were over-exploited for industry use, i.e. railway sleepers
etc
 Grazing by the local cattle, goats, sheep etc. They not only destroy the vegetation
but also pull out the roots of plants
 Construction of hill roads. Road construction damaged the protective vegetation
cover both above and below roads. It blocked natural and pollution of streams
 Deforestation leads to floods in the monsoon and dry rivers once the rains are
over
p) Forest functions
 Forest and wild life are essential to maintain ecological balance of an area
 Reduce the rate of surface run-off of water
 Prevents flash flood and soil erosion
 Produces prolonged gradual run-off and thus prevent effects of drought
 The floods are controlled because forests dry up rainwater like sponge which
holds water and releases it slowly
 Prevents effects of drought
 Absorbs solar heat during evapo-transpiration
 Maintains the local climate condition
 Holding soil (preventing rain from directly washing soil away into rivers and seas
and finally into oceans)
 Maintains carbon dioxide levels for plants growth
 Maintenance of soil nutrients and structure
 Forests check air pollution through increasing oxygen content of air
 Forests save the hill slopes from landslides
 In deserts, tress reduce wind erosion by checking wind velocity
 By causing condensation of water vapor in clouds, forests attract rains
 Forests also cover the steep embankments of river valleys which are ideally
suited to develop hydel and irrigation projects
 Forests are linked with our culture and civilization
 Major timber extraction – construction, industrial use and paper pulp – source of
income
 Minor forest products are canes, gums, resins, dyes, flocks, medicines, tannins,
lac, fibres, katha, oil’s (turpentine oil and sandal wood oil) contributes to the
economic development
 Consumption of forest products
o Food – gathering plants and hunting from forest, fishing (for tribal people
are provided with food like tuber, roots, leaves, fruits, meat from birds
and other animals)
o Fodder for castle
o Fuel wood and charcoal for cooking and heating
o Poles for building homes especially in rural and wilderness areas
o Timber – household articles and construction
o Fiber – weaving baskets, ropes, nets, strings
o Sericulture – for silk
 o Apiculture – bees for honey, forest bees also pollinate crops
o Medicinal plants – source of modern age drugs
o Honey, fruit, gum, fibre, fuel wood are sold in the local market as source
of income for forest dwellers
o Raw material for various industries as pulp, paper, newsprint, board
q) Reserved and protected curtailed access to the resources
r) Forest regeneration is done by stopping grazing or having rotational grazing
s) Timber is overharvested and this affects forest ecosystem
t) Forest should be conserved to save environment and stop the displacement of tribal people
who lose their homes

2. Water resources
a) Water cycle is through evaporation and precipitation (rainfall) which maintains the system
which forms rivers, lakes and aquatic ecosystem
b) Wetland are forms between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems
c) Water covers 70% of the earth’s surface but only 3% is fresh water – out of this 2% is in
polar caps and hence 1% is usable in rivers, lakes and subsoil aquifers
 70% for agriculture (global level)
 25% for industry (global level)
 5% for domestic use (global level)
d) India uses 90% for agriculture, 7% for industry and 3% for domestic use
e) Aquatic ecosystem is used for drinking water, washing, cooking and watering animals and
irrigation
f) A person needs 20-40 litres of water a day for drinking and sanitation
g) 31 countries are already short of water and it will increase to 48 countries bt 2025
h) More than one billion people world-wide have no access to clean water
i) 100 countries share the water of 13 large rivers and lakes. The upstream countries could
starve the downstream nation’s leading to political unstable areas across the world
Ex: examples are Ethiopia which is upstream on the Nile and Egypt which is downstream and
highly dependent on Nile
Ex: India and Bangladesh already have a negotiated agreement on the water use of the
Ganges
j) 20 major cities in India face chronic or interrupted water shortages
Example – conflict between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu over the water of Kaveri. The sharing
of waters of the Kaveri River had been the source of a serious conflict between the two
Indian states of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The genesis of this conflict rests in two
agreements in 1892 and 1924 between the madras and presidency and kingdom of Mysore
k) With growth of human population – there is an increasing need for larger amounts of water
to fulfil basic needs
l) Overutilization of water occurs at various levels – more water is used for agriculture than
necessary to grow crops – wasted during bath by using a shower
m) Drip irrigation can be used to reduce the water shortage
n) Excessive fertilizers and pesticides pollute surface and ground water stores
o) Health hazards are caused by pesticides in food and water
p) Industries and factories pollute rivers and other water bodies causing threat to animal
species and to humans
q) Biomass and non-toxic products like neem can be used to reduce surface and ground water
pollution
r) People should become more conscious by using green products or eco-friendly products
made by eco-sensitive industries
s) Global climate change
 Changes in climate at global level is caused by pollution
 They also lead to long droughts in some areas
 The greenhouse effect due to atmospheric pollution leads to increasingly erratic and
unpredictable climate effects
 Greenhouse effect – the gases stop the sun’s radiations to escape into atmosphere
warming the earth surface more
 It affects the regional hydrological conditions
t) Floods
 Cause serious environmental hazard
 The rivers are overflowing their banks and is becoming progressively damaging
 Wetland act like temporary sponge holding water and prevent fast flowing water
from damaging the surrounding lands
 Deforestation causes floods year after year in Himalayas killing people and
destroying homes
 Rivers change their course during floods
 Tons of valuable soil is washed away from seas and oceans
 Forests are degraded and rainwater no longer percolates into the sub-soil and runs
off down the mountainside with large amounts of topsoil
 The rivers swell and burst their banks and water spread to people’s homes and
farms
u) Droughts
 Serious scarcity of water to drink, use in farms or for urban and industrial use
 Deforestation is the reason for drought
 Drought areas face irregular periods of famine
 Forests permit rain water to seep into the ground – the underground stores water
 Forests stop rainwater rushing into rivers, seas and oceans
 The underground water stored is overused and vegetation suffers
 Afforestation can reduce the impacts of drought
 Drought is a major problem due to unpredictable climate conditions – failure of
monsoon

v) Water for agriculture and power generation

 Water is needed for irrigated agriculture and for generating electricity
 Urban and industrial water consumption can be met by creating dams
 Dams support 30-40% of the sea
 Dams ensure water throughout the year for domestic use, water for agriculture,
industry and hydropower generation
 Dams alter river flows, change the nature’s flood control and destroy local lives and
wild habitat
 Large land owners use more water than small farmers who get less water and are
seriously affected
 The upstream countries could starve the downstream nations
  Irrigation to support cash crops like sugarcane produce unequal distribution of
water
w) Sustainable water management
 Save water campaigns are important to make people aware of the dangerous water
scarcity
 Build small reservoirs instead of mega projects
 Develop small catchments, dams and project wetlands
 Afforestation helps in recharging the underground aquifers
 Treating and recycling of municipal waste water for agricultural use
 Rain water harvesting in urban areas
 Water conservation by drip irrigation in agriculture
 Preventing leakages from dams, canals, pipes
 Making nala plugs in deforested area can help retain moisture and helps re-vegetate
the area
 Best method is not to disturb the course of the river
 Pricing of the water makes responsible and reduces water wastage
x) Dams
 45,000 large dams are there in the world
 Dams play an important role in communities as water resources are needed for
economic development
 Irrigation can occur without interruption (30-40% of irrigated land worldwide relies
on dams)
 Generate electricity (19% of the world’s total electric power supply)
 Tourist spots
y) Dam problems
 Dams and canals lead to major floods in the monsoon
 Drainage of wetlands affects the areas that get flooded when the rainfalls is high
 Fragmentation and physical transformation of river
 Environmental impact of river eco-system
 Displacement of people (40-50% tribal people are displaced from their homes)
 People lose their livelihood who are dependent on river
 Agricultural land nearby rivers is taken over to build dams
 It impacts cultures and spiritual existence
 Fishing gets affected
 Soil erosion
 Damages the habitat of animal and disrupts their immigration routes
 Aquatic life is affected by the hot water discharged during electricity generation
 Emission of greenhouse gases from rotting vegetation
 Water logging and salinization of the surrounding lands
 Enhanced seismic activities due to pressure of water
 Loosening of hill sides and resultant landslides
 Drying up of spring and flash floods

3. Mineral resources
a) Naturally occurring substance of definite chemical composition and identifiable physical
properties
b) Ore is mineral or combination of minerals
c) Minerals are extracted and used for manufacture of useful products
d) They are formed over a periods of millions of years
 Earth’s crust has – zinc, magnesium, copper, iron, aluminium – raw materials for
industrial use
 Coal, salt, silica, cement, clay – no-metals
 Stone is used for building materials – granite, marble, limestone
 Ornaments – gold, silver and platinum
 Precious stones – diamonds, emeralds, rubies
 Fossil fuels – oil, gas, coal are formed when plants and animals die and converted
into underground fossil fuels
e) Minerals and ores extraction
 These are extracted from the earth’s crust
 From ore a useful substance such as a metal can be extracted and used to
manufacture a useful product
 The process is known as mining, it is done in four stages
i. Prospecting – searching of minerals
ii. Exploration – assessing the size, shape, location and economic value of the deposit
iii. Development – prepare to access the deposit – so that mineral can be extracted
iv. Exploitation – extracting the mineral from the mines
 Most minerals need to be processed before they become usable
f) Mining is of two types depending on the minerals or ore deposit and on how maximum
yield can be obtained and with least danger to the mining personal
g) The topography of the region and the physical nature of the ore deposit is studied
h) In the past mineral deposits were discovered by prospectors in areas where mineral
deposits in the form of veins were exposed on the surface
i) Today, prospecting and exploring is done by teams of geologists, mining engineers,
geophysicist and geochemists who work together to discover new deposits
j) Mining safety
 Mining is a hazardous occupation
 Surface mining is less hazardous than deep mining
 Metal mining is less hazardous than coal mining
 Rocks and roof fall, flooding, inadequate ventilation, large explosions in the
underground mines are the greatest hazards
 Fumes and dust are generated from dynamite explosives are hazardous and
poisonous to health
 Mining poses several long-term occupational hazards – cause lung diseases known
as pneumoconiosis (black lung)
 Radiation is hazardous in uranium mines
 Methane gas emanating from coal strata is hazardous to health
 There is air and water pollution
 Developed large tracts that lost productivity
 Affected forests, cultivated lands and ground vibration problems
k) Environmental problems
 Mining operations are the main source of environmental degradation
 Most of work has been unscientific – no heed is paid too environmental protection
 The extraction of all these products from the lithosphere has a variety of side effects
 Depletion of available land due to mining, waste from industries
 Conversion of land to industry
 Pollution of land, water and air by industrial wastes
  Minerals are discharged into water without treatment affect the health – by
drinking the polluted water or by eating food products from the nearby agricultural
lands
 During last 20-30 years – a number of mining operations caused ecological
problems, affected cultivated areas and forests
 Hillocks have been erased due to construction of power transmission lines, and rail
tracks
 Establishment of other factories and super thermal power stations around coal
mines have resulted into environmental degradation

4. Food resources
a) Food comes from agriculture, animal husbandry and fishing
b) India is self-sufficient in food production – by cultivation
c) Modern patterns of agriculture are not sustainable as they pollute environment – due to
excessive use to fertilizers and pesticides – generic loss of different varieties
d) Sustainable agriculture conserves land, water and does not degrade the environment
e) Farmer uses traditional varieties and grows several different crops – the chance of failure
is lowered – known as integrated crop management
f) One can use alternatives to inorganic fertilizers and pesticides
g) In many developing countries where populations are expanding rapidly – the production
of food is unable to keep pace with the growing demand
h) 64 countries out of 105 countries are lagging behind their population growth levels in
food production. These countries are unable to produce food or do not have economy to
import food
i) India is one of the countries that have been able to produce enough food by cultivating a
large proportion of its arable land irrigation
j) The green revolution of the 60’s reduce starvation in India
k) Problems
 Our fertile soils are being exploited faster than they can recuperate (recover)
 Forest, grassland and wetlands are being converted to agricultural use leading to
ecological problems
 Fish in both marine and inland is over harvested – shows evidence of extinction
 There is disparity in the availability of nutritious food – tribal people still face
serious food problems leading to malnutrition especially among women and
children
 As living standards are improving, people are eating more non-vegetarian food.
As people change from eating grain to meat, the world’s demand for feed for
livestock based on agriculture increase as well
 Women play extremely vital role in food production as well as cooking the meal
and feeding children
 Women and girls receive less food than men and boys in some communities
 In India there is shortage of cultivatable productive land. Thus farm sizes are too
small to support a family on farm produce alone
l) Poor environmental agriculture practices such as slash burn, shifting cultivation or rab
(wood ash) cultivation degrade forests
m) Loss of nutrients and overuse of agricultural chemicals degrade the land – globally 5 to 7
million hectares of farmland is degraded each year
n) Water scarcity is an important aspect of poor agricultural outputs
 o) Salinization and water logging has affected a large amount of agricultural land worldwide
p) Loss of genetic diversity in crop plants is another issue that is leading to a fall in
agricultural produce
q) Rice, wheat and corn are the staple foods of two thirds of the world’s people
r) Estimated 18 million people worldwide die of starvation or malnutrition and many others
suffer a variety of dietary deficiencies each year
s) Fish is an important protein – both marine and fresh water
t) Modern fishing technology uses mechanized trawlers and small meshed nets leading to
overexploitation
u) The traditional fishermen are worst affected as they are no match for organized trawlers
Ex: Canada had to close down cod fishing in the 1990’s due to depletion of fish reserves
v) 44% of the world’s fisheries are fully or heavily exploited – 16% are already
overexploited – 6% are depleted
w) There are 50,000 known edible plants – only 15 varieties produce 90% of the world’s
food
x) World needs sustainable methods of food production which is an important aspect of
land use management
y) New avenues to produce food – using forests for their multiple non-wood forest
products such as fruit, mushrooms, saps, gum which can be used sustainably
z) Modern agricultural practices have resulted in a serious loss of genetic variability of
crops
aa) Medicines – both traditional and modern can be harvested sustainably from forests
bb) Growing of vegetables and fruits in the backyards on the waste water from their homes
and fertilizers from vermicomposting
cc) Pollution of water, land degradation and desertification should be reserved by methods
of soil conservation, right farming methods, crop rotation and managing watersheds at
the micro level
Ex: Isreal began using drip irrigation system as it is short of water. The efficiency of
irrigation improved by 95% and over 20-years period, food production doubled without
an increase in the use for agriculture
5. Land resources
a. Hills, mountains, valleys, wetlands, river basins, plains are land resources
b. Some of the land resources are preserved as sacred grooves of the western ghats
c. Land is a renewable resource if it is prevented from deforestation without turning
grasslands and wetlands into agricultural areas
d. No waste should be dumped on the land – industrial waste and nuclear waste
e. The roots of trees and grasses bind the soil, if forests are depleted or grasslands are
overgrazed, the land becomes unproductive and wasteland is formed
f. Intensive irrigation leads to water logging and salination on which crops cannot grow
g. Overuse of fertilizers and pesticide, over irrigation brings salts to surface after
evaporation
h. Soil erosion can be stopped by afforestation
i. Land is also converted into a non-renewable resource when highly toxic industrial and
nuclear waste are dumped on it
j. Man needs land for building homes, cultivating food, maintaining pastures for domestic
animals, developing industries to provide goods and supporting the industry by creating
towns and cities
k. Land degradation
  Land degradation refers to the physical or chemical processes which make land
unfit for a variety of purposes like agriculture, commercial, residential
 Farmland is under threat due to more and more intense utilization
 The loss of top soil (alluvial soil) causes degradation – soil erosion
 Soil is eroded more rapidly by wind and rain – damage the soil
 The washing off of fine soil particles from deforested areas has caused great soil
erosion
 Over irrigation (intensive irrigation) leads to water logging and salination (salts
appear on the surface due to evaporation) on which crops cannot grow
 If forests are depleted or grasslands are overgrazed – land becomes
unproductive and wasteland
 The use of more and more chemical fertilizers poisons the soil and eventually
land becomes unproductive
 We need to protect wilderness like forests, grasslands, wetlands, mountains and
coasts
 Protected areas (national parks and wildlife sanctuaries) are important aspects
of good land use planning
 Dumping of highly toxic industrial and nuclear wastes
 As urban centres grow and industrial expansion occurs, the agricultural land and
forests shrink
 At present land is under stress due to sprawl in agriculture, industry and
urbanization
 Rapid increase in industrialization, urbanization and other activities or civilized
man have exercised a tremendous impact on the soils and on other components
of biosphere
 Unplanned destruction of forests and forest litter had brought about serious
changes both in land and water
 Excessive unplanned canal irrigation without proper drainage and water
management has resulted in seepage, water logging and salinity
l. Soil erosion
 Natural ecosystems – forests and grasslands depend on the type of soil
 The misuse of the ecosystem leads to loss of valuable soil through erosion by the
monsoon rains and to smaller extent by wind
 The roots of the trees in the forest hold the soil
 The loss of top (fertile) soil by wind or monsoon rain is soil erosion
 Deforestation leads to rapid soil erosion
 Soil is washed into streams and is transported into rivers and finally lost into the
sea
 It is important to reforest the denuded areas to prevent the loss of millions of
tons of valuable soil
 The soil is enriched with leaf-litter of the forest – detritus is broken by soil micro-
organisms which help to recycle nutrients in the system
 The washing off of fine soil particles from deforested areas has caused great soil
erosion
 Soil erosion has resulted in a great increase in run-off, pollution turbidity and
mineralization in rivers and extensive silting in water reservoirs
 Reduction in quality and quantity of woodland, grassland, cropland
 Degradation of watersheds and catchments; desertification
 m. Role of individual
 Mankind is ever exploiting the ecosystems and natural resources such as soil,
water, forests and grasslands on the earth’s surface and extracting minerals and
fossil fuels from underground
 Even biological resources traditionally classified as ‘renewable’ – such as those
from our oceans, forests, grassland and wetlands are being degraded by overuse
and may be permanently destroyed. And no natural resource is limitless. Non-
renewable resource will be rapidly exhausted
 Care and sustainable lifestyle can save the environment
 The resources are depleted due to increasing population and its increasing
demand to fulfil the needs
 Two most demanding factors
o Increasing consumerism
o Rapid population growth
 Reduction of sustainable and unequal use of resources and control of population
growth are essential for survival of human kind
 A new economic order at the global and at national levels must be based on the
ability to distribute benefits of natural resources by sharing them more equally
among the countries as well as among communities within countries
 There are several principles that each of us can adapt to bring about sustainable
lifestyles – primarily comes from caring for our mother earth
Ex: think of the beauty of wilderness, a natural forest in all its magnificence, the
expanse of green grassland, the clean water of a lake that supports life so much,
the crystal clear water of hill stream or the magnificent power of oceans
6. Energy resources
a. Sun is the primary energy source – we use it for warmth and for various processes that
provide – food, shelter, water and fuel
b. Sun’s ray help in the growth of plant and finally in food production
c. Sun’s energy evaporated water from waterbodies to form clouds and fall as rain
d. Fossil fuels grew due to the energy of sun’s
e. Chemical energy contained in chemical compounds is released when they are broken
down by animals in the presence of oxygen
f. Electrical energy is produced by hydel power based on the water cycle that is powered
by the sun’s energy that supports or form thermal power stations powered by fossil
fuels
g. Electrical energy is produced in several ways, powers transport, artificial lighting,
agriculture and industry
h. Nuclear energy is held in the nucleus of an atom and now harnessed to develop
electrical energy
i. We need energy for household use, agriculture, industries and transport (buses, railway
lines)
j. Energy demanding roads and railway lines are built to transport products from place to
place and to reach raw materials in mines and forests
k. Modern agriculture uses chemical fertilizers which require large amounts of energy
during their manufacture
l. Energy release carbon dioxide which leads to global warming
m. Nuclear energy plants cause enormous loss to the environment due to leakage of
nuclear material
 n. Almost 2 billion people worldwide have no access to electricity at all
o. It is estimated that the currently used methods of using renewable energy and non-
renewable fossil fuel resources will be insufficient to meet foreseeable global demands
for power generation
p. Energy is important for economic growth and development
q. Coal was the primary energy source fuelling the industrial revolution in the 19th century
and it is dominant fuel used for electrical generation
r. Biomass (dung+ wood) is the 40% of the primary energy supply in India
s. Types of energy
1) Non-renewable energy
o The energy once consumed cannot be regenerated
o To produce electricity from non-renewable resources the material must be
ignited. The fuel is placed in a well contained area and set on fire. The heat
generated turns water to stream which moves through pipes to turn the
blades of a turbine. This converts magnetism into electricity which we use
in various appliances
o The mineral based hydrocarbon fuels coal, oil and natural gas that were
formed from ancient prehistoric forests. They are called fossil fuels
because they are formed after plant life is fossilized
o When fossil fuels are burnt, they produce waste products which are
released as gases (CO2, Co, oxides of sulphur, nitrogen) into the
atmosphere causing air pollution, global warming, destruction to nature
and monuments and cause lung problems
o The gases let the sunlight in and traps the heat inside causing global
warming, causing rise in global temperature, droughts, floods, melting of
icecaps, submerging coastal areas, warming of seas kills sensitive
organisms such as coral
o Oil and its environmental impacts
o The process of natural gas drilling, processing, transport and utilization
have serious environmental consequences such as leaks in which water
and air are polluted, accidental fires that may go on burning for days or
weeks before the fire can be controlled
o During refining oil, solid waste such as salts and grease are produced
which also damage the environment
o Oil slicks are caused at sea from seashore wells, cleaning of oil tankers and
due to ship wrecks
o Oil powered vehicles emit carbon, sulphur, nitrogen causing air pollution –
lead to neuro damage and reduces attention span
o Coal is the major contributor to the global warming - burning coal
produces sulphur and nitrogen oxides if combined with water vapour led
to ‘acid rain’
o Acid rain kills vegetation, damages architectural sites, pollutes water and
effects human health
o Thermal power stations use coal which produces waste ‘fly ash’ used for
making bricks
o During refining oil, solid waste such as salt and grease are produced which
also damage the environment
2) Renewable energy
o Which are hydro power, solar, wind, geothermal (earth’s crust)
o Renewable energy from burning trees and even garbage as fuel and
processing other plants into biofuels
o We get energy from sun and wind
o Nearly 50% of the world is dependent on fuel wood source of energy
o Rural women and women from lower economic strata in towns – still
spend a large part of their lives collecting fuel wood (fuel efficient stoves –
‘chulas’)
o Hydroelectric power
- Is generated from flowing water down a natural gradient to turn
turbines to generate electricity by dams across rivers
- Hydroelectric power plants have created serious ecological
problems
- Large forests and agriculture leads to submerged
- The livelihood of tribal people is affected
- Silting of reservoirs as a result of deforestation
o Use of rivers for navigation and fishing because difficult
o Resettlement of displaced people is a problem – most dames have been
unable to resettle people that were effected and displaced
o Certain regions can induce seismic activity leading to earthquakes
o China has 60,000 dams has less environmental impact
o It is very low operating and maintenance costs
o Hydropower generation increased worldwide between 1850 and 1970

i. Solar energy
- Sun pours as much energy on to the earth as we use in whole year
- We have developed several methods of collecting suns energy for heating water and
generating electricity
- Modern houses use air-conditional or heating are extremely energy dependent
 A building is designed to collect suns heat through large glass windows – by
building sunspaces on the south side which act as heat absorbs to absorb
heat through out the day – release this heat when it is cold
- In energy efficient architecture – the sun, water are used to heat the building when
the weather is cold and to cool it in summer. Thick walls of stone or mud were used in
traditional architecture as an insulator
- Traditional bungalows had high roofs and ventilators that permitted hot air to rise and
leave the room keeps it cool
- Shady trees around the house helps reduce temperature
- Solar water heating – the solar energy is collected by the collector and water is
heated
Ex – solar cookers, solar water heaters
- Solar energy can be gainfully conserved by suitable architectural design that gainfully
exploit the site and building material to turn a building into a solar collector
- Active solar thermal system – the basic unit in the solar collector – a panel commonly
made of aluminium, glass, plastic and copper, when fitted to a roof these panels
absorb direct sunlight and transfer heat to a fluid that passes through the collector.
 The fluid flows through pipes into the building where it is used to heat water or warm
the room
- The solar cell is a device that converts sunlight directly into electricity. Photovoltaic
(solar cells) generate an electromotive force in a material as a result of its absorbing
ionizing radiation. There is no environmental impact.
Ex: calculators and watches. They provide power to satellite, highway lighting,
weather stations, water pumping and electrical systems located away from power
lines
ii. Biomass energy
- A log of wood is burned – it is biomass energy
- Wood is the largest source of biomass energy
- We use agricultural wastes, sugarcane wastes and other farm byproducts to make
energy
- There are three ways to use biomass energy
 It is burned to produce heat and electricity
 Changed to gas like fuel such as methane
 Changed to liquid fuel called as biofuels, include two forms of alcohol:
ethanol and methanol
- Biomass can be changed directly into liquid fuels – used in transportation fuel need
for cars, trucks, buses, airplanes and trains with diesel replaced by biodiesel made
from vegetable oils
- In US – fuel is now being produced from soybean oil
- Researchers are developing algae that produce oil which can be converted to
biodiesel
- New ways have been found to produce ethanol from grasses, trees, bark, sawdust,
paper and farming wates
- Other municipal wastes includes paper, food wastes and other organic materials
(textiles, rubber, leather) – which is converted to electricity by combustion broilers or
steam turbines
- In US
 31% of organic waste is recovered from municipal solid waste via recycling
and compositing
 67% is deposited in landfills
 7% is incineration
- Waste material can be converted into electricity by combustion broilers and steam
turbines
- Biomass creates some pollutants including carbon dioxide when burned or converted
into energy
- Biomass is naturally low in sulphur but generates low sulphur dioxide emissions when
burned
- Some biomass feeds would emit relatively high levels of nitrous oxides, carbon
monoxide and particulates
iii. Biogas
- It is produced from plant material and animal waste, garbage and household wastes,
industrial waste (fish processing, diaries and sewage treatment plants) – 1 ton can
produce 85 cu m of biogas
- It is a mixture of gases which include methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide
and water vapor – the residue is used as an agricultural fertilizers
  Denmark – produces large quantity of biogas from waste and produces
15,000 megawatts of electricity from 14 farmer’s cooperatives
 London – makes 30,000 megawatts of electricity a year from 4,20,000 tons
of municipal waste which gives power to 50,000 families
 Germany – 25% of landfills for garbage produce power from biogas
 Japan – uses 85% of its waste
 France – uses 50% of its waste
- Biogas plants have become increasingly popular in India in the rural sector
- The biogas plant uses cow dung, which is converted into a gas which is used as fuel
- The reduction in kitchen smoke by using biogas has reduced lung conditions in
thousands of homes
- The fibrous waste of sugar industry is the world’s largest potential source of biomass
energy
 Ethanol produced from sugarcane molasses is a good automobile fuel and is
now used in a third of the vehicles in Brazil
- By 1996 – nearly 2.18 million families are using biogas in India
v. Wind power
- This is the earliest energy source used for transportation by sailing ships
- Windmills are developed to draw water for irrigation and grinding grain (China,
Afghanistan and Persia)
- Denmark and California have large wind turbines to produce electricity – even in
Tamil Nadu had large wind farms producing 850 megawatts of electricity
- India is the third largest wind energy producer in the world
- The power of wind is a function of the wind speed of an area which is an important
determinant of economically feasible power – wind speed increases with height
- Wind has few environmental impacts – no air or water pollution or radiation or solid
waste production
- The principal problems are – birds are killed, noise, effect on tv reception
- Large areas of land are required for setting up wind farms – the amount used by the
turbine bases is less than 1% pf the total area covered by the wind farm. The rest of
the area is used for agricultural purposes or grazing
- Technical progress has been made in design, siting, installation, operation and
maintenance of power-producing wind mills (turbines) – led to higher wind
conversion efficiencies and lower electricity production costs
- Siting windmills offshore reduces their demand for land and visual impact
- Wind is an intermittent source and the wind depends on the geographic distribution
of wind
- Wind cannot be used as the sole resource for electricity
vi. Tidal and Wave power
- 70% of the earth surface is covered with water
- By warming the water, the sun creates ocean currents and wind produces waves
- The energy of waves in the sea that crash on the land of all continents is estimated at
2 to 3 million megawatts of energy
- Many countries have been experimenting with technology to harness the kinetic
energy of ocean to generate electricity
- Tidal power
a. Is tapped by placing a barrage across an estuary and forcing the tidal flow to
pass through turbines.
 b. In a one-way system the incoming tide is allowed to fill the basin through a
sluice and water so collected is used to produce electricity during low tide
c. In a two-way system power is generated from both the incoming as well as
the outgoing tide
d. Tidal power stations bring major ecological changes in the sensitive
ecosystem of coastal regions and can destroy the habitats and nesting
places of water birds and interfere with fisheries
e. Tidal power stations at the mouth of a river blocks the flow of polluted
water into the sea creating health and pollution hazards in the estuary
f. Other drawbacks are offshore energy devices posing navigational hazards
g. Residual drift current could affect spawning of fish, whose larvae would be
carried away from spawning grounds
h. They may affect the migration patterns of surface swimming fish
- Wave power
a. Wave power converts the motion of waves into electrical or mechanical
energy
b. An energy extraction device is used to drive turbo generators
c. Electricity can be generated at sea and transmitted by cable to land
d. The largest concentration of potential wave energy of earth is located
between latitudes 40 to 60 degrees in both the northern and southern
hemispheres where the wind blows more strongly
e. Another developing concept to harness energy is due to the difference
between warm upper layers of the ocean and the cold deep sea water.
These plants are known as ocean thermal energy conversion
vii. Geothermal energy
- The energy stored within the earth (geo for earth – thermal for heat)
- It starts with hot, molten rock (called magma) deep inside the earth
- The heat rising from the magma warms the underground pools of water known as
geothermal reservoirs
- The hot underground water comes to surface and forms hot springs or it may boil to
form geysers
- Wells are drilled deep below the surface of the earth to tap into geothermal
reservoirs
- In the 20th century, geothermal energy has been harnessed on a large scale for space
heating, industrial use and electricity production in Japan, Iceland and New Zealand
- Geothermal is nearly as cheap as hydropower
- Water from geothermal reservoirs contains minerals that are corrosive and polluting
- Geothermal fluids are a problem which must be treated before disposal

3) Nuclear energy
o In 1938 two German scientists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman demonstrated
nuclear fission – they found they could split the nucleus of a uranium atom by
bombarding it with neutrons – the nucleus splits – some mass is converted into
energy
o The first large scale nuclear power plant in the world became operational in 1957
in Pennsylvania, US
o The nuclear reactors use uranium 235 to produce electricity
 o Energy released from 1kg of uranium 235 is equivalent to that produced by
burning 3,000 tons of coal
o Uranium 235 is made into rods which are fitted into a nuclear reactor. The rods
absorb neutrons and adjust the fission which releases energy due to the chain
reaction in a reactor unit.
o The heat energy produced in the reaction is used to heat water and produce
steam which drives turbines that produce electricity
o The drawback is that the rods need to be changed periodically
o The reaction releases very hot waste water that damages aquatic ecosystems
o The disposal of nuclear waste is becoming a serious issue –
 High cost of disposal of its waste and the decommissioning of old plants
 Conventional environmental impacts
 Pollute air and water routinely
 Single accident can kill thousands of people – effects last for long periods of
time
 Make many others seriously ill
 Destroy an area for decades by radioactivity which leads to death, cancer and
genetic deformities
 Land and vegetation are destroyed for long periods of time
Ex: nuclear accidents at Chernobyl in USSE and at Three Mile Island in USA
o Sweden has become a nuclear free country
t. Energy conservation
1. Conventional energy sources have a variety of impacts on nature and human society
2. A shift to alternate energy use and renewable energy sources that are used equitably
would bring about environmentally friendly and sustainable lifestyles
3. India must reduce its dependency on imported oil – we are under -utilizing our natural
gas resources
4. We could develop thousands of mini dams to generate electricity
5. Indian wastes great amount of electricity during transmission
6. Fuel wood plantations need to be enhanced
7. Energy efficient cooking stoves or chulas’ help the movement if air through it so that the
wood is burnt more efficiently – have a chimney to prevent air pollution and thus reduce
respiratory problems
8. In India 95% of rural people and 60% of urban poor still depend on firewood , cattle
dung and crop residue for cooking and other domestic purposes
9. Biomass can be converted to biogas or liquid fuel i.e. ethanol and methanol
10. Biogas digesters convert animal waste or agricultural residues (dung of animal waste ,
rice husk , coconut shells , straw or weeds) into gas. This 60% methane and 40%
CO2genwrated by fermentation. The material left after gas is used acts as a fertilizer
11. Small hydrogenation unit are environment -friendly and they do not displace people,
destroy forests or wildlife or kill aquatic and terrestrial biodiversity
12. It is easy to waste energy but cheaper to save it than generate it – conserve energy by
preventing or reducing waste of energy and by using resources more efficiently
13. indie needs to rapidly move into a policy to reduce energy needs and use cleaner energy
production technologies
o Industry and transport are main growing user of energy in India
 o Industries (chemical industries, petrochemical units, iron and steel, textiles,
paper) are generating pollution also waste the most energy
o Unplanned ad inefficient public transport systems waste large amounts of
energy
o In agriculture – irrigation pumps lift water are the most energy intensive
agricultural use. These are either electrical or run-on fossil fuels
o Lighter materials like aluminium, fibre glass or plastics should be used for cars
instead of steel. These lighter materials can reduce the weigh by 15% and
increase fuel economy by 6 to 8%
o An 18-watts modern, compact fluorescent lamp can replace standard 75-watt
incandescent lamp

Unit 3 : ECOSYSTEMS

a. An ecosystem is a region within a specific landscape form such as forest grassland desert
wetland or coastal
b. The nature of ecosystems is based on its geographical features such as hills mountains plains
rivers lakes coastal areas and islands
c. Climate control the ecosystem as the amount of sunlight the temperature and the rainfall in
the region
d. Ecosystems is divided into terrestrial land and aquatic water
e. The geographical climate and soil characteristics form its non- living (abiotic) these
components create conditions that support plants and animal
f. Definition the living community of plants and animal is specific are with non -living
components of the environment such as soil air water depending on the sunlight rainfall and
temperature constitute the ecosystem
g. All the living organisms in an area live in communities of plants and animal they interact with
their non - living environment
h. The ecosystem is divided at global and sub global level into bio geographical realms
i. The local level has structurally and functionally identifiable ecosystem – forest, grassland,
new catchment, mangrove swamps, deltas, seashore and islands
j. There are several distinctive geographical regions in India - the Himalayas, the Gangetic
Plains, the Highlands of Central India, the Western and Eastern Ghats, the Deccan Plateau,
the Coastal Belts and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands - plants and animal have been
adapted to live in each of these regions
k. Some ecosystems are fairly robust and less affected by human disturbance other are highly
fragile and are quickly destroyed by human activities
l. Mountain ecosystem are extremely fragile as Degradation of forests of forests cover leads to
server erosion old soil and change in river courses
m. Evergreen forests and coral reefs are also examples of species rich fragile ecosystems
n. River and wetlands ecosystems can be seriously affected by pollution and changes in
surrounding land use
o. Natural ecosystems include the forests, grassland, deserts and aquatic ecosystems such as
pounds , lakes and the sea - man modified ecosystems for agricultural land, urban or
industrial land use
p. How does ecosystems work
 The ecosystem functions through several biochemical cycle and energy
transfer mechanisms
 The components of the ecosystem consist of non – living (abiotic -air, water,
climate, soil)and living (plants, animals, microorganisms ) which interact with
each other through several functions
 All the living components form the web of life
 Some species are `keystone species’ -- if eliminated seriously affect the
ecosystem
q. Ecosystems are disrupted by human actions leads to extinction of species of plants and
animals
 Forest are deforested for timber
 Wetlands are drained to create agricultural land
 Semi – arid grasslands that are used as pastural are changed into irrigated fields
 Pollution from industry and urban settings lead to extinction of several species
r. The reason for the depletion of natural resources is
A. Rapid exploding population that needs to sustain
B. The growth of affluent modern societies
s. In the past many resources such as timber and fuel wood from forest were extracted
sustainably but the pattern changed during the last century – economically better societies
began to use greater amounts of forest products while the people who lived in the forest
became increasingly poor
t. The non – living components of an ecosystem are the amount of water, the various inorganic
substances and organic compounds and climatic conditions such as rainfall and temperature
depend on geographical conditions and location which is related to the amount of sunlight
u. The life components of plants life ranges from extremely small bacteria which live in air,
water and soil, algae live in fresh and salt water

1. Forest ecosystem

a. Forests are formed by a community of plants – trees, shrubs, climbers and ground cover
b. Natural vegetation look vastly different from group of planted trees which are in orderly
rows
c. The `natural ‘undisturbed forests are located mainly in national parks and wild life
sanctuaries
d. The landscape makes up various types of forests which look different from each other –
each type forms a habitat for specific community of animal that are adapted to live in it
e. The type of forest depends on abiotic conditions – forests on mountains and hills differ
from those along rivers – plant communities very in response to the type of soil
 Coniferous forests occur in Himalayas
 Mangroves trees occur in river deltas
 Thorn trees grow in arid areas
 Snow leopard lives in Himalayas
 Leopard and lion lives in the forests
 Wild sheep and goats live in Himalayas
 Evergreen forests of western ghats and north east India
f. Plant and animal species are closely dependent on earth other together from different
types of forest communities.
g. Local people depend directly on the forest for several natural resources and people who
do not live in the forest buy forest products such as wood and paper which are extracted
from the forest
h. Forest types
 It depends on the abiotic factors such as climate and soil of a region
 There are many types of forests depending on soil, land, climate and tree types
 Forests in india can be broadly divided into coniferous forests and broadleaved
forests classified according to the nature of their tree species – evergreen,
deciduous, xerophytes or thorn trees, mangroves

1. Coniferous forest
- Grow in Himalayan mountain regions where temperatures are low
- These forests have tall stately trees
- The leaves are needle – like and downward sloping branches so that snow can slip off
the branches and leaves
- They have cones instead of seeds called gymnosperms
2. Broadleaved forests
- Forests have large leaves of various types
- Broadleaved forests have several types such as evergreen forests, deciduous forests,
thorn forests and mangrove forests
- These are called temperate broad-leaved forests
- During drier temperature environments when moisture is less - the trees develop
thickened leaves
3. Evergreen forests
 Grow in high rainfall areas of Western Ghats, North India, Andaman and
Nicobar Islands
 In these areas monsoon lasts for several months
 Soil is rich on nutrients, orchids and ferns
 There is no shedding of leaves like deciduous trees
 Only shed few leaves but there is no leafless phase
 The trees overlap and form a continuous canopy
 Only little sunlight is able to penetrate down to forest floor
 The bark of trees are covered with moss
 The forest is rich in animal and insect life
- Deciduous forests
 Grow in regions with moderate amount of seasonable rainfall
 Teak trees grow in these forest
 The trees shed the leaves during winters and hot summers
 They regain fresh leaves before the monsoon
 Canopy regrows again
 The forest has thick undergrowth as light can penetrate easily onto the forest
floor
- Thorn forests
 Found in semi-arid regions of India
 Surrounded by open grassy areas and trees are sparse
 Those trees conserve water - the leaves have a thick waxy coat to reduce the
loss of water during transpiration
 The forest trees have long and fibrous roots to reach water at great depths
  They have thorns to reduce loss of water and protect them from herbivorous
animals
- Mangrove trees
 Grows along the coast especially in the river deltas
 They grow in mix of saline and fresh water
 They grow in muddy areas covered with silt that rivers have brought down
 The trees have breathing roots the emerge from the mud banks

I. Forest utilization and product’s

 Local people get variety of products-food, fodder, wood, medicinal plants,
honey, fruits, fuel wood, raw material, paper, gum, fiber, cane
 Forests keep the climate cool-controls the local climate
 Maintains water regimes, retains moisture
 Stops loss of fertile soil-soil erosion is prevented
 Controls flash floods
 Helps in rivers and stream flows
 The local people have traditionally survived for generations
 During monsoon-the forest regains moisture and slowly releases it through
perennial streams
 Soft wood is used for yoke and hard wood is used for axil
 Branches and leaves are burnt to form wood ash which act as fertilizer for
crop such as rice
 Forest cover reduce runoff of rainwater and allows groundwater to be stored
 Forests absorb CO2 and release 02 that we breathe
 The loss of forests cover leads to irreversible changes such as excessive soil
erosion, large runoff of surface water during monsoon leading to flash floods
and shortage of water after monsoons
 Forest regulates local temperature and it is cooler and moist under the shade
of trees in the forest
- THREATS
 Forests grow slowly we cannot we more resources
 If timber is felled beyond a certain limit the forest cannot regenerate
 Sensitive species cannot survive under changed conditions
 Forest change habitat quality of animals.
 Over utilizing of forest resources lead to forest degradation and finally
changes the ecosystem into wasteland
 Shortage of water once monsoon is over
 Weeds to flash floods due to large runoff of Surface water during monsoons
 Continual forest due to increasing for paper and excessive wee we of timber,
wood putp of fuelwood.
 Forests are due to mining and building dams.
 The ecosystem is degraded and forest canopy is opened and its wildlife is
threatened.
 Forest is fragmented into small patches leading to the extinction of plant and
animal Species
 India's forest cover has been decreased from about 33% to 11% in last
century
 Urbanisation and industrialization leads to forest degradation.
 k. Disappear:
 When forests are cud down the tribal people are dislocated
 Tribal people who are dependent on forest for food and other Products
will find it difficult to Survive
 Pollination is lost - insects which breed in forest become extinct
 The Soil & rapidly washed away during rains into Seas and ocean once
forests are removed
 The vain water is lost directly into rivers and Seas
 Animals lose their habitat - leading to extinction do Species
 In deforested areas - the water in streams is brown in Colour as the soul
is washed away.
 The agriculture is seriously affected if the fertile
Soil is lost
l. Conserve
 We can conserve forests by using alternate sources of energy instead of
fuel wood
 Afforestation need to be done continuously
 Natural forests with adverse species must be protected as National Parks
and Wild Life
2. Grass Ecosystem
i. These form a variety of grassland ecosystem with their specific plants and
animals
ii. The wide range of landscapes in which the vegetation is mainly formed by
grasses and small annual plants
iii. Grasslands are adapted to various climates
iv. Grasslands cover areas where rainfall is low and soil depth and quality is poor
v. During monsoon the grass grows abundantly and supports life
vi. The low in rainfall prevents the growth of large number of trees and shrubs
vii. During summers - the grass dries and the life goes into dormant stage
viii. The animals store food in form of fat and can survive for months when there is
little to eat
I. Grassland types
i. There are many types of grasslands depending on climate, soil and
rainfall
ii. Shola grasslands occur on hill slopes extremely moist evergreen forests
in South India (western ghats, niligiri and Annamalai ranges)
iii. The tracts of tall elephant grass in low lying Terai belt south of Himalayan
foothills with Sal forest ecosystem
iv. Semi-arid grassland in Western India, parts of Central India and Deccan
Plateau

i. Grassland types

i. There are many types of grasslands depending on climate, soil and rainfall
ii. Shola grasslands occur on hill slopes extremely moist evergreen forests in South India
(western ghats, niligiri and Annamalai ranges)
 iii. The tracts of tall elephant grass in low lying Terai belt south of Himalayan foothills with Sal
forest ecosystem
iv. Semi-arid grassland in Western India, parts of Central India and Deccan Plateau
v. The Himalayan pasture belt extends up to the snowline - the animal migrate up into the high
altitude grasslands in summer and move down into the forests in winter and when snow
covers grassland
vi. The grasses are major producers of biomass
vii. The grasslands are destroyed by repeated fires and cannot regenerate and also do not
permit the forest to grow
viii. Some grass and herb species are more sensitive to excessive grazing and are suppressed if
area is over grazed
ix. Each grassland ecosystem has a wide variety of species of grasses and herbs

x . utilization

1. Grassland are the grazing areas of many rural communities- cattle, sheep or goats
2. Domestic animals are grazed in `common’ land of the village
3. Fodder id collected and stored to feed cattle when there is no grass left to graze in summer
4. Grass is used to thatch houses and farm sheds
5. The thorny bushes and branches of few trees are seen in grasslands are used as a major
source of fuel wood
6. Grasslands have diverse species of insects that pollinate crops
7. Carnivorous animals like shrews. Frogs, lizards, birds of prey help to control insects’ pests

Xi . threats

1. Overutilization and changes land use of the `common land’ of rural communities land to
their degradation
2. A major threat is the conversion of grassland into irrigated farmlands
3. In deccan, grassland have been altered to irrigated farms and are used to grow sugarcane
4. After continuous irrigation – the land become saline and useless in few years
5. Many residual grassland tracts have been converted into industrial area
6. Grassland have a limited ability to support domestic animals and wildlife increasing number
of domestic animals reduces the ‘naturalness’ of the grassland ecosystem leading to its
degradation
7. Grassland’s ecosystems are highly modified by human activities
a. Repeated fires
b. Overgrazing by cattle, sheep and goats – converts the grasses into flat stubs with
very little green
c. Changing to others forms of land use as tree plantations, agriculture and
industrialization
d. Degraded grasslands have fewer grass species due to overgrazing
8. Grassland becomes bare – the soil is solidly compacted by trampling or is washed away
during monsoon by rain and whipped into dust storms during hot dry summer
9. The land is degraded and there is no grass to hold the soil in place – it becomes a wasteland

Xii. Disappear

1. Grassland and species have disappeared from several parts of India which were found 50
or 60years ago
 2. Local people will not be able to support their livestock herds
3. Grassland have lost highly specialized plant and animals -- the extinction of species is a
great loss to mankind
4. Genes of wild grasses are extremely useful for developing new crop varieties
5. New medicines could be discovered from wild grassland plants
6. Cheetah, wolf, great Indian bustards are threatened and will become extinct and vanish
their shrinking habitat. blackbuck and chinkara are poaches for neat
xiii. conserve
1. Grasslands should not be overgrazed
2. The areas of grasslands should be closed for grazing every year so that rotational
grazing pattern is established
3. It is better to collect grass for stall feeding cattle
4. Fires must be prevented and controlled
5. Part of the grassland should be protected by fencing and only small parts to be
allowed for grazing
6. Sanctuaries and national parks must be created to protected the most natural
undisturbed grassland ecosystem
7. In hilly areas - soil and water managements in each micro- catchment helps grassland
to return to natural highly productive ecosystem
8. Grassland should not be converted into plantations of trees
9. Create awareness among people that grasslands are of great value
3. Desert ecosystem
a. The rainfall is scare – 20 inches( 50centimeters) in a year
b. Deserts and semi- arid are highly specialized and sensitive ecosystems (western india
and deccan plateau)
c. Cold deserts such as Ladakh which are located in high plateaus of the Himalayas
d. Typical landscapes that is seen in Rajasthan is in thar desert ( dry desert ) – it has
sand dunes – covered with sparse grasses and few shrubs which grows if it rains
e. The climate is extremely dry
f. Semi – arid tract vegetation consist of few shrubs and thorny trees such as kher and
babul
g. The great and little ran of kutch are highly specialized arid ecosystems – low lying
areas near the sea – converted to salt marshes during monsoons – attracting a
numbed of aquatic birds like ducks, geese, cranes, storks, flamingos
h. The little ran of kutch is the only home for wild ass in India
i. Deserts and semi- arid regions have highly specialized insects and reptiles
j. Camels hump is a fatty tissue – not water -it is source of nourishment when food is
scarce
k. The camels can drink 20-30 gallons of wated – blood cells help the camel to retain
water not in hump
l. The nights are cold in desert
m. Utilization
i. Areas of scanty vegetation are used for camel, cattle and goat grazing in
Rajasthan and Gujarat and sheep grazing in deccan plateau
ii. Areas that have little moisture such as water courses have been used for
growing crops like jowar and bajra
iii. Desert promotes the formation and concentration of minerals
n. Threats
 i. Deserts occupy 14% of the earth`s land
ii. Deserts have warms temperatures and low annual precipitation
iii. The conversion of land through extensive irrigation system – canal water
evaporated and brings salt to surface – the region becomes highly
unproductive as it becomes saline
iv. Pulling excessive groundwater from tube wells lowers the water table
creating an even drier environment
v. Human activities are destroying the naturalness of this unique ecosystem –
special species have become extinct
o. Conserve
i. Desert ecosystem are extremely sensitive – bishnos of Rajasthan have
protected their khejri (plant) and blackbuck antelope
ii. Residual patches should be protected within national parks and wildlife
sanctuaries in desert and semi-arid areas
iii. Ran of kutch will be destroyed by spread of salt works
iv. Development projects alter desert and semi-arid landscapes bringing the
specialized species to the verge of extinction
4. Aquatic ecosystem
a. Aqua means water
b. The aquatic ecosystem constitutes
 Marine (more saline) – seas and oceans
 Fresh water – lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, wetlands
 Brackish (less saline)
c. They provide us with food – fish, crustaceans, (shelled food) weed, aquatic
vegetation
d. The ecosystem is different in both based on salinity level
e. Ecosystem is different in fresh water – stagnant (lakes, ponds and tanks) and running
water (rivers and streams)
f. Ecosystem is different in brackish (mixture of fresh and saline – river deltas)
g. Mud, gravel and rocks from the bed of the aquatic ecosystem
h. Natural aquatic system such as rivers and seas break down chemical and organic
wastes created by man
i. River courses have changed by building dams to provide electricity – affecting the
downstream water supply to the people
j. Wetlands are drained – their connected rivers cause floods
 water is important factor in all ecosystems
 wetlands are special ecosystems in which the water level fluctuates in
different seasons – have shallow water with aquatic vegetation for fish and
water birds
 coral reefs are rich in species – in Andaman &Nicobar islands and in gulf of
kutch
 brackish water ecosystem in river deltas are covered by mangrove forests
(largest mangrove – in sunderbans in the delta of the ganges)
i. types
1. pond ecosystem
 is the simplest ecosystem
 is temporary and has water only in monsoon
 they become dry after rain and covered by terrestrial plants
  microscopic animals and plants (algae), aquatic insects, snails, worm, frogs
remain dormant in dry phase
 they come back to life during monsoon when pond is filled with rainwater
 complex animals like crabs, frog and fish return to pond
 the vegetation consists of floating weeds and rooted vegetation
 food chains are formed as the pond fills in the monsoon –
 the aquatic insects, snails and worms feed on the waste material excreted by
animals and dead decaying animals and plants matter
 they act on detritus – broken into nutrients which in turn absorbed by plants
completing the nutrients cycle in the pond
ii. lake ecosystem
 a lake ecosystem functions like a giant permanent pond
 depends on maintenance and has water only in monsoon
 microscopic animals and plants (algae), aquatic insects, snails, worms, frogs remain
dormant in dry phase
 food chains are formed as the lake fills in the monsoon
 the large amount of its plant material is the algae – derives its energy from sun
 energy cycles through the lake ecosystem from the sunlight that penetrates the
water surface to plants
 animal excrete – waste product is broken by small animals that live in the muddy
floor of the lake which become nutrients for aquatic plant growth
 aquatic plant release oxygen which is used by aqutic animals which filter water
through their respiratory system
iii. Stream and River ecosystem

 These are flowing ecosystems

 Some plants and animals such as snails and other burrowing animals can withstand
the rapid flow of hill streams
 Beetles and Skaters live in slower moving water
 Fish need crystal clear water to breed - lay eggs only in clear water so that their
young ones can grow successfully - Mahseer go to upstream from rivers to hill
streams for breeding
 Rivers and streams carry a lot of soil and other wastes due to deforestation and flash
floods
 Streams dry up after monsoon
 The streams and rivers can have sandy, rocky or muddy bed – each type having its
own species of plants and animals
 Industrial and municipal waste is dumped into rivers – causing it to dry up Brackish
water ecosystem is river deltas are covered with mangrove forest – in sunderbans in
the deltas of the ganges
iv. Marine ecosystem
i. It has small algae to large variety of animals – whale, sharks, fish, turtles
ii. The levels of salts is high (highly saline
iii. The Indian Ocean, the Arabian sea, the Bay of Bengal constitute the marine ecosystem
around the peninsular India
iv. In the coastal area ecosystem is different from deep water ecosystem
v. In the coastal area the sea is shallow while further away, it is deep
vi. The marine ecosystem is rich in species – rich in coral reef, starfish, jelly fish
 vii. There are millions of zooplankton and large variety of invertebrates on which live fish,
turtles and marine mammals
viii. The shallow areas near kutch and around the Andaman and nicobar islands are some
of the most incredible coral reefs on the world
ix. Coral reefs are only second to tropical evergreen forest in their richness of species
x. Fish, crustacean. Starfish, jellyfish and the polyps that deposit the coral
xi. Deforestation of adjacent mangroves leads to silt being carried out to sea where it is
deposited on the coral which then dies
xii. The marine ecosystem is used by coastal fisher folk for fishing which forms their
livelihood
xiii. Intensive fishing by using giant nets and mechanized boats caused the fish catch to
drop significantly
v. Seashore ecosystem
i. Beaches can be sandy, rocky, shell covered or muddy
ii. There are different crustacean such as crabs that makes hole in the sand
iii. Various shore birds feed on their prey by probing into the sand or mud on the sea shore
iv. There are different crustacean such as crabs that makes hole in the
 Utilization
i. Man uses aquatic ecosystem for clean fresh water (rivers, streams, ponds and lakes ) for
drinking, agriculture and other domestic use
ii. Fisher folk use it for livelihood - fishing for food and sale in the market
iii. People catch fish, crabs and edible plants for food and sale in the market
iv. Marshes and wetlands are of great economic value - reeds, grasses, fish, crustaceans and
other produce
v. Agriculture and industries are highly dependent on large quantities of water
vi. Modernization stores water on dams throughout the year
vii. Tribal people are displaced after construction of dams- the poor tribal folk become poorer as
the natural resources are taken away from them on which they are dependent on (both land
and rivers)
viii. Dams build across the rivers to generate electricity—large portion is utilized by urban
salinization in semi-arid areas that are artificial irrigated
 Threats
i. Water pollution occurs from sewage and poorly managed solid waste in urban areas

ii. Sewage leads to a process called eutrophication which destroys life in the water as
oxygen is severely reduced - hence fish and crustaceans die and produce foul odor
iii. Excessive use of fertilizers causes an increase of nutrients leading to eutrophication
iv. Pesticides pollute the water and kill aquatic life in the ecosystem
v. Chemical pollution from industry kills a large number of life in adjacent aquatic
ecosystem
vi. Contamination by heavy metals and other toxic chemicals affects the health of people
who live near these areas and depend on this water
vii. River courses have changed by building dams to provide electricity – affecting the
downstream water supply to the people
viii. Wetlands are drained – their connected rivers cause floods
ix. Over-fishing leads to a fall in the fish catch
vi. Conserve
i. Water pollution must be prevented for sustainable use of aquatic ecosystem
 ii. Changing nature of the aquatic ecosystem from a flowing water ecosystem to a static
ecosystem destroys its natural biological diversity
iii. Wetlands need to be protected by including them in natural parks and sanctuaries
iv. Dams across rivers decrease the population of species that require running waer while
favouring those that need standing water

Producers, consumers and decomposer

 every living organisms are dependent on other organisms

 the living and non- living constitute the ecosystem
 the living organisms in an ecosystem are inseparable from their habitat
 the plant life changes depending on air, water, soil, algae, bacteria, geographical
location and amount of sun light , climate, rainfall, and temperature
 the plants convert energy from sunlight into organic matter for their growth
 some organisms like fungi live only on dead material and inorganic mater
 plants are producers in the ecosystem as they manufacture food by using energy
from sun
 in the sea—tiny algae forms to large seaweed
 herbivorous are primary consumers as they live on producers ex: rabbit, deer
and elephant
 carnivorous are secondary consumers as they live on producers ex: tiger ,
leopards, fox, jackal, carnivores fish
 decomposers or detrivores are a group of organisms consisting of small animals
like worms, insects, bacteria and fungi which is absorbed by soil and is used by
plants as nutrients
 decomposition is vital function in nature because without which all natures
world be tied in dead matter and on new life could be produced
 ecosystems are highly complex and consist of extremely large variety of species
 some species of plants and animals are extremely rare and may occur only in fue
locations—these are called endemic to these areas

Energy flow in ecosystem

 Ecosystem has several interrelated mechanisms that affect human life

 Every ecosystem is controlled by cycles
 In each ecosystem its biotic and abiotic features are distinct from each other
 The function of the ecosystem are related to the growth and regeneration of its plant and
animal species which linked to various cycles
 These cycles depend on energy from the sunlight - animals depend of oxygen for their
respiration which is released by plants
 Water cycle depends on the rainfall which is necessary for plants and animals to live
 The energy cycle recycles nutrients into the soil on which plant life grow
 Our own lives are closely linked to the proper functioning of these cycles of life
 If human activities go on altering them – humanity cannot survive on earth
Water cycle

 The water runs along the ground and flows into rivers or falls directly into sea when it rains
 The part of rainwater percolates into ground – stored underground throughout the rest of
the year
 Water is drawn from the ground by along with the nutrients from the soil
 The water is transpired from leaves as water vapor and returned to the atmosphere
 Water vapor is lighter than air- so it rises and forms clouds
 Winds blow the clouds for long distances and when clouds rise higher – vapor condenses and
changes into droplets which fall on the land as rain
 Man’s activities are making drastic changes in the atmosphere through pollution which is
altering rainfall patterns
 This leads to prolonged drought periods extending over years in some counties

Carbon cycle

 Cardon occurs in organic compounds – it is included in both abiotic and biotic parts of
ecosystem
 Carbon is a building block of both plants and animal tissues
 Carbon occurs as carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere which is taken by plants through
there leaves in the presence of sunlight
 The plants combine carbon dioxide with water which is absorbed by their roots from the soil
 In the presence of sunlight, the plants are able to form carbohydrates that contain carbon-
this process is called photosynthesis
 In this process plants release oxygen into the atmosphere on which animals depend for their
respiration
 Plant use this complex mechanism for their growth and development
 plants help in regulating and monitoring the percentage of oxygen and carbon dioxide in
the earths atmosphere
 it keeps the CO2 at acceptable levels
 herbivorous animals feed on plant material which is used as energy for their growth
 both plants and animals release carbon dioxide during respiration
 fixed carbon is returned to soil in the water they (animals) excrete
 carbon is returned to soil when plants and animals die- there processes complete carbon
cycle

oxygen cycle

 O2 is taken by animals and plants from air during respiration

 Plants return oxygen to the atmosphere during photosynthesis
 Deforestation is gradually reducing the oxygen levels in the atmosphere
  Plants life plays an important role in manufacturing the 02 levels in the atmosphere for
human survival
 Both oxygen and carbon cycles are linked
 It is important to have afforestation programs

Nitrogen cycle

 Carnivorous animals feed on herbivorous animals that live on plants

 The animal waste and dead animals are broken by worms and insects (ants & beetles ) - later
fungi and bacteria act on the smaller broken material to turn into nutrients so that plant can
absorb from soil for their growth
 The nutrients are recycled back from animals to [lants
 Similarly, the bodies of dead animals are also broken down into nutrients that are used by
plant for their growth
 Nitrogen fixing bacteria and fungi in soil help in turning the nutrients for plants which help in
forming new plant protein
 Nitrates are a part od the plants metabolism
 The nitrogen is transferred to carnivorous animals when they feed on herbivorous
 Thus, our lives are interlinked to soil animals, fungi and bacteria in the soil
 The unseen small animals, plant and microscopic forms of life are of great value for
functioning of the ecosystem

Phosphorous cycle

 The phosphorous cycle through the three components – hydrosphere, atmosphere,

lithosphere
 The phosphorous cycle steps including weathering, release of phosphates into soil and water,
plant uptake, consumption by animals and return to the soil through decomposition and
waste
 Phosphorous enhance the growth of the plant—lake of phosphorous in the soil, results in
poor yield of the croup
 Phosphorous is mainly dependents on the type of rock but other environmental factors such
as air and water have a role to play
 Weathering
o as weathering of rocks takes place by the action of rain, temperature -- it releases
the Phosphorous present in the rocks into the soil
o it is carried down the mountains and slopes with the help of water
o from streams and rivers into the oceans and seas where it gets deposited at the base
o natural landforms such as volcanoes result in the release of phosphorous from inside
the Earth 🌎
 Absorption by plants and animals
o the inorganic phosphorous that is present in the soil is consumed by the plants
 o the amount of phosphorous present in the soil is very less that is why phosphate
fertilizers are added to the soil
o the plants are then eaten by herbivorous which are further eaten by carnivorous and
omnivorous
o aquatic plants get the phosphorous from the bottom of the oceans where it is
deposited in the form of sediments in the soil
o when the plants and animals die, the organic phosphorous is again converted to
inorganic phosphorous by the action of bacteria in the soil

sulphur cycle

 the sulphur is released by the weathering of rocks

 sulphur comes in contact with air and is converted into sulphates
 sulphates are taken up by plants and microbes and are converted into organic forms
 the organic form is sulphur is then consumed by the animals through their food and thus
sulphur moves in the food chain
 when the animals die – part of the sulphur is released by decomposition while some of it is
taken by the bacteria that consume the dead animals
 there are several natural sources such as volcanic eruption , evaporation of water, and
breakdown of organic matter in swamps that release sulphur directly into the atmosphere
 the sulphur falls on earth with rainfall
 one of the components that are necessary for the formation of proteins and vitamins is
sulphur

energy cycle

 The energy cycle is based on the flow of energy through ecosystem

 Energy from sunlight is converted by plants themselves into growing new plant material
which includes leaves, flowers, fruit, branches, trunks and roots of plants
 Plants grow by converting the sun's energy directly into their tissues - known as producers in
the ecosystem
 The plants are used by herbivorous animals as food which gives them energy - energy is used
looking for food, finding shelter, breeding and bringing up young ones
 A large part of energy is used for day function like breathing, growth of tissues, digesting
food, maintaining blood flow and body temperature
 The carnivorous in turn depend on herbivorous animals on which they feed
 The different plants and animals’ species are linked to one another through food chains –
food chain have three or four links – these interlinked chains form complex food web
  The energy in the ecosystem can be depicted in the form of food pyramid or energy pyramid
o The large base of plants called producers
o The middle section depicts number and biomass of herbivores animals called first
order consumers
o The apex depicts the biomass of carnivorous animals called second order consumers
o Man is one of the animals at the apex
 Plants and animals die – this material is returned to the soil after being broken down into
simpler substances by decomposers such as insects, worms, bacteria and fungi – so that
plants absorb the nutrients through their roots
 Animals excrete waste products after digesting food, which goes back to soil – this links the
energy cycle to the nitrogen cycle

Ecological succession

 Ecological succession is a process through which ecosystem tend to change over a period of
time
 Succession can be related to seasonal environmental changes which create in the community
of plants and animals living in the ecosystem
 If a forest is cleared – it is initially colonized by a certain group of species of plants and
animals which gradually change through an orderly process of community development
successional stages
 Developmental stages in the ecosystem thus consist of a pioneer stage, a series of changes
known as serel stages and finally a climax stage
 The successive stages are related to the way in which energy flows through the biological
system
 The most frequent example of successional changes occur in a pond ecosystem where it
fluctuates from dry terrestrial habitat to the early colonization stage by small aquatic species
after monsoon which gradually passes through to a mature aquatic ecosystem and then
reverts back to its dry stage in summer where its aquatic life remains dormant

Food chains, food web and ecological pyramid

 The transfer on energy from the plants through series of organisms by eating and eaten
constitutes food chain
 When herbivorous animals feed on plants, energy is transferred from plants to animals
 In an ecosystem, some of the animals feed on other living organisms while some feed on
dead organic matter, the latter from the detritus food chain
 Each chain usually has only four to five such links – single species may be linked to large
number of species
 At each transfer, a large proportion of energy is lost in the form of heat
  These food chains are interconnected with each other . this interlocking pattern is known as
the food web
Ex: grass – rabbit – eagle/ tiger
Ex: grass – rabbit – snake – eagle
Ex: algae – small fish –large fish – bears / man
Ex: algae – small fish –large fish / water birds – man / bear/ seals/ sharks
 if the linkages in the chains that make up the web of life are disrupted due to human
activities that lead to the loss or extinction of species – the web break down
 in an ecosystem, green plants – the producers utilize energy directly from sunlight and
convert into the matter
 green plants occupy the first trophic level, herbivorous at the second tropic level known as
primary consumer, carnivorous at the third trophic level and secondary carnivorous at the
fourth trophic level - these trophic levels together form the ecological pyramid

Fourth level - man

Third level - birds/large fish/frog
Second level - small fish/ small aquatic insects
First level - plants

Fourth level - man

Third level - birds/snakes/tigers/eagles
Second level - rabbit/deer/elephant
First level - plants

 This is how energy is used by living creatures and flows through the ecosystem from its base
to this apex. Much of the energy is used up in activities of each living organism

Unit 4 : BIODIVERSITY

a. The great variety of life on earth has provided for man’s needs
b. the diversity of living creatures from a support system which has been used by each
civilization for its growth and development
c. definition: biodiversity is part of nature which includes the difference in genes among the
individual of species, the variety and richness of all the plant and animal species are different
locally, regionally and globally and various types of ecosystems, both terrestrial and aquatic
within a defined area
d. Biological diversity deals with the degree of nature's variety in the biosphere observed at
three levels
i. Genetic biodiversity
  Each member of any animal and plant species differs widely from other
individuals in its genetic makeup – Ex: each human being is very different from
all others
 The diversity in wild species forms the `gene pool ` from which our crops and
domestic animals have been developed over thousands of years
 Modern biotechnology manipulates genes developing better types of
medicines and a variety of industrial products
 Genetic variability is essential for a healthy breeding population of a species
 If the number of breeding individuals or dissimilarity of genetic makeup is
reduced – leads to
ii. Species diversity
 The number of species of plants and animals that are present in a region
constitutes its specific diversity – is seen in natural ecosystems and in
agricultural ecosystems
 Natural undisturbed tropical forests have a much greater species richness than
plantations developed for timber production
 A natural forest ecosystem provides a large number of non- wood products that
local people depend on such as fuel, wood, fodder, fiber, gum, resin and
medicines
 Non- wood products is said to be greater than the returns from felling a for its
timber
 Timber plantations do not provide the large variety of goods that are essential
for local consumption
 Modern intensive agriculture ecosystems have a relatively lower diversity of
crops than traditional agro – pastoral forming systems where multiple crops
were planted
 There are 1.8 million species on earth – many new species are being identified,
especially in the flowering plants and insects
 Areas that are rich in species diversity are called `hotspots` of diversity
 India is among the world`s 15 nations that are exceptionally rich in species
diversity
iii. Ecosystem diversity
 There are a large variety of different ecosystems on earth which have their oen
complement of distinctive interlinked species based on the differences in the
habitat
 Ecosystem diversity can be described for a specific geographical region
 Distinctive ecosystem landscapes such as forests, grasslands, deserts,
mountains as well as aquatic ecosystems such as river, lake and sea
 An ecosystem is referred to as natural when it is relatively undisturbed by
human activities or modified when it is changed to other types of uses such as
farmland or urban areas
 Ecosystems are most natural in wilderness
 If natural ecosystem is overused or misused and their productivity eventually
decreases and they are then said to be degraded
 India is exceptionally rich in its ecosystem diversity

Evolution
 - evolution is related to the ability of living organism to adapt to changes in their
environment
- the abiotic changes in nature such as climate and atmosphere upheavals, repeated
glaciations, continental drift and the formation of geographical barriers, segregation
different communities of plants and animals and gradually lead to the formation of
new species over millions of years
- Most species appear to have a life span extending over millions of years
- The earth's ancient history has seen periods of mega extinctions which has been
followed by periods of formation of new species
- The diversity of life at all three organizational levels - genetic, species and ecosystem
is being rapidly modified by modern man - a great loss to future generations

Biogeographic classification of area in India

a. The country is divided into major regions depending on climate, geography and
pattern of vegetation and animals
b. Each region has a variety of ecosystems such as forests, grasslands, rivers, wetlands,
mountains and hills with specific plant and animal species
c. India`s biogeographic zones
1. The cold mountainous snow covered trans Himalayan region in Ladakh
2. The Himalayan ranges and valleys of Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, assam and other north eastern states
3. The terai, the lowland where the Himalayan rivers flow into the plains
4. The Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains
5. The thar desert of Rajasthan
6. The semi – arid grassland region of the Deccan Plateau Gujarat, Maharashtra,
Andhra Pradesh, Kamataka and Tamil Nadu
7. The Northeast States of India
8. The western ghats in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala
9. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands
10. The long western and eastern coastline belt with sandy beaches, forests and
mangroves

Value of Biodiversity

a. Environmental services from species and ecosystems are essential at global, regional and
local levels
- Production of oxygen
- Reducing carbon dioxide
- Maintaining the water cycles
- Protecting soil
b. Loss of biodiversity contributes to global climatic changes
c. The loss of forest cover, compled with the increasing release of carbon dioxide and other
gases through industrialization contributes `greenhouse effect`
d. Global warming in causing major atmospheric changes – leading to increased temperature,
serious droughts in some areas and unexpected floods in other areas
e. Global warming is melting ice caps, resulting in a rise in the sea level which will submerge
the low lying areas in the world
f. Biological diversity is essential for preserving ecological processes
a. Fixing and recycling of nutrients
b. Soil formation
c. Circulation and cleansing of air and water
d. Global life support (plants absorb CO2 and give out O2)
e. Maintaining the water balance within ecosystem
f. Watershed protection
g. Maintaining stream and river flows throughout the year
h. Erosion controls
i. Local flood reduction
g. Food, clothing, housing, energy, medicines are all resources that are directly or indirectly
linked to the biological variety present in the biosphere
h. Urban communities use greatest amount of goods and services indirectly drawn from
natural ecosystem
i. The preservation of biodiversity is therefore integral strategy that aims at improving the
quality of human life
j. Consumptive value
a. Timber, food, fodder, fuel wood is used by local communities
b. Biodiversity provides forest dwellers with their daily needs -- fruits, roots, plant material,
building material, fodder, medicines and varieties of other products
k. Productive value
a. Species of animals and plants are constantly discovered in the wild-these wild species
are building blocks for the betterment of human life and their loss is a great economic
loss to mankind
b. The biotechnologist uses bio-rich areas to 'prospect' and search for potential genetic
properties in plants and animals that can be used to develop better varieties of crops
that are used in farming and plantation programs or to develop better livestock
c. To the pharmacist, biological biodiversity is the raw material from which new drugs can
be identified from plants and animals products
d. For agricultural scientist, biodiversity in the wild relatives of crop plants is the basis for
developing better crop
e. To industrialists, biodiversity is a rich-store house from which to develop new products
f. 1. Genetic diversity enables scientists and farmers to develop better varieties of crops and
domestic animals
g. Preservation of biodiversity has now become essential for industrial and economic growth

l. Social value
a. The biodiversity to a great extent been preserved by traditional societies that valued it as
a resource and appreciated that its depletion would be a great loss to their society
b. Modern man has rapidly depleted it even to the extent of leading to the irrecoverable
loss due to extinction of several species
c. Ecosystem people value biodiversity as a part of their livelihood as well as through
cultural and religious sentiments
d. A great variety of crops have been cultivated in traditional agricultural systems and this
permitted a wide range of products to be grown and marketed throughout the year
 m. Ethical and moral value

a. ais based on the importance of protecting all forms of life-all forms of life have right to
exist on earth
b. Do we have the right to destroy life forms or we have duty to protect them
c. There are several cultural moral and ethical values associated with the sanctity of all
forms of life
d. A large number of sacred groves or deorais preserved by tribal people in several states.
These sacred groves around ancient sacred sites and temples act as gene bank of wild
plants
e. Indian civilization over generations preserved nature through local traditions and
cultures
n. Aesthetic value
a. Knowledge and an appreciation is important to preserve nature
b. It is important tourist attraction
c. Biodiversity is beautiful and wonderful aspect of nature – spider weaving a complex web,
birds singing in forest, observe fish feeding
d. Symbols of wild species are deities – elephant of Buddhism and lord ganesha , tulsi is
placed at doorstep for centuries
o. Option value
a. Keeping future possibilities open for their use is called option value
b. It is impossible to predict which of our species or traditional varieties of crops and
domestic animals will be of great use in the future
c. To improve the cultivation and domestic livestock – we need to return to wild relatives of
crop plants and animals
d. Preservation of biodiversity must also include traditionally used strains already in
existence in crops and domestic animals

Biodiversity at global, national and local level

a. There are 1.8 million species known and documented by scientists in the world
b. There are more than 1.5 to 20 billion species yet to be discovered
c. Most of the worlds bio-rich nations are in the south, which are the developing nations
d. The majority of the countries exploiting biodiversity are northern nations, in the
economically developed world
e. Countries with diversities higher than India are located in south America in Brazil,
Malaysia and Indonesia
f. The species found in countries are different from our country
g. Few mage- diversity nations have developed the technology to exploit their species for
biotechnology and genetic engineering
h. Throughout the world, value of biologically rich national areas are being appreciated as
being of unimaginable value
i. World heritage convention attempts to protect and support these areas
Ex: manas on the border between Bhutan and India
Ex: Kaziranga in assam, Bharatpur in up, Nandadevi in the Himalayas and the sinderbans
in the ganges delta in west Bengal
 j. India has signed the convention in the trade of endangered species (CITES) – reduce the
utilization of endangered plants and animals by controlling trade in their products and in
the pet trade

India as mega diversity nation

a. Geological events in the landmass of India has provided conditions for high levels of
biological diversity
b. India`s special is geographical position between three distinctive centres of biological
evolution and radiation of species is responsible for our rich and varied biodiversity
c. India is among top 10 to 15 for its variety of plants and animals – many of which is not
found elsewhere

i. 350 different mammals (8th in the world)

ii. 1200 species of birds (8th in the world)
iii. 453 species of reptiles (5th in the world)
iv. 45000 plant species-angiosperms (15th in the world)
v. 1022 high species diversity of ferns
vi. 1082 species of orchids
vii. 50000 known species of insects
viii. 13000 butterflies and moths
ix. 62% amphibians are unique to our country
x. Lizards out of 153 recorded are endemic
d. 18% of Indian plants are endemic to the country and not found anywhere else in the
world
e. The traditional cultivators included 30000 to 50000 varieties of rice and a number of
cereals, vegetables and fruits
f. The highest rainfall areas are Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Northern Himalayas and
North-Eastern Hills which have highest diversity
g. 34000 cereals and 22000 pulses are grown in India are collected in Gene Banks
h. 27 breeds of cattle, 40 breeds of sheep, 22 breeds of goats and 8 breeds of buffaloes

Hotspots of biodiversity

a. The earths biodiversity is distributed in specific ecological regions

b. There are over a thousand major eco-regions in the world – 200 are to be richest,
rarest and most distinctive national areas which are refereed as the global 200
c. 50000 endemic plants which comprise 20% of the global plant life occur only 18
hotspots in the world
d. Countries which have a relatively large proportion of these hotspots of diversity are
referred as mega-diversity nations
e. Globally accepted national hot spots are in the forests of the north east and the
western ghats witch are included in the world’s most bio-rich areas
i. 63% (85 out of 135) of land mammals are found in the north east
ii. The northeaster state have 1500 endemic plant species
 iii. A major proportion of amphibian and reptile species especially snakes are
concentrated in the western ghats which is also a habitat for 1500 endemic
plant species
f. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are extremely rich in species – alone has 2200
species of flowering plants and 120 species of ferns
g. Coral reefs in India waters surround the Andaman and Nicobar Islands
h. Lakshadweep islands, the gulf sea of Gujarat and Tamil nadu -- are nearly as rich as
species as tropical evergreen forest

Threats to biodiversity

a. Due to overuse and misuse – unsustainable resource use, ones productive forests and
grasslands have been turned into deserts and wastelands have increased al over the
world
b. Mangroves have been cleared for fuel wood and prawn farming which has led to a
decrease in the habitat essential for breeding of marine fish
c. Wetlands have been drained to increase agricultural land
d. The current destruction of the remaining large areas of wilderness habitats – super
diverse tropical forests and coral reefs is the most important threat worldwide to
biodiversity
e. A major part of these extinctions will occur in bio-rich areas such as tropical forests,
wetlands and coral reefs
f. Habitat loss
a. The loss of wild habitats due to rapid human population growth, industrialization,
changes in land use patterns and short term economic development are major
contributors to the rapid global destruction of biodiversity
b. Human activity led to extinction of many island plants and animals
c. Habitat loss results from mans introduction of species from one area into another,
disturbing the balance in existing communities
Ex: the dodu became extinct because of deforestation, hunting and destruction of
their nests by the animals brought to the island by the dutch – endemic to the island
of Mauritius
d. Loss of species occurs due to the destruction of natural ecosystem either for
conversation to agriculture or industry or by over – extraction of their resources or
through pollution of air , water and soil
e. In India, forests and grasslands are being changed to agricultural land. Natural wetland
systems have been drained to establish croplands resulting in loss of aquatic species
f. Encroachments have been legalized repeatedly
g. Our natural forests are being deforested for timber and replanted using Teak, Sal or
other single species for their timber value
h. Excessive firewood is collected from the forest by looping the branches of trees, the
forest canopy is opened up and this alters local biodiversity
i. Forging cattle retard the regeneration of the forest as seedings are constantly trampled
j. Repeated fires started by local grazers to increase grass growth ultimately reduce
regeneration and lowers the diversity of plant species
k. Over –harvesting of fish leads to serious depletion of fish stock
l. Turtles and rare whale shark are endangered species ad they are killed on the coasts of
Orissa and Gujarat
m. Deforestation has been one of the major caused for the depletion of wildlife
 g. Poaching
a. Certain animals are threatened due to large economic benefits
b. Uncontrolled hunting of wildlife for pleasure, food, furs, skins, horns, tusks-pose a
serious threat to the survival of wildlife-EX: cheetah was hunted in India to extraction
c. legal trade of animal skins has been responsible for the destruction of large number of
tigers, leopards, deer, fishing cat , crocodiles and snakes as well as birds with beautiful
plumage
i. elephants are hunted foe ivory
ii. rhinoceros for its horns
iii. bones from tigers
iv. perfume from musk deer
v. bears are killed for gall bladders
vi. coral and shells are sold on beaches
d. practice of trade of exotic mammals, birds and reptiles
e. use of wild animals in biomedical areas
h. pollution
a. pollution of air, water and soil are due to various industrial activities – not only affet our
health but well – being of animal population
b. industrial effluents reaching water bodies adversely affect aquatic life
c. pesticides are very harmful – these have major effect on sea birds and their eggs
d. oil pollution is another serious problem affecting the seas through leakage from cargo ship
or accidents
e. introduction of exotic species, diseases introduces by domesticated animals, silting of
rivers, floods and droughts
i. man – wildlife conflict
a. man by virtue of his nature is destructive and self – cantered despite the fact that he is
known as social animal
b. the exploitation of forests and wildlife or rare species for commercial purposes should be
stopped
c. the skin of tigers, trunks of elephants, horns of rhinoceros fetch a good and high fancy price
—the market value had led to unlimited slaughter of these animals
d. technological advance and human progress had a direct bearing on the exploitation of
natural resources
e. Industries made a heavy demand on forest resources such as wood for paper-making.
exploitation of gums and resins, mining of forestland for mineral ores, building materials

Endangered plant species

a. Plant and animal species are now found only in few protected areas
b. There are endangered bird species like Siberian crane, the great Indian bustard and florican
c. Vultures which are common a decade ago have suddenly disappeared and now highly
threatened
d. Orchids are under threat as the plant species are increasingly threatened due to changes in
their habitats induced by human activity
e. Many plants are threatened due to over- harvesting as ingredients in medicinal products
f. To protect endangered species India has created the wild life protection act
g. Common plant species
Teak
 Grown in southwest parts of peninsular India
  Common tree in deciduous forests
 Excellent for making furniture and building ship during British period
 The leaves grow up to 40-50cms long and 20cms wide
 It has tiny flower and fruit
 In winters the trees shed leaves
 Teak forests are bright green and shady
Sal
 Forests of North-eastern region of India extending into Madhya Pradesh and Orissa
 It has bright green foliage and it canopy remains green throughout the year
 Sal wood is durable and hard
 Sal seeds are used for making cosmetics
 Sal forest is rich in wild animals, birds, reptiles and insect life
Mango
 Wild mango tree has small tangy fruit and big seed
 The horticulture ones are large pulpy fruit
 The mango tree is evergreen and has small flowers
 Monkeys, squirrels and fruit eating birds relish its ripe fruit
Ficus species
 Papal and Banyan are part of this group
 Mammals, Insects, birds live on Ficus berries
 Specific wasp which lay its eggs inside berries on which the larvae feed and grow
 The trees bear berries throughout the year
 Papal and Banyan tree are considered sacred and protected in India
 Ficus species are known as 'keystone' species in the ecosystem as they support
majot part of the web
Neem
 Traditionally used in indigenous medicine
 It has small yellow fruit
 The leaves and fruit are bitter to taste
 It is an environmentally friendly insecticide
 It can be planted where soil is poor and rainfall is low and it grows well in semi- arid
regions
Tamarind
 It grows to large size and lives for over 200 years
 The fruit is a curved pod with sour pulp and contains a number of square seeds
 The pulp in the fresh fruit is either green or red
 As it ripens – it turns sticky and brown are separate from the skin
 The edible sour fruit contains vitamin – C and used in food give a tangy flavour
Babul
 It is used for fodder and fuel wood
 Found in semi-arid areas of western India and Deccan Plateau
 It is green throughout the year even in driest conditions
 It has long sharp, straight horns which prevents animals from browsing it branches
Jamun
 It is tasty purple fruit
 It is favourite among people and many birds and mammals
Zizypus
 It is typical small trees and shurbs found in arid and semi-arid areas of India
  The fruit is eaten by birds and mammals
 The fruit is eaten by birds and mammals
Jackfruit
 The fruit has prickly skin
 The fruit is cooked when it is unripe
 The fruit when ripe is sweet, sticky, golden yellow which has strong small
 Flame of forest
 It has orange flowers when it is leafless- hence calles the flame of forest
 The flowers are full of nectar which attracts many monkeys and birds
Tendu
 Deciduous tree found throughout the sub-continent
 The bark has rectangular scales
 Its branches from a dense croen
 The leaves are extensively used for making birds
 The fruit is brownish yellow and astringent
Coral tree
 Deciduous tree that is leafless in February
 It gets scarlet flowers that are used for their nectar by many birds
 It had long black seed pods contain several shiny brown seeds
Amla
 Deciduous medium sized tree with sour, green-yellow fruit
 The fruit is rich in Vitamin C
 It is used as medicine, pickles and for dying and tanning
 It is referred as 'Indian Olive

Pine
 The timber of these trees is frequently used in construction, carpentry and paper
industry
 Pine resin is used to make turpentine, rosin, tar and pitch
 Pine oil is made by distillation of leaves and shoots
 Pine leaves are thin and needle-like
Oak
 It is large tree known for its beautiful shape and changing colors
 The fruit is large, hard and solitary nut (acorn)
 Oak is the finest hardwood which is used for building ship and bridges
 It is famous for high quality furniture
 Some of its species are excellent fodder plants
Cycas
 Have a palm-like appearance
 They are most primitive seed plants
 They are remained unchanged through past 200 million years
 There are five species found in India
 They are found mostly in high rainfall areas
Coconut
 Tall stately palm has a more or less straight trunk with circular markings
 It mostly grows in coastal plains and island of India
 The base is surrounded by a mass of fine roots
  It produces coconut filled with liquid and a soft white edible jelly like material that
hardens when the fruit ripens
 It is common ingredient of food in India, especially in southern states
 The tree yields several useful products such as broomsticks from the leaves and
fiber from the husk of dried coconuts
Orchids
 Largest flowering group with over 18000 known species – 1500 are found in India
(700 species in northern states)
 These plants are terrestrial herbs
 Flowers show a range of bright colors and great variations in structure
 The large number of orchids are found in western Ghats, Andaman & Nicobar
Islands and north east
Drosera
 Small insectivorous plants usually 5-6cms in height with tiny hair which secrete a
sticky droplet of fluid on which insects get stuck
 The leaf winds around the struggling insect which is then slowly digested
 It grows in shallow poor-quality soil
Lotus
 An aquatic floating plant with a large rhizome which is rooted in mud
 Leaves are circular flat and covered with a waxy coating which protects it from water
 The flower grows on an erect stalk with several petals ranging pink violet to white.
 The fruit is spongy cone with multiple round seeds
 The stalks of leaves, seeds and rhizome are delicious delicacies
 The fruit is used for dry decorations
 It is found in wetlands habitats and shallow parts of lakes and marshy areas
 Lotus is the national flower of India and it is traditional motif in Indian art
Grasses
 Grasses are second largest group of flowering plants
 They are used for making fiber, paper, thatching materials for roofs, oil, gum,
medicines and other products
 The economically important grasses include bamboo, sugarcane and cereals like
rice, wheat and millets and maize
 Grasses are important as they provide fodder for domestic animals
Bamboo
 Group as s clump to great heights in forests of India
 Used for constructing huts and making household articles like baskets, farm
elements, fences, mats and household implements
 The young shoots are used as food
 It is favourite food of elephants and large herbivorous as deer and gaur
 The plant flowers after more than 2 decades – then the plant dies used
 It is extensively used in pulp and paper industry as raw material
 The flower produces thousands of seeds which result in slow regrowth of the
bamboo

Ex-situ and in -situ (important)

 Biodiversity at all levels, genetic species and as intact ecosystems can be preserved in-situ by
setting aside an adequate wilderness as protected areas.
 Endangered plants and animals need to be preserved
 National parks and wildlife sanctuaries preserve with each distinctive ecosystem and wild life
preserve the total diversity of life
 National parks and wildlife sanctuaries in India preserve major wildlife such as elephants,
tigers, lions and deer
 There are 589 protected areas in India – 89 are national parks and 500 are wildlife
sanctuaries
 They are created to protect highly endangered species of plants and animals
o Great Himalayan national park is home for snow leopard
o Dachigm sanctuary is place for rare Kashmir stag
o Kariranga natural park id place for elephant, wild buffalo, gaur, swamp deer, hog
deer, birds like duck, geese, pelicans and storks
o Manas wildlife sanctuary includes rare golden langur and pygmy hog and smallest
wild boar
o Bharatpur is one of the famous water bird sanctuaries in the world. Rare Siberian
cranes migratpur to india every winter
o Desert national park is home for black buck, nilgai, chinkara and great Indian bustard
o Gir sanctuary is home for majestic Asian lion
 The protected areas provide a sustainable source of resources for local people living around
them
 The protected areas curtail their traditional grazing practices and access to fuel wood
resources
 The protected areas are used as tourist facilities that provide income for local people
 In-situ (important)
o Conservation of species done by protecting its habitat along with other species that
live with it in the nature
o Conserving of species in its own environment by creating natural park and wildlife
sanctuaries
o Natural Park and wildlife sanctuaries preserve major wildlife species such as tigers,
lions, elephants and deer
o The objective is to preserve the intact natural ecosystem where biodiversity is from
microscopic species to large trees and mammals
o Species cannot be protected individually as they are interdependent on each other
whole ecosystem must be protected

 ex-situ (important)
o The strongy to protect outside its natural habitat in a carefully controlled situation
such as botanical garden and zoological park
o The geces multiply with help of expertise under artificially managed conditions
o Modern breeding programs are done in zoo's providing needs and enclosures that
scimulate thet wildlife habitats
o Mit zwey provide visitors with a visual experience of seeing a wild animal close-up
and provide the wider with information about the species
o Modern zoo has to go beyond general functions that include breeding of endangered
species as a consensation measure
 Ex: delhi zoo has successfully bred rare Manipur brow antlered deer
Conserve
 the plants are preserved its gene plasma in a gene bank
 30000 varieties of rice grown in India till 50 years ago
 At present gene bank collects over 34000 cereals and 22000 pulses
 India has 27 breeds of cattle, 40 breeds of sheep, 22 breeds of goat and 8 breeds of buffaloes
 The traditional breeds are maintained for their genetic variability

UNIT 5: POLLUTION
a. Definition: Pollution is the effect of undesirable changes in our surroundings that
have harmful effects on plants, animals and human beings
b. Pollution occurs due to unsustainable lifestyle – we have contaminated our air,
water and land on on which life depends with a variety of waste products
c. Pollutants include solid, liquid and gaseous substances which have a detrimental
effect on our environment
d. The nature and concentration of a pollutant determines the severity of detrimental
effects on human health
e. Pollutants that enter water have the ability to spread to distant places especially in
the marine ecosystem
f. Pollutants are by-products of man's action. The important pollutants are
summarized below
a. Deposited matter-soot, smoke, tar or dust and domestic waste
b. b. Gases-CO, nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, halogens (chlorine, bromine and
iodine)
c. c. Metals-lead, zinc, iron and chromium
d. d. Industrial pollutants-benzene, ether, acetic acid etc. and cyanide compounds
e. e. Agricultural pollutants-pesticides, herbicides, fungicides and fertilizers
f. 1. Photochemical pollutants-ozone, oxides of nitrogen, aldehydes, ethylene,
photochemical smog and proxy acetyl nitrate
g. Radiation pollutants-radioactive substance and radioactive fall-outs of the
nuclear test
g. Ecological perspective pollutantant can be classified as follows
a. Degradable – can be rapidly broken by natural processes. Ex: domestic sewage,
discarded vegetable and fruits
b. Non- degradable – these cannot be degraded by natural processes, they are
difficult to eradicate once realised into the environment and continue to
accumulate. Ex: toxic, element like lead and mercury
c. Slowly degradable – pollutants that remain in the environment for many years in
an unchanged condition and take many decades to degrade. Ex: DDT and most
plastics
h. Smog : the fog deposited with smoke and chemical fumes forms a dark and thick
covering. Smog is very common in almost all the Industrial areas as the smog is
trapped for many days by the stagnant air. It is harmful both for plants and animals
 1. Air pollution
i. The origin of air pollution can be traced when man started using firewood as means
of cooking and heating
ii. With discovery and increasing use of coal-air pollution became more pronounced
especially in urban areas
 King Edward I was the first to make antipollution law to restrict people from
using the coal for domestic heating in the year 1273
 Pollution became a serious problem in London during the industrial
revolution due to the use of coal in industries
 In the year 1300 another Act was passed banning the use of coal – defying
the law led to impossible capital punishment
 London smog that occurred in 1952, resulted more that 4000 deaths due to
accumulation of air pollutants over city for five days
 In Europe in the middle of the 19th century – a black form of the peppered
moth was noticed in industrial areas

iii. Air pollution began to increase with the development of transportation and large-
scale use of petrol and diesel -- the formation of photochemical smog from the
combustion residues of diesel and petrol engines
iv. Pollution due to auto-exhaust remains a serious environmental issue in many
developed and developing countries including India
 The greatest industrial disaster leading to serious air pollution that took place in
Bhopal where extremely poisonous methyl isocyanide gas was accidently released
from Union Carbide's pesticide manufacturing plant on the night of December 3rd
1984. The effects of this disaster on human health and the soil are felt even today

v. Air pollution is caused by greenhouse gases, industrial waste (gaseous and solid),
forest fires, volcano eruptions, burning of wood and coal
f. Structure of atmosphere
i. The atmosphere is composed of 79% nitrogen, 20% oxygen and one percent as a
mixture of carbon dioxide, water vapor and trace amounts of several other gases such
as neon, helium, methane, krypton, hydrogen and xenon.
ii. Troposphere-17kms above the sea level at the equator and about 8Kms over the poles.
It contains about 75% of the mass of the earth's air. Temperature declines with altitude
in the atmosphere. At the top of the troposphere temperatures abruptly began to rise.
This boundary where the temperature reversal occurs is called tropopause
iii. Stratosphere extends from 17 to 48kms above the earth's surface. The volume of water
vapor is about 1000 times less while the ozone is about 1000 times greater. The ozone
layer prevents about 99% of the sun's harmful UV rays from reaching the earth's
surface - protecting humans from cancer and damage to the immune system. This layer
does not have clouds and hence airplanes fly in this layer as it creates less turbulence
iv. Mesosphere-the temperature decreases with altitude falling up to -110 degrees
Centigrade at the top.
v. Thermosphere - this is a layer where ionization of the gases is a major phenomenon,
thus increasing the temperature.
g. Types and Sources of air pollution
i. Air pollution occurs due to the presence of undesirable solid or gaseous particles in the
air that are harmful to human health and the environment
 ii. Air gets polluted by natural causes such as volcanoes which release ash, dust, Sulphur
and other gases or by forest fires caused by lightning
iii. Pollutants are emitted directly from identifiable sources produced both by natural
events (dust storms and volcano eruptions) and human activities (emission from
vehicles, burning of coal and fuel wood, burning of fossil fuels, industries). These are
primary pollutants
Ex: Carbon oxides (CO & CO2), nitrogen oxides, Sulphur oxides, volatile organic
compounds (hydrocarbons) and suspended particulate matter
iv. Pollutants are produced in the atmosphere when certain chemical reactions take place
among the primary pollutants, are called secondary pollutants
ex: Sulphuric acid, nitric acid and, carbonic acid
v. Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless and toxic gas produced when organic materials
such as natural gas, coal or wood are incompletely burnt. Vehicles exhausts are the
single largest source of carbon monoxide. Vehicles poorly maintained result in release of
greater amounts of carbon monoxide
vi. Sulphur oxides are produced when Sulphur containing fossil fuels are burnt
vii. Nitrogen oxides are found in vehicular exhausts - they are involved in the production of
secondary air pollutants such as ozone
viii. Hydrocarbons are group of compounds consisting of carbon and hydrogen atoms. They
evaporate from fuel supplies or are remnants of fuel that did not burn completely.
Hydrocarbons are washed out of air when it rains and runs into surface water. They
cause oily film on the surface.
ix. Particulates are small pieces of solid material which are dispersed into the
atmosphere(Ex: Smoke, particles from fires, bits of asbestos, dust particles and ash from
industries). Repeated exposure to particulates can accumulate in the lungs and interfere
with the ability of lungs to exchange gases
x. Lead is a major air pollutant that remains largely unmonitored and is emitted by
vehicles. Leaded petrol is the primary source of airborne lead emission in Indian cities
xi. Pollutants are found indoor from infiltration of polluted outside air and from various
chemicals used or produced inside buildings. Both indoor and outdoor air pollution are
equally harmful
h. What happens to pollutants
i. The earth surface becomes more warmer as the pollutants trap the sunlight and leads
to global warming
ii. The pollutants enter the troposphere and diluted by large volumes of air
iii. During chemical changes they are attached to water vapor and subsequently fall as rain
or snow to the earth's surface
iv. The earth's surface becomes warmed by sunlight. The warmer air is less dense than the
cold air above it so it rises
v. The ground starts to lose heat and the air near the ground begins to cool. This is turn
induces condensation of fog.
vi. The morning sun cannot initially penetrate this fog. The cold air being dense cannot rise
and is trapped by the warm air above. It cannot move out of the areas due to
surrounding hills
vii. This situation can persist for several days - this is known as SMOG (smoke + fog)
viii. London Smog-the city use large quantities of Sulphur containing coal for domestic
heating that released smoke and also smoke from thermal plants leading to formation
of high levels of smoke containing Sulphur oxides
 - People suffered from acute pulmonary disorders-cough, irritation of bronchitis,
nasal discharges, sore throat, vomiting and burning sensation in eyes - leading to
several deaths
ix. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are transported by prevailing winds and form nitric
acid vapor, droplets of Sulphuric acid and particles of Sulphates and nitrate salts - which
fall on earth in wet form (acid rain, snow, fog and cloud vapor) and dry form (acidic
particles). The resulting mixture is called acid deposition commonly called acid rain.
- Human respiratory diseases such as asthma and bronchitis - cause premature deat
- It also damages statues, buildings, metals and car finishes
- They can reduce tree growth and damage tree foliage
- They intensify the depletion of soil nutrients
- The acid can become attached to particles which when inhaled are very corrosive to
lung
x. Nitrogen oxides can irritate the lungs, aggravate asthma or chronic bronchitis and
increase susceptibility to respiratory infections such as influenza and common colds
xi. Carbon monoxide is heavy traffics cause headaches, drowsiness and blurred vision
xii. Suspended particles damage lung tissue and develop chronic respiratory diseases and
cancer
xiii. Inhaling ozone - a component of photochemical smog - causes coughing, chest pain,
breathlessness and irritation of the eyes and throat
xiv. The wax coating of the leaves is damaged - reduces nutrient intake and causes leaved to
turn yellow, brown or drop off altogether
xv. The flower buds will become stiff and hard-fall from the plants as they are unable to
flower
xvi. The air pollutants break down exterior paint on cars and houses, dis-colored
irreplaceable monuments, historic buildings and marble statues
Ex: Taj Mahal had contracted 'marble cancer', a fungal growth that corroded its
surface giving it a yellowish tinge
i. Ozone depletion

i. The ozone layer is present up to 60kms and greatest density between 20-25kms-the ozone
depletion is known as Ozone hole which is caused by air pollutants (in 1985 found large scale
destruction of the ozone)
ii. It is an effective screen from ultraviolet light
iii. Ozone depletion is due to the serious changes in ozone layer caused by pollutants
iv. UV radiations cause serious damage
- Humans-sunburns, cataract, ageing of skin, cancer, weakens immunity system
- Plants-food production is affected as the plants ability to absorb light energy is reduced,
nutrient content and plant growth is reduced
- Damages paints and fabrics causing them to fade faster
- Atmospheric changes induced by pollution contribute to global warming
 The polar ice caps will melt causing rise in ocean levels and flooding of coastal areas
 The rise in temperature will bring about fall in agricultural produce
 Changes in the distribution of solar energy can bring about changes in habitats. A
previously productive agricultural area will suffer severe droughts while rains will fall in
locations that were once deserts
  Vast quantities of methane are trapped beneath the frozen soil of Alaska. When
permafrost melts, the methane that will be released can accelerate the process of
global warming
j. Control measures for air pollution
i. Air pollution can be controlled by two fundamental approaches: preventive techniques and
effluent control
ii. One of the effective means of controlling air pollution is to have proper equipment -devices
for removal of pollutants from the flue gases though scrubbers, closed collection recovery
system
iii. Industries should be located in places so as to minimize the effects of pollution
iv. Providing a greater height to the stacks can help in facilitating the discharge of pollutants as
far away from the ground as possible
v. Reducing the use of fossil fuels
vi. Improving the quality of vehicular fuel
vii. Increasing the use of renewable energy
viii. Putting emphasis on pollution prevention rather control
ix. Plant more trees
2. Water Pollution
a. Water is an essential element that makes life possible on earth
b. 71% of earth's surface is covered with water - About 97% of the total water available
on earth is found in oceans and is too salty for drinking or irrigation
c. 3% is only fresh water - 0.0003% is available to use as soil moisture, groundwater,
water vapor and water in lakes, streams, rivers and wetlands - 2.997% is locked in
icecaps or glaciers
d. Water found in streams, rivers, lakes and wetland and artificial reservoirs is called
surface water
e. Water that percolates into the ground and fills the pores in soil and rock is called
groundwater
f. The groundwater flows through gravel, bedrock and porous water-saturated layers of
sand which are known as aquifers
g. Aquifers are replenished naturally by rainfall that percolates downward through soil
and rock is called natural recharge
h. India receives most of her rainfall during the months of June to September due to
the seasonal winds and the temperature differences between the land and the sea.
i. Water pollution occurs through municipal and industrial discharge, acid rain,
agricultural runoff
j. Waste brought by rivers also adds to pollution
k. Aquatic plants and animals die and decompose are source of pollution
l. Point sources of pollution
i. When a source of pollution can be readily identified because it has a definite
source and place where it enters the water it is said to come from a point
source. Ex: Municipal and Industrial Discharge Pipes.
ii. When a source of pollution cannot be readily identified, such as agricultural
runoff, acid rain, etc. they are said to be non-point sources of pollution.
m. Causes of water pollution
i. Bacteria, viruses and parasitic worms enter water from domestic sewage and
untreated human and animal wastes which are known as disease causing
agents
 ii. Large amounts of human waste in water, increases the number of these
bacteria which cause gastrointestinal diseases.
iii. The oxygen depleting wastes are organic wastes that can be decomposed by
aerobic bacteria (need oxygen) which degrade water quality
iv. The anaerobic bacteria (do not need 02) break down waste and the chemical
releases foul odor and unpleasant taste that is harmful to human health

v. Inorganic plant nutrients are water soluble nitrates and phosphates that
cause excessive growth of algae and other aquatic plants which clog the
water intake pipes changing taste and odor of water. The excessive added
nutrients is called eutrophication
vi. The chemicals in fertilizers and pesticides can pollute soil and water
vii. Water soluble inorganic chemicals which are acids, salts and compounds of
toxic metals such as mercury and lead-make water unfit to drink and harm
fish and other aquatic life
viii. Organic chemicals like oil, gasoline, detergents and many other chemicals
activity plastics, pesticides, cleaning solvents, get into water directly from
industrial activity
ix. Sediment of suspended matter-insoluble particles of soil and other solids
become suspended in water they interfere with the penetration of sunlight -
reduces photosynthesis in aquatic plants and algae.
x. Excessive sediments settle down destroying feeding and spawning ground of
fish
xi. Water soluble radioactive isotopes get concentrated in tissue and organs -
causes birth defect, cancer and genetic damage.
xii. Hot water let out of power plants and industries is discharged into the water
bodies (rivers) which decreases the solubility of 02 and changes the breeding
cycles of various aquatic organisms.
xiii. Oil is washed into surface water in runoff from roads and parking lots which
pollutes groundwater
xiv. Leakage from underground tanks and accidental oil spills from transport
tankers at sea cause significant environmental damage
xv. Oil tankers often use sea water as ballast to stabilize the ship after they have
discharged their oil. This of contaminated water is then discharged back into
the sea when the tanker is refilled

M. Ground water pollution

i. Groundwater is being polluted which is used for drinking and irrigation

ii. Groundwater flows slow and not turbulent-hence contaminants are not effectively
diluted and dispensed as compared to surface water
iii. Urban run-off of untreated or poorly treated waste water and garbage
iv. Industrial waste storage located above and near aquifers
v. Pesticides and fertilizers in rural sector
vi. Mining waste
vii. Leachate from landfills
viii. Leachate is the fluid percolating through the landfill, or solid waste dumpsite and is
generated from liquids present in the water and outside pool, including rainwater,
filtering through the waste.
 ix. Leakage from underground storage tanks containing gasoline and other hazardous
substances
x. Poorly designed and inadequately maintained septic tanks
Pumping groundwater and treating it is very slow and costly - so it is essential to prevent
the pollution in the first place.

o. Control Measures

i. Urbanization, industrialization, excess withdrawal of water, agricultural run-off, improper

agricultural practices and various religious and social practices -contribute to river
pollution in India
ii. Small nalas and streams carry with them sewage and industrial effluents which finally
flow into the rivers turning them into stinking sewers
iii. Treating waste by setting effluent treatment plants can reduce pollution
p. Root Zone Process
Setting up effluent treatment plants and treating waste through these can reduce the
pollution load in the recipient water. The treated effluent can be reused for either gardening
or cooling purposes wherever possible.

It has been developed by Thermax. This system involves running contaminated water
through the root zones of specially designed reed beds. The reeds, which are essentially
wetland plants, have the capacity to absorb oxygen from the surrounding air through their
stomatal openings. The oxygen is pushed through the porous stem of the reeds into the
hollow roots where it enters the root zone and creates conditions suitable for the growth of
numerous bacteria and fungi. These micro-organisms oxidize impurities in the wastewaters,
so that the water which finally comes out is clean. The treated effluent can be reused for
either gardening or cooling purposes wherever possible
3. Soil Pollution
a. Soil is important for plant life-there is no substitute for soil-it cannot be manufactured
b. Fertilizer are not a substitute for fertile soil
c. Soil is a thin covering over land consisting of a mixture of minerals, organic material, living
organisms
d. The soil is formed from rock-
i. Several factors contribute to the formation of soil from the parent material
ii. The mechanical weathering of rock due to temperature, abrasion, wind, moving
water, glaciers, chemical weathering activities and lichens
iii. Climate and time is important in development of soils
iv. Extremely cold or dry climates develop soil slowly
v. Humid and warm climates develop soil more rapidly
vi. It takes within 15 years to develop one centimeter under ideal climatic conditions
vii. Soil helps in storing underground water after rainfall
e. Soil has four layers
i. Soils are arranged in a series of zone called soil horizons
ii. Each horizon has distinct texture and composition that varies with different types of
soils
iii. These layers are as per pH value and moisture
iv. A cross sectional view of the horizons in a soil is called a soil profile
v. O horizon
- The top layer or surface layer
 - Consist mostly of freshly fallen and partially decomposed leaves, twigs, animal
- waste, fungi and other organic materials
- Normally brown or black in color
- Contains a large amount of bacteria, fungi, earthworms and other small insects
- that form complex food webs in the soil that help recycle soil nutrients and contribute to
soil fertility
vi. A horizon
- The uppermost layer
- Consist of partially decomposed organic matter (humus) and some inorganic mineral
particles
- Usually darker and looser than the deeper layer
- The roots of plants are found in this layer
- The soil stores water as long as these layers are anchored by vegetation
- Contains a large amount of bacteria, fungi, earthworms and other small insects that form
complex food webs in the soil that help recycle soil nutrients and contribute to soil fertility

vii. B horizon
- Called the subsoil and contains less organic material and fewer organisms
viii. Chorizon
1. Consists of weathered parent material (rocks)
2. Does not contain any organic materials
3. This layer helps to determine the pH and influences the soils rate of water
adsorption and retention
f. Soil vary in their content of clay (very fine particles), silt (fine particles), sand (medium size)
and gravel (course to very course particles)
g. Loams-soils with equal mixtures of clay, sand, silt and humus (nutrient formed by
decomposition of plant and animal)
h. Causes of soil degradation
I. Erosion
- Soil erosion can be defined as the movement of surface litter and topsoil from one
place to another
- Is a natural process caused by wind and flowing water
- It is greatly accelerated by human activities - farming, overgrazing by livestock,
construction, burning of grass cover, deforestation and floods
- Loss of topsoil makes soil less fertile and reduces its water holding capacity
- Topsoil washed away contributes to water pollution clogging lakes and leads to loss
of aquatic life
- The topsoil erodes faster than it is formed - the soil becomes a non-renewable
resource
II. Soil conservation measures are used to minimize the loss of top soil and protect it
from erosion
- Continuous contour trenches
 are used to enhance infiltration of water reduce run-off and check soil
erosion
 These are shallow trenches dug across the slope of land for purpose of
soil and water conservation.
 They are most effective on gentle slopes and in areas of low to medium
rainfall.
  These bunds are stabilized by fast growing tree species and grasses.
 In areas of steep slopes where the bunds are not possible, continuous
contour benches made of stones are used for the same purpose.
- Gradonies
 Used to convert wasteland into agricultural lands
 Trenches with bunds on the downstream side are built along contours
 The upper reaches of the catchment to collect run-off and to conserve
moisture from the trees or tree crops.
 The area between the two bunds is use for cultivation of crops after
development of fertile soil cover
- Barriers are created by planting grass, shrubs and trees
- A bund constructed out of stones across the stream is used for conserving soil
and water
- An earthen check bund is constructed out of local soil across stream to check
soil erosion and flow of water
- A Gabion structure is a bund constructed of stone and wrapped in galvanized
chain link.
- A Gabion structure with Ferro cement impervious barrier has a one inch thick
impervious wall of Ferro cement at the center of the structure which goes
below the ground level upto the hard strata. Gabion portion is able to retain
the water and withstand the force of the runoff water.
- An Underground bandhara is an underground structure across a nalla bed to
function as a barrier to check the ground water movement.
iii. Excess use of fertilizers
- The use of chemical fertilizers has increased significantly over the last few
decades
- Fertilizers are very valuable as they replace the soil nutrients used up by
plants.
- The three primary soil nutrients often in short supply are potassium,
phosphorus and nitrogen compounds.
- When crops are harvested a large amount of macronutrients and a small
amount of micronutrients are removed with the crops. These necessary
nutrients can be returned to the soil through the application of fertilizers.
- In addition to fertilizers a large amount of pesticides (chemicals used to kill or
control populations of unwanted fungi, animals or plants often called pests)
are also used to ensure a good yield
- Pesticides not only kill pests but also variety of living things
- Excess use of pesticides and fertilizers accumulate in soil and in bodies of
animals in food chain
- Persistent pesticides become attached to small soil particles which are easily
moved by wind and water to different parts thus affecting soils elsewhere.
- Persistent pesticides may also accumulate in the bodies of animals, and over a
period of time increase in concentration if the animal is unable to flush them
out of its system thus leading to the phenomenon called bioaccumulation
- Exposure to small quantities of pesticides over several years cause mutations,
produce cancers
- Organic agriculture advocates avoiding the use of chemical fertilizers and
pesticides
 - Crop rotation is an effective way to enhance soil fertility, reduce erosion and
control pests
iv. Excess salts and water
- Irrigated lands can produce crop yields much higher than those that only use
rainwater
- Irrigation water contains dissolved salts and in dry climates much of the water
in the saline solution evaporates leaving its salts such as sodium chloride in
the topsoil.
- Salinization-the accumulation of salts in the soil and which can stunt plant
growth, lower yields and eventually kill the crop and render the land useless
for agriculture.
- These salts can be flushed by using more water - the practice increase the
cost
- and wastes enormous water - flushing salts can also make the downstream
irrigation water saltier
- Water logging is another problem in irrigation-large amounts of water is used
to leach the salts deeper into the soil.
- If the drainage is poor the water accumulates underground gradually raising
the water table-the roots of the plants get enveloped in this saline water and
eventually die
v. To prevent soil degradation-we should adapt sustainable farming practices
vi. Soil conversation is important by afforestation, building trenches, using less
fertilizers & pesticides, treating water before it is let out from industries,
creating barriers and catchments to stop runoff of soil
vii. Soil is polluted when floods carry waste and is accumulated onto the
agricultural land
viii. Nuclear plants waste pollute soil

4. Noise Pollution

a. Noise is undesirable and unwanted sound-but all sound is not noise

b. What is considered as Music to one person may be noise to another
c. Noise may not seem as harmful as contamination of air, water and soil but it affects human
health
d. dSound is measured in units called "Decibel"
e. Noise is both indoors and outdoors-siren from factories, playing loudspeakers during festivals
and campaigns, vehicles, playing radio or music system and other electronic gadgets,
fireworks
f. The permitted noise level is 125 decibels
g.The difference between sound and noise is often subjective and matter of personal opinion
h. It is less harmful to human health but affects ear drums in the long run-there is limit for ears to
bear sound for certain decibels (below 80 decibel is good)
i. Exposure to high level sound has effects that range in severity from being extremely annoying to
being extremely painful and hazardous
j. It causes physical damage to ear and loss of hearing-temporary and permanent depending on the
condition
k.Children at school can perform poor due to noise-causes lack of concentration, irritability, stress and
anxiety, mental fatigue
l. Noise interferes with normal auditory communication and masks auditory warning and increases
rate of accidents in industries-also lowers work efficiency and productivity
m. Noise definitely affects the quality of life
n. Noise can be reduced at source
 Limiting people from playing music in public
 Stop public meetings and campaigns with loud speakers
 Block the path of noise
 Planning of traffic volume and speed (smooth flow and alternative route)
 Increase the path length
 Protect the recipient
 Muffling vehicles and machinery
 Industries can use rigid sealed enclosures around machinery lined with acoustic absorbing
material
 Absorptive materials can be installed inside house and buildings (walls, ceilings and floors)
 Planting trees around houses act as effective noise barriers
 Earplugs and earmuffs can protect individuals effectively from excessive noise levels (40
decibels)
 Noise levels at construction sites can be controlled using proper construction planning and
scheduling techniques
 Poorly maintained vehicles add to noise levels-should be stopped
 Smooth flow of traffic causes less noise than does a stop-and-go traffic pattern
 Establishing lower speed limits for highways that pass through residential areas, limiting
traffic volume and providing alternative routes for truck-path of traffic noise can be blocked
by constructing vertical barriers alongside the highway

5. Marine Pollution
a. Marine pollution can be defined as the introduction of substances to the marine
environment directly or indirectly by man resulting in adverse effects such as hazards
to human health, obstruction of marine activities and lowering the quality of sea
water.
b. Directly or indirectly man is polluting the marine environment resulting in adverse
effects such as hazards to human health
c. Waste through pipes directly discharge into the sea-municipal waste and sewage
waste from residences and hotels in coastal towns
d. Pesticides and fertilizers from agriculture are washed off the land by rain and enter
water courses and eventually reach the sea
e. Oil spillage is major concern
i. Petroleum and oils washed off from the roads normally enter the sewage
system and eventually into the seas
ii. Ships carry toxic substances such as oil, liquefied natural gas, industrial
chemicals -ship accidents and accidental spillage can be very damaging to the
marine environment
iii. Shipping channels in estuaries and at entrance to ports require frequent
dredging to keep them open the dredged material contain heavy metals and
other contaminants which are dumped into sea
iv. Off shore exploration and extraction also pollute the seawater to large extent
v. A tanker which has unloaded has to be filled with sea water BALLAST which is
stored in compartments. This ballast water is contaminated with oil and is
 thrown into the sea while cleaning the compartment before refilling with fresh
oil
vi. All ships need periodic dry docking for servicing, repairs, cleaning the hull - the
cargo compartments are to completely emptied, and residual oil finds its way
into the sea.
vii. When oil-tankers are docked at the station-they may catch fire accidently
viii. Oil is extracted offshore-drilling muds which are pumped down the oil wells are
dumped on the seabed beneath the platform contaminating the water
ix. Leakage in pipelines during transportation
x. Barrels are washed in the sea
xi. Oil spillage causes fire which burns for days as it is difficult to extinguish the fire
- oil floats
xii. Oil burns and generates heat and it warms the water beneath it - killing the
aquatic life
xiii. Oil does not dissolve-forms a thick film on the surface of water-aquatic life
cannot breathe
xiv. The liquid oil contaminates the bird plumage-it penetrates the plumage and
displaces the air trapped between feathers and skin-bird may drown and die - as
the air is Important for buoyancy and thermal insulation
xv. Birds clean their plumage by preening and in the process consume oil which
lead to intestinal, renal or liver failure
xvi. Marine species die due to clogging of gills and other structures
xvii. Oil slick - a thin film of liquid which spreads over the surface of the water during
spillage
xviii. The polluted food is eaten by human beings causing health hazards
xix. Oil contaminates life and food to large extent
xx. Toxic chemicals are produced when the metals rust in the water
f. Pollution occurs due to organic waste
i. Waste discharged to watercourses, estuaries and sea is sewage-bacteria use
dissolved oxygen in the water to break down the waste into inorganic
compounds-hence oxygen is reduced and creates a foul smell killing the aquatic
life
ii. The flavour of fish and seafood is lost due to contamination and fish production is
also affected
iii. Large amounts of organic wastes can result in the development of red tides
iv. Salt marshes, mangrove swamps trap oil and ecosystem is affected-oil slicks
affect flowering, fruit formation and germination
v. Drill cuttings dumped on the seabed create anoxic conditions and result in the
production of toxic sulphides in the bottom sediment thus eliminating the benthic
fauna
vi. Fish and shellfish production facilities can also be affected by oil slicks causing
commercial damage. The unpleasant flavour to fish and seafood is detectable at
extremely low levels of contamination. This reduces the market value of seafood.
1. Control measures
i. Introduction of sewage treatment plants-reduce biological oxygen demand before
waste is discharged into water
ii. The natural process of emulsification of oil in the water can be accelerated
through the use of chemical dispersants which can be sprayed on the oil.
 iii. Continuous belt of absorbent material (slick-lickers) dips through oil slick through
rollers to extract the oil
iv. Rocks, harbour walls can be cleaned with high-pressure stream or dispersants

6. Thermal Pollution

a. The discharge of warm water into river is called thermal pollution

b. Power plants convert water into steam to drive turbines that generate electricity-the
steam is condensed into water after it leaves turbines and this water (15 degrees C) is
discharged back into the river
c. Warm water decreases oxygen solubility and increases the metabolism of fish
d. Sudden changes in temperature causes plant and fish death
e. Thermal can promote the growth of certain fish-affecting fish breeding
f. Tropical marine animals cannot withstand temperature and die (more than 2-3 degrees C)
-sponges, mollusks and crustaceans die at temperature above 37 degrees C
g. Water used in industries release warm water along with other wastes into the water
bodies
h. Natural geysers release warm water along with chemicals
i. Hot springs also cause thermal pollution
j. Aquatic life dies causing foul smell in the water bodies
k. Control measures
i. Thermal pollution can be controlled by passing the heated water through a cooling
pond or cooling tower before it is discharged into river or pumped back to the plant
for reuse as cooling water
ii. Heat transfers through evaporation-warm waters can be sprayed downward over
vertical sheets where the water flows in thin films-cool air enters through the water
Inlet causing evaporative cooling
iii. The cooled water is collected at the floor of the tower and recycled back to the power
plant condensers

7. Nuclear Hazards

a. Nuclear energy can be both beneficial and harmful depending on the way it is used
b. We use x-rays to examine bones for fracture, treat cancer with radiation and diagnosis of
diseases with help of radioactive isotopes
c. 17% of the electrical energy generated in the world comes from nuclear plants
d. Radioactive wastes from nuclear energy cause serious environmental damage
e. Nuclear fission is the splitting of the nucleus of the atom-the resulting energy can be used
for a variety of purposes
f. The worlds first electricity generating reactor was constructed in the united states in 1951
and the soviet union build its first reactor in 1954
g. Low grade uranium is obtained from surface or underground mining
i. The uranium goes through mining process where it is crushed and treated to
concentrate the uranium and produces yellow cake containing 70-90% uranium
oxide
ii. The enrichment process increases the U-235 content from 0.7 to 3%
iii. Fuel fabrication then converts the enriched material into powder which is then
compacted into pellets
 iv. Then it is sealed in metal fuel rods about 4 meters in length which is then loaded
into the reactor
v. These rods are major source of radioactive waste material produced by a nuclear
reactor
vi. At each step in the cycle there is a danger of exposure and poses several health
and environmental concerns
h. Exposure to the material causes health and environmental concerns
i. Chernobyl nuclear disaster in 25 April, 1986-people still suffer from illness related to
their exposure- one of the long term effects was increased frequency of thyroid
cancer in children and leukemia
ii. Radiation can cause mutations which are changes in the genetic makeup of cells.
Mutations can also occur in the tissues of the body and may manifest themselves as
abnormal tissue growth known as cancer
iii. Serious accidents have caused worldwide concern about safety and disposal of
radioactive wastes.

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT – URBAN &INDUDTRIAL WASTE

a. In ancient days-waste and food scraps were thrown in the unpaved streets-leading to health
Issues
b. Solid waste means-food scraps, industry waste, sewage waste
c. Disposal methods are crude and just open pits outside city walls
d. Diseases spread due to mosquitoes, rats, rodents and bacteria and fungus
e. The waste is carried away by rains into neighboring fields, water bodies polluting them
f. Lack of space for dumping solid waste has become a serious problem in several cities and
towns all over the world
g. Waste is also burned to reduce its volume but dumping and burning is not acceptable
practice today as they cause environmental and health hazards
h. Modem methods-incineration, vermicomposting, development of sanitary landfills (the
residue can be used as organic fertilizer)
i. The method of collection, processing and resource recovery and final disposal to achieve a
common objective
j. Solid wastes are grouped in several different way
i. MSW is non-hazardous waste from city, town or village (private homes, commercial
establishments, industrial facilities and institutions) that require routine collection
and transport to disposal site
ii. MSW does not include mining waste. sewage sludge, demolition debris, industrial
processes and construction and agricultural wastes
iii. MSW solid waste contains a variety of materials
iv. Wet garbage-food waste like vegetable and meat material, leftover food, egg shells,
fruit and vegetable peels
v. Dry garbage-paper, plastic, tetra packs, plastic cans, newspaper, glass bottles,
cardboard boxes, aluminium foils, metal items, wood pieces
k. Control Measures (important )
i. Solid waste should be controlled at the source reduction, recycling and reuse
ii. Source reduction-
- Ways to reduce waste by using less material when making products, reuse
products at site, designing products or packing to reduce their quantity
 - While shopping buy items with minimal packing, avoiding disposable items
and avoid asking for plastic bags – carry cloth bags
iii. Recycling –
- Reusing of some components of the waste that may have economic value –
aluminium and steel, paper, glass and metal can be recycled
- Plastics cannot be recycled because of different types of polymer resins used
in their production
- Paper recycled can help preserve forests as it takes about 17 trees to make
one ton of paper
- Mining of new aluminium is expensive-recycled aluminium has strong market
- Recycled paper is banned for use in food containers to prevent the possibility
of contamination
iv. Disposal
- Sanitary landfill
 Solid waste is disposed through sanitary landfill or incineration
 A modern sanitary landfill is a depression is an impermeable soil layer that
is lined with an impermeable membrane
 Solid waste is placed in a suitably selected and prepared landfill site in a
carefully prescribed manner
 The waste material is spread out and compacted with appropriate heavy
machinery.
 The waste is covered each day with a layer of compacted soil.
 The problem with older landfills is associated with groundwater pollution-the
pollutants seep out of the bottom of the sanitary landfill and percolate down
to the groundwater no matter how thick the underlying soil layer.
 Landfilling is an economic alternative for solid waste disposal-but it has
become difficult to find suitable landfilling sites
 How well engineered design and operation may be but there is always
environmental damage through leakage of leachates
- Incineration
 Process of burning MSW in a properly designed furnace under suitable
temperature and operating conditions (815 degree C for about one hour)
 Incineration is a chemical process in which the combustible portion of the
waste is combined with oxygen forming carbon dioxide and water which are
releases into the atmosphere. This chemical reaction called oxidation, results
in the release of heat
 It reduces MSW by about 90% in volume and 75% in weight
 The risks involve air quality problems and toxicity (presence of heavy metals-
batteries and plastics) and disposal of the fly ash (consists of finely divided
particulate matter, including cinders, mineral dust and soot) and bottom ash
produced during the incineration process
 The toxic products and materials containing heavy metals should be
segregated the presence of heavy metals in incinerator ash can be harmful
- Vermicomposting
 The biochemical cycles are designed to clear waste materials produced by
plants and animals
  All dead and dry leaves and twigs decompose and are broken down by
organisms such as worms, insects and are finally broken down by bacteria and
fungi to form a dark rich soil-like material called compost.
 These organisms in the soil use the organic material as food, which provides
them with nutrients for their growth and activities.
 The nutrients are returned to the soil to be used again by trees and plants-
this process recycles nutrients in nature
 This compost can be used as manure for farms and gardens
 Step for Vermi-compost
 Dig a pit about half a meter square-one meter deep
 Line it with straw or dried leaves and grass
 Organize the disposal of organic waste into the pit as and when
generated
 Introduce a culture of worms that is now produced commercially
 Ensure that the contents are covered with a sprinkling of dried leaves
and soil everyday
 Water the pit once or twice a week to keep it moist
 Turn over the contents of the pit every 15 days
 In about 45 days the waste will be decomposed by the action of the
micro-organisms
 The soil derived is fertile and rich in nutrients
 Sanitary landfills and incinerations have their advantages and disadvantages-
the most effective method of Solid Waste Management is source reduction
and recycling

Hazardous Waste

a. Modern society produces large quantities of hazardous waste which are

generated by chemical manufacturing companies, petroleum refineries, paper
mills and other industries
b. Waste are classified as hazardous waste when they cause an increase in
serious irreversible illness and pose a potential hazard to human health or to
the environment when improperly treated, stored, transported or disposed
c. Hazardous waste have primary characteristics based on toxicity, reactivity,
ignitability and corrosively.
d. Infectious or radioactive are also classified as hazardous
e. Toxic waste are poisonous even in very small or trace amounts-causing death
or violent illness
f. Reactive waste are those that have tendency to react vigorously with air and
water-generate toxic gases or explode-Example: gunpowder
g. Ignitable waste are those that burn at relatively low temperatures (Less than
60C) and capable of spontaneous combustion during storage, transport and
disposal. Example: gasoline, paint thinners and alcohol
h. Corrosive wastes are those that destroy materials and living tissue by
chemical reaction. Example-acids
i. Infectious wastes include human tissue from surgery, used bandages, needles
and microbiological materials
j. Radioactive waste are an output from nuclear plants and can persist in
environment for thousands of years before it decays
 k. Groundwater is polluted with hazardous wastes is often impossible to reverse
the damage
l. Pesticides used in food production-form residues in the soil and in bottom of
lakes and rivers when are washed into streams which carry them further and
also persist in soil causing chronic poisoning
m. Lead, mercury and arsenic are hazardous substances and heavy metals
 Lead is used in batteries, fuel, pesticides, paints, pipes and other places-can
affect red blood cells and damage nerve tissue (brain disease)
 Mercury is used in production of chlorine and used as catalyst in the
production of some plastics
 In an aquatic environment, mercury can be absorbed by the algae which are
then consumed by fish. Humans and birds that eat the fish concentrate
even more mercury in their bodies. It is a cumulative poison (it builds up in
the body over long periods of time) and is known to cause brain damage
 Vinyl chloride is a chemical used in the manufacture of plastics-causes birth
defects, damage kidneys and liver, deafness, vision problems, bone
deformities
 Many household chemicals are toxic to humans-cleaners, solvent and
products used in automotive care
n. The most common methods for disposing of hazardous wastes are land
disposal and incineration
o. Industries need to be encouraged to generate less hazardous wastes in their
manufacturing processes
p. Toxic materials cannot be eliminated-they should be minimized, recycled and
treated before disposal

DISASTER MANAGEMENT: FLOODS, EARTHQUAKES, CYCLONES, LANDSLIDES

(important)
a. India is vulnerable to droughts, floods, cyclones, earthquakes, landslides, avalanches and
forest fines
b. 22 states are prone to disaster- all the disasters occur in the country but floods are most
frequently occurring natural disaster due to irregularities of the Indian Monsoon
c. 75% of the annual rain fall in India is in three to four months of monsoon season
d. A heavy discharge from the rivers during this period causing widespread floods
e. India has a coastline of 5700kms, which is exposed to tropical cyclones arising in Bay of
Bengal and the Arabian Sea
f. The Indian Ocean is one of the six major cyclone prone regions of the world
g. Major floods are mainly caused in the Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin which carries 60
percent of the total river flow of our country
h. The eastern coastline is more prone to cyclones as it is hit by about 80 percent of the total
cyclones
i. Drought is a significant environmental problem as it is caused by lower than average rainfall
over a long period-16% of the country's total area is drought prone
j. Earthquakes are most destructive naturals hazards-occurs with little warning-and impossible
to make preparation against damages and collapse of buildings-50 to 60% of India is
vulnerable to seismic activity
 k. Natural occurrence will always occur and part of environment we live in-these can be
minimized by presence of functioning warning system along with preparedness
l. From Management to Mitigation of disaster
i. Is a multidisciplinary area that range from forecasting, warning, evacuation, search &
rescue, communications, medical, provision of relief, shelter, firefighting,
reconstruction and rehabilitation
ii. It is multi-sectorial as it involves scientists, planner, administrator, volunteers and
communities
iii. They have roles and activities pre-disaster, during disaster and post disaster-critical
need for coordinating these activities
iv. The disaster management team has to ensure the people are given support and
communities are safe from natural calamities
v. Mitigation means lessening the negative impact of the natural hazards. It is defined as
sustained action taken to reduce long term vulnerability of human life and property to
natural hazards.
vi. Nowadays we have early warning system to help us to ensure communities are safe
from disasters
m. Guidelines
i. The team will ensure the people are safely moved to shelter homes
ii. The disaster centres have to maintain record/data of the people for the families to
contact them if they are in different centres-both alive and dead
iii. The team has to ensure there is clean supply of water, food, medicines and clothing
iv. Each team member in the centre has to take responsibility of the work assigned
v. Records are maintained for all goods coming and going out to ensure smooth
functioning and there is no shortage or misuse-extra materials can be transported to
other canters as per requirement
vi. Every canter will have medical, fire-fighting team, evacuation team, relief, search and
rescue team, reconstruction and rehabilitation
vii. The team has to ensure that the areas are clean and free from spreading any infectious
diseases
viii. Pre-disaster mitigation can help in ensuring faster recovery from the impacts of
disasters
ix. Ensuring protection of the natural and cultural assets of the community-Hazard
reduction methods must take into account
x. Effective partnership with Government, scientific, private sector, NGOs and the
community
xi. Identification of hot spot areas of prime concern
n. After any disaster-there is lot of pollution which causes many health issues
o. if dead bodies are not removed on time-they decompose-emit foul smell and spread
infection and diseases
p. Water and food is polluted and transmits diseases-mosquitoes spread malaria and dengue
q. Disaster cannot be totally prevented-but proper system in place like warning system, careful
planning and preparedness can minimize the loss of life and property
r. Public awareness is one of the critical components of the strategy

Flood and Mitigation measures

a. Floods arise from abnormally heavy rains, dam failures, snow melts, river blockages.
b. Lower plain regions and coastal regions suffer from adverse effects of flood-Bihar, Uttar
Pradesh and West Bengal in respect of the Ganga and Assam in respect of the Brahmaputra
suffer from the adverse effects of floods every year.
c. It is estimated that only 18% of the rainwater can be stored in dams, reservoirs and while
82% of the rainwater flows into rivers and finally into sear
d. Foods are caused by natural and ecological factors
e. Deforestation and shifting cultivation also contribute to floods
f. Forests on the hillslopes soak up the abundant rainfall and store it and later release small
amounts over a period of time
g. When forests are cleared-the rivers turn into muddy and later run dry during the drier
periods
h. Types of Floods
i. River floods
- Rivers get charged due to heavy rains over large catchments areas or by melting of
snow or sometimes both especially in the mountainous tracts.
- The floods take place in river systems with tributaries that may drain into large
geographic areas and encompass many independent river basins.
- Amount of flooding depends on moisture in the soil, vegetation cover, and depth of
snow and size of catchments basin.
ii. Coastal floods
- Coastal flooding is associated with tropical cyclones/harsh winds arising at the
ocean surface.
- Coastal floods are often aggravated by wind induced storm surges along the
coastline.
- Sea and ocean 'water floods the inland coasts affecting kilometers of tracts.
- Ocean tides, storm surges or tsunamis play a definite role.
iii. Flash floods
- These floods occur within six' hours of the beginning of rainfall and; are
characterized with rising clouds, thunderstorms and tropical cyclones.
- These results from runoff from a torrential downpour, particularly if the catchments
slope is unable to absorb and hold a significant part of water.
- Other causes of flash floods include dam failure, sudden break up of glaciers etc.
- These offer potential threats in the areas where the terrain is steep, surface runoff
is high, water flows through canyons and where severe rainstorms are likely.
- Severe floods are also caused because of blocking of water flow of rivers due to
rock blocks and debris produced by severe tremors on the hill slopes facing the
river valleys.
i. Mitigation
i. Build reservoirs for the monsoon to flow into it and later release it in a regulated
manner after floods are over
ii. Prevention of over-bank spilling by construction of embankments and flood walls
iii. Improved drainage
iv. Improvement of flow conditions in the channel and anti-erosion measures (stop loss
of soil)
v. Maintaining wetlands
vi. Flood forecasting and warning services including Disaster Preparedness
vii. Disaster relief, flood fighting and public health measures
viii. Flood insurance
Earthquake and Mitigation measures

a. The role of NGO's is very important-their strength lies in their manpower, valuable
human resources-ability to reach out to community and sensitivity to local traditions
b. On 26th Jan 2001 earthquake in Gujarat has taught us that building shelters will less
vulnerability to earthquakes
c. There should be livelihood security for earthquake and drought victims
d. They should also take into consideration the specific needs of the victim
Ex: The farming kits provided to affected farmers by Gujarat agriculture ministry is also
showing promising results
Ex: Gujarat Woman's Economic Development Corporation initiative in reviving women's
businesses after the calamity also provides many practical lessons in regenerating local
economies and artisan markets.
e. An earthquake is a major demonstration of the power of the tectonic forces caused in
the interior of the earth.
f. Earthquakes are caused mainly due to disequilibria in any part of the crust of the earth.
g. An earthquake is a motion of the ground surface, ranging from a faint tremor to a wild
motion capable of shaking buildings apart and causing gaping fissures to open in the
ground.
h. The earth's crust consists of 6 major plates (Eurasian plate, American plate, African
plate, Indian plate, Pacific plate and Antarctic plate) and 20 minor plates. These plates
are constantly moving in relation to each other due to thermal convective currents
originating deep within the earth.
i. The seismic waves, caused by the earthquakes traveling through seawater, generate high
sea waves and cause great loss of life and property.

Cyclone and Mitigation measures

a. Tropical cyclones are the worst natural hazards in the tropics

b. Cyclones are the centers of low pressure surrounded by closed isobars having increasing
pressure outward and closed air circulation from outside towards the central low
pressure
c. Strong winds spiraling anti clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere blow around the
cyclone center at lower level (horizontally from 150 to 1000Km and vertically from the
surface 12 to 14km) and clockwise in southern hemisphere.
d. These are intense low pressure areas
e. Winds generally move 300 to 5000Km per day over the ocean
f. While moving over the ocean they pick up energy from the warm water of the ocean
and grow into devastating intensity
g. On an average about 5 to 6 tropical cyclones form in Bay of Bengal and in Arabian Sea
each year.
h. More cyclones form in the Bay of Bengal than in the Arabian Sea. Out of which 2 to 3
cyclones may be severe
i. The main dangers of cyclones are very strong winds, torrential rains and storm tides.
This is followed by heavy rainfall and floods
j. Storm surge cause the greatest destruction
k. Mitigation
i. It can be mitigated through effective and efficient policies and strategies
 ii. Installation of early warning systems along the coastlines can be of great help in
evacuation of people in the storm surge areas
iii. Communication plays a vital role in cyclone disaster mitigation-Amateur Radio is
an important tool for disaster mitigation
iv. Shelter belts with plantations of trees can act as effective wind and tide breakers,
protecting soil crops from being damaged and prevent soil erosion
v. Cyclone shelters at strategic locations can help minimize the loss of human life
vi. Need to build designed concrete houses that can withstand high winds and tidal
waves
vii. Public awareness programs to inform the population about the cyclone warnings
and preparedness can help in reducing causalities
viii. No residential and industrial should be permitted in the coastal belt of 5km from
the sea as it most vulnerable belt-Major settlements and other important
establishments should be located beyond 10 km from the sea

Landslide and Mitigation measures

a. Common phenomenon in Himalayan regions

b. Weaker landmasses and tectonically sensitive land margins cause landslides and debris falls,
which damage settlements and transport systems on the lower slope segments.
c. Landslides occur as a result of changes on slopes, sudden or gradual change either in
composition, structure, climate, weathering, land use and earthquakes
d. Developmental programs that involve modification of the topography, exploitation of natural
resources and changes in the balance load on the ground should not be permitted
e. To prevent landslides are drainage measures and erosion control measures-
i. Bamboo check dams
ii. Terracing
iii. Jute and coir netting
iv. Rock-fall control measures such as grass-plantation, vegetated dry masonary wall and
retaining wall
v. Preventing deforestation and improving afforestation
f. Disasters cannot be totally prevented – early warning system, careful planning and
preparedness can help minimize the loss of life and property loss due to these disasters

UNIT 6: SOCIAL ISSUES AND THE

ENVIRONMENT (important)
1. From Unsustainable to Sustainable Development

a. North America and Europe-economically advanced nations not only exploited their
own natural resources rapidly but also used the natural resources of developing
countries to grow even larger economies
 b. These countries caused serious damage to the world-pollution and discarded lot of
waste
c. Poor Sanitation, no clean water-drinking or washing, no well-ventilated houses, no
electricity and poor technology
d. The disparity in lifestyle between rich and poor is growing due to unsustainable
development strategies
e. The earth cannot supply the amount of resources used and wasted by the
economically well off sectors of society
f. Society must thus change its unsustainable development strategy to a new form
where development will not destroy the environment -sustainable development can
only be brought about if each individual practices a sustainable lifestyle based on
caring for the earth
g. Developing countries suffer from the consequences of rapidly expanding human
population -over utilizing of natural resources
h. Developing the cities cause serious environmental damages-building dams, mines,
roads, industries are good economically but they cause damage to others - tribal and
villagers are dislocated and lose livelihood
i. Urban has more energy problems because of life style and we are dependent on the
energy for everything
j. Development strategies which have economic considerations-cause serious
environmental problems-air & water pollution, waste management and
deforestation and variety of ill effects that seriously affected people's health and well
being
k. It has become obvious that development must begin to change from aiming at short
term economic gains to a long-term sustainable growth that would not only support
the well-being and quality of life of all people living in the world today but that of
future generations as well
l. Sustainable Development-is defined as development that meets the needs of the
present without comprising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs. It is a process which leads to a better quality of life while reducing the impact
on the environment
m. Large dams, major highways, mining, industry can seriously damage ecosystems that
support the ecological health of a region.
n. Forests are essential for maintaining renewable resources, reducing carbon dioxide
levels and maintaining oxygen levels in the earth's atmosphere. Their loss impairs
future human development.
o. Loss of forests depletes biodiversity which has to be preserved to maintain life on
earth
p. Toxic and Nuclear wastes cause long term environmental hazards and can become
serious economic problems as getting rid of them is extremely costly
2. Urban problems related to energy
a. Urban centers use enormous quantities of energy
b. Traditional housing required very little temperature as the building materials used
were wood and bricks but the current concrete, glass and steel of ultra-modern
building need more temperature adjustments (energy intensive)
c. Urban kitchens used fuel wood or charcoal and homes had chimneys - Smoke
became a problem once this changed to apartment blocks
 d. Kerosene became popular urban fuel-later changed to electrical energy and
increasingly to natural gas by the 1970s in most parts of urban India
e. Urban centers need energy for cooling during hot climates-fans changed to air-
conditioning which consumes large quantities of energy
f. High rise building in urban centers depend on energy to operate lifts and enormous
number of lights
g. Urban transport depends on energy from fossil fuels-individual transport means
more vehicles on the road leading to traffic congestion, more use of fossil fuels,
more carbon monoxide from the exhaust of vehicles
h. Causes a rise in the number of people having serious respiratory diseases
i. Thus there is a need to develop a more efficient public transport system and
discourage the use of individual vehicles in all our urban areas
j. If we learned to save electricity, we would begin to have a more sustainable lifestyle
3. Water Conservation
a. Conserving water is prime environment concern-clean water is increasingly
becoming scarce globally
b. Deforestation increased the surface runoff into rivers and finally into seas and ocean
decreasing the underground water and the sub soil water table drops
c. Deforestation and desertification spread due to extensive climate changes in the
land use
d. The small streams run dry soon after the monsoon as the water table drops further
e. Flow of water during rains lead to extensive floods with loss of life and property
f. Water should be distributed equally-household, agriculture and industry
g. But over use and misuse is leading to pollution and waste water-lead to shortage of
water
h. Water conservation is linked with overall human well-being
i. Traditional conversation of water-jheels, lakes, ponds and percolation tanks
j. Villages all over the country had one or more common talabs" or tanks from which
people collected or used water carefully Conservation of water was done in
traditional homes through a conscious effort
k. During the British period many dams were built across the country to supply water
especially to growing urban areas
l. Sugarcane and rice require large quantities of water - irrigated areas become water
logged and unproductive - the excess water evaporates and brings salts to the
surface of the soil leading to Salinization by which the land becomes unproductive
m. Water is collected from slopes of hills and mountains by water drainage system
n. Afforestation helps in retaining ground wate
o. Saving water in agriculture:
- Drip irrigation supplies water to plants near its roots through a system of
tubes, thus saving water.
- Small percolation tanks and rainwater harvesting can provide water for
agriculture and domestic use.
- Rainwater collected from rooftops can be stored or used to effectively
recharge subsoil aquifers
p. Urban people waste large amounts of water - Leaking taps and pipes are a major
source of loss of water.
q. Canals and pipes carrying water from dams to the consumer lead to nearly 50% loss
during transfer.
 r. Reducing the demand for water by saving it is more appropriate than trying to meet
growing demands.

4. Rain water Harvesting

a. One method is to manage rain water in such a way that it is used at the
source
b. Much water is collected and stored - used after the rainy season is over the
stored water has to be kept pollution free and clean so that it can be used as
drinking water
c. Stored water can grow algae and microscopic animals - these can cause
infections.
d. Rainwater harvesting require all roof and terrace water passes into a covered
tank where it can be stored for use after the monsoon-is most advantageous
in arid areas where clean water is very scarce
e. there are practical difficulties such as constructing large storage tanks which
are expensive
f. Rooftop rainwater harvesting is to collect it so that it percolates into the
ground to recharge wells instead of flowing over the ground into rivers
g. By recharging ground water harvested from rooftops, the water table rises
and the surrounding wells retain water throughout the year
h. Water problems arise from increasing demands by rapid population growth,
industrialization, urbanization and irrigation for additional food production.
i. Wastage of water due to leakage of pipes and unattended repairs is about
30-40% water resource lost
j. Drainage water can be easily stored in storage structures for recycling during
droughts or for growing additional crops.

5. Watershed Management
a. Rivers originate in streams that flow down mountains and hill slopes-to
meet larger streams which form the tributaries of the major rivers
b. The management of a single unit of land with its water drainage system is
called watershed management
c. The natural drainage pattern of a watershed unit can bring about local
prosperity with abundance of water that improves the quality of human
life in the area. It provides clean water throughout the year
d. Watershed management enhances the growth of agricultural crops and
even makes it possible to grow more than one crop in a year in dry areas
e. Watershed management begins by taking control over degraded site
through local participation
f. First technical step is to take appropriate soil conservation measures
- Constructing a series of long trenches and mounds along contours of
the hill to hold water and allow it to percolate into the ground-the
underground stores are fully recharged
- By planting trees (mainly local species), shrubs and grasses which will
hold the soil and prevents it from being washed away in the monsoon
 - Make nala plugs in the streams so that water is held in the stream and
does not rush down the hillside
- Small check dams are built which together hold back larger amounts
of water
g. The management of rainfall and resultant runoff, which is essential, can be
best based on a natural unit called watershed. A watershed is an area
bounded by the divide line of water flow. Thus it may be drainage basin or
stream. The Himalayas are one of the most critical watersheds in the
world.
h. Sound farming and forestry practices can reduce runoff. Retaining crop
residue on fields reduces flooding, and minimizing. Ploughing and forest
cutting on steep slopes protects watersheds.
i. Deforestation is a major cause of poor water supply. Afforesting such
degraded areas is an important aspect of watershed management.
j. Watershed-based frame for rain fed agriculture provides uncommon
opportunities for achieving sustainable food and nutritional security. It is
time that the watershed development agenda is considered a programme
for-the masses
6. Resettlement and Rehabilitation
a. Uprooting people is a serious issue. Involuntary displacement of human population
is always traumatic.
b. Dams, mining and expressways are built at the cost of poor local people
c. A village is broken up and people are required to move to alternative site and life is
disrupted
d. The villagers are resettled in distant places, sometimes in a totally alien
environment and culture, thus creating insurmountable adjustment problems.
e. "Land for land" is a better policy than cash settlement.
f. The poor people are powerless to resist the government's will and also creates
psychological and emotional pressures
g. Tribal people whose lives are woven closely around their natural resources cannot
adapt to a new way of life in a new place
h. Resettlement requires alternate land-rehabilitation requires more than land
i. The communities suffer and conflict of resources is distinct in future - Resettlement
not only puts pressure on the project affected people but also on the people who
have been living in the area that has been selected for resettlement.
j. Rehabilitation ensures that the displaced person is resettled, provide them with
package to recover from disruption, compensation
k. Creating new settlements with their own environment should rehabilitate them
and encourage their traditional arts and culture in every way.
l. Special attention should be given to the rehabilitation of artisans and village crafts
m. People who get uprooted from their homes-they do not get alternative land and
compensation as promised
n. Tribal people protect forests and extinction is reduced
o. Equitable life style is needed to protect environment and people connected to it
7. Environmental Ethics: Issues and Possible Solutions
a. Man's greed to raise his standard of living compels him control and tap natural
resources.
b. We have to ensure the resources are utilized and distributed equally. The unequal
distribution of resources is a serious environmental concern at global, national and
local
c. Environmental ethics deals with issues that are related to how we utilize and
distribute resources
d. Rivers throughout the world have been "controlled" to provide power, irrigation,
and navigation for the people at the expense of the natural world.
e. There are rich and poor communities in every country-the resources should be
used sustainably
f. The environmental destruction is largely caused by the consumption of the rich -
The capitalists want to use the forests for timber production
g. Ethical issues dealing with the environment are no different from other kinds of
problems.
h. Environmental ethics are formulated on the basis that human beings are also a
part of nature and nature has many interdependent components.
Ex: It is cheaper to dump wastes into a river than to install a wastewater treatment
facility.
When raw materials are processed, some waste is inevitable e.g. paper industry
leads to a lot of wastage and pollution of water.
i. Individuals should have a fundamental ethical responsibility to respect nature and
to care for the Earth, protecting its life-support systems, biodiversity, and beauty,
caring for the needs of other countries and future generations.

j. The equitable sharing of resources forms the basis of sustainable development for
urban, rural and wilderness dwelling communities
k. The nature is recreated as in afforestation-but away from the needs of the poor
and towards those of the rich. The poor are the worst sufferers of the
environmental destruction
l. There cannot be proper economic and social development without a holistic
understanding of society and nature
m. We cannot save rural environment and people who are dependent on it unless we
bring about sustainable urban development
n. Rural women and tribal people who are dependent on forests suffer the most
o. Unsustainable life style is increasing pressures on land and natural resources -
educated urban dweller consumes much larger quantities of resources and energy,
than the traditional rural individual
p. The advanced West has exploited their own natural resources to such an extent
that they are exhausted
q. The equitable use of forest resources can stop environmental issues
r. The land in the villages is being taken over by the urban and industrial sectors as it
expands
s. The rural sectors are depleted of their resources-cities get richer and rural sectors
get poorer especially landless
t. To secure for current and future generations a safe and healthy environment, a
sound and prosperous economy should aim at:
- Ensure that citizens today and tomorrow have the clean air wter, and land
essential to sustaining human health and the environment.
 - Protect and enhance the quality of water resources and promote the wise
and efficient use of water.
- Maintain and enhance the health and diversity of the wildlife and planets.
- Develop an environmentally literate society
8. Gender Equity
a. In rural areas-women work longer hours than men (10 to 12 hours a day). There is no
equality between men and women
- Constantly collect fuel wood for their homes and for sale to nearby urban
areas
- Laboriously collect fodder for their cattle-feed them
- Trudge several kilometers to reach a reasonably clean water source
- Go to forest to collect fruit, medicinal products
- Cook for the family members in smoky unhealthy atmosphere on crop
waste or other inefficient sources of energy
- They eat only after all the male members are fed-women and girls suffer
from mal-nutrition
- No education for girl child and gets less attention than boys in the family.
b. Unfortunately women have not been given an equal opportunity to develop and
better their lot
c. The disparity between women and men has led to lower access to education and
health care for girl children
d. Rural women who are intimately connected to resources, appreciate the value of
conserving natural resources more deeply than men

9. Climate change
a. The global average surface temperature has increased by 0.6" +0.2° C over
the last century.
b. Climate is changing, making it more difficult for mankind to survive
c. Climate has from the very beginning regulated man in practically every
aspect of life and has played a very important role in the development of
civilizations all around the world.
d. Man's impact on climate began 5000 to 9000 years ago, as he was able to
alter the environment by burning and felling forest and tilling the earth
e. Climate has changed over decades due to pollution and global warming
f. The global mean surface temperature will rise by 1.4" to 5.8°C. Warming
will be greatest over land areas, and at high latitudes - fewer cold spells
but more heat waves
g. Climate change are linked to extreme weather events such as hot or cold
spells of temperature or wet or dry spells of rainfall, or cyclones and floods
h. More than half of the world's population now lives within 60km of the sea.
They are likely to be seriously impacted by ingress of salt water and by the
rising sea.
i. Human societies will be seriously affected by extremes of climate such as
droughts and floods.
j. Fresh water supplies may be seriously affected, reducing the availability of
clean water for drinking and washing during drought as well as floods
k. Water is contaminated and sewage systems may be damaged-spreading
infectious diseases like diarrheal diseases
 l. The local reduction in food production would lead to starvation and
malnutrition with long-term health consequences
m. Changes in climate may affect the distribution of vector species (e.g.
mosquitoes) which in turn will increase the spread of diseases such as
malaria, filariasis, dengue and yellow fever
n. Future rise in temperature is likely to have a detrimental effect on these
butterflies. Some butterflies which need cooler temperatures might suffer
o. Snow melts at peaks and causes rise in sea level by 9 to 88 cm in future
which submerges the coastline
p. CO2 in the atmosphere is a 'greenhouse gas' that is, its presence in the
atmosphere helps to retain the incoming heat energy from the sun,
thereby increasing the earth's surface temperature.
q. Strategies aimed at reducing potential health impacts of anticipated
climate changes should include monitoring of infectious diseases
r. It will be necessary to create early warning systems and education for
epidemic preparedness. Improved water and air pollution control will
become increasingly essential for human health
10. Global Warming
a. About 75% of the solar energy reaching the Earth is absorbed on the earth's surface
which Increases temperature. The rest of the heat radiates back to the atmosphere-
some heat is trapped by greenhouse gases mostly CO2. This causes global warming
b. Human activities, Industrialization and population growth have polluted the atmosphere
to extent that it begun to seriously affect the climate
c. CO2 in the atmosphere has increased by 31% since pre-industrial time causing more
heat to be trapped in the lower temperature
d. Global warming is accelerating faster than what was calculated a few years ago-global
warming would rise temperatures by 3.5 to 10 degrees. Centigrade during the 21st
century warmer
e. The increase in temperature will lead to melting of snow on poles which will add to rise
in ocean and sea water largely affecting the coastal areas means submerging the coastal
land
f. Global warming increases the annual fluctuations in rainfall leading to floods and
drought and rise in sea levels
g. The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon that plays a central role-the hot surface
of the sun radiates heat and light energy. The gases allow sunlight to pass through the
atmosphere and be absorbed by the earth's surface. This energy is radiated as heat
energy
h. Changes in global ozone are quite uncertain and contribute to increase or decrease in
the warming
11. Acid Rain
a. Fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas are burned-chemicals like Sulphur dioxide
and nitrogen oxides are produced.
b. These chemicals react with water and other chemicals in the air to form Sulphuric acid,
nitric acid and other harmful pollutants like Sulphates and nitrates
c. These acid pollutants spread upwards into the atmosphere and are carried by air
currents and finally return to ground in the form of acid rain, fog or snow causing many
forms of environmental damage
 d. Acid pollutants also occur in dry particles and gases-when washed from the ground by
rain -add to the acids in the rain to form a more corrosive solution - called acid
deposition
e. Some acids are contributed by natural sources such as volcanoes, swamps and
planktons.
f. North America, Japan, China, Europe and Southeast Asia have widespread damages
from acid rain US contribute to 70% of Sulphur dioxide by coal burning power plants.
Canada oil refining, metal smelting and other industrial activities contribute to 61% of
Sulphur dioxide
g. Motor vehicles exhaust fumes which are main source of nitrogen oxides. Acids react
with other chemicals by giving up hydrogen atoms
h. Damage from acid rain is widespread
- Acid rain dissolves and washes away nutrients in the soil affecting plant growth
- Acid rain dissolve naturally occurring toxic substances like aluminum and mercury-
freeing them to pollute water
- It affects plants by creating holes in the waxy coating of leaves and causing brown
dead spots which affects the photosynthesis
- Acid rain that falls or flows on ground water reaches rivers, lakes and wetlands
making the water acidic affecting the aquatic life
- Acid rain affect the entire food chain and ultimately endangering the entire
ecosystem
- Acid rain and dry acid deposition damages buildings, automobiles, other
structures
made of stone and metal
- Acid corrodes the material causing extensive damage and ruins historic buildings
(Taj Mahal has been affected by acid rain)
- Surface water is polluted by acid rain and the toxic substances leached from soil
can
pollute water supply - Fish caught in these waters may be harmful to consume
- Acid along with other chemicals in the air produce urban smog which causes
respiratory problems
i. Acid rains can be stopped by reducing the emission of Sulphur and nitrogen oxides into
the atmosphere by using less fossil fuels in power plants, vehicles and industry
j. Switching to cleaner burning fuels is also a way out. For instance using natural gas which
is cleaner than coal, using coal with lower sulfur content, and developing more efficient
vehicles
k. If the pollutants have already been formed by burning fossil fuels, they can be prevented
from entering the atmosphere by using scrubbers in smokestacks in industry. These
spray a mixture of water and limestone into the polluting gases, recapturing the sulfur
l. Powdered limestone can be added to the soil by a process known as liming to neutralize
the acidity of the soil
12. Ozone layer depletion
a. The ozone layer is essential to life because it shields it from damaging ultraviolet
radiation
b. Direct exposure to ultraviolet radiation can damage the human immune system, cause
cataracts, and increases skin cancer.
c. Plant responses to ultraviolet radiation include reduced leaf size, stunted growth, poor
seed quality, and increased susceptibility to weeds, disease, and pests.
 d. it forms a layer of 20 to 50kms above the surface of the earth
e. Ozone is formed by the action of sunlight on oxygen-this action takes place naturally
f. Ozone is a highly poisonous gas with a strong odour-form of oxygen that has three
atoms in each molecule
g. At ground level-it is a pollutant
- Constitutes a health hazard by causing respiratory ailments like asthma and
bronchitis.
- Causes harm to vegetation and leads to deterioration of certain materials like plastic
and rubber
- Affects nature's food chains and food webs which in turn cause an increase in
carbon dioxide due to the decrease in vegetation.
h. At upper level-it is vital for life
- Protects the earth from sun's harmful UV radiation
- It absorbs the sun's UV radiation and prevents it from reaching earth's surface
- It protects life from skin cancer and cataracts
i. In the 1970s, scientists discovered that chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs,
which were used as refrigerants and aerosol spray propellants, posed a threat to the
ozone layer. The CFCs encounter high-energy ultraviolet light', which breaks them
down, releasing their chlorine atoms. Levels of chlorine and bromine account for much
of the ozone depletion.
j. Thinning of ozone layer is detected in the atmosphere above Antarctica in 1980's. This
phenomenon is detected in other places as well including Australia.
k. Both cold temperatures and sunlight are critical to the process leading to ozone
depletion in the Antarctic. Antarcticozone is depleted not during the winter, when
temperatures are coldest and the South Pole is immersed in darkness, but in the
southern spring, after sunlight retums but temperatures are still low.
l. Use of CFCs has been reduced and now banned in most countries, other chemicals and
industrial compounds such as bromine, halocarbons and nitrous oxides from fertilizers
may also attack the ozone layer.
13. Nuclear Accidents
a. Nuclear energy is an alternate energy which would be clean and cheap compared to fossil
fuels
b. A nuclear accident can cause loss of life, long term illness, destruction to property on a
large scale for long period of time
c. Radioactivity leads to cancer, genetic disorders and deaths in the affected areas for
decades Exc In 1986 the Nuclear Power Station at Chernobyl in USSR developed a
problem that led to a fire and a number of explosions in its Nuclear Reactor. The
radioactive dust spread over many kilometers and covered not only Europe but North
America as well.
d. People may get cancer, thyroid tumors, and cataracts, and suffer from a lowered immune
mechanism.
e. As radioactivity passes from grass to herbivores, sheep in Scotland and Reindeer in
Lapland were affected and were unfit for human consumption. Vegetable, fruit and milk
were contaminated in Europe.
14. Holocaust
a. The use of nuclear energy in war has devastating effects on mankind and earth
 b. The Hiroshima and Nagasaki nuclear bombing in 1945-worst disasters in history. These
two atomic bombs killed thousands of people, left many thousands injured and
devastated everything for miles
c. The effects of the radiation from these nuclear bombs is seen today in the form of cancer
and genetic mutations in the affected children and survivors

15. Wasteland Reclamation

a. Land degradation refers to the physical or chemical processes which make land unfit for a
variety of purposes like agriculture, commercial, residential.
b. The increasing demand for food, fodder, fuel wood, has led to activities that are
responsible for increasing environmental degradation and the extension of wastelands
c. Human activity had led to the degradation of habitat including cultivated land, forests and
mangroves
d. 50% of the land throughout the world is arid with problem of acidity and salinity
e. Con degraded land be reclaimed or rejuvenated to what extent
f. The process of making an uncultivable land fit for cultivation which is then said to have
been reclaimed. The process is carried out either by temporary and permanent control Lou
of vegetation cover leads to loss of soil through erosion which ultimately creates
g. Loss of vegetation cover leads to loss of soil through erosion which ultimately creates
wasteland Loss of soil ruined a large amount of cultivatable land
h. Land becomes degraded due to salinization-too much use of fertilizers and pesticides, soil
erosion. Thus the land can no longer produce vegetation-it is a barren land
i. Conservation of soil and protecting the existing cultivatable land is important
j. Wasteland reclamation is expensive process-sometimes it is not successful
k. Locale specific strategies for reclaiming the wasteland must be worked out
l. Degraded lands can be effectively used and restored by planting forests. Forest is a good source
of food, fodder, fiber, pulp and help in maintaining climatic stability and biodiversity.
m. Wasteland is classified into three types
- Easily reclaimable
 Can be used for agricultural purposes
 Can be reclaimed by reducing salt content by leaching and flushing
 Gypsum, urea, potash and compostare added before planting cropsin such areas
- Reclaimable with some difficulty
 Can be utilized for agro forestry
 Involves to have trees and crops inter or under planted to form integrated system of
biological production within a certain area (cultivation of trees-palms, bamboo and shrubs)
- Reclaimable with extreme difficulty
 Wetlands are reclaimed with extreme difficulty can be used for forestry or to recreate
natural ecosystems
 Small animals and birds, insects return to forest naturally
 Gypsum and manure is mixed with original soil for better growth to be achieved
 Important to use indigenous species of trees so that it creates the local ecosystem with all
its species
n. Temporary controls
- Ploughing of salt surface crust deeply into the soil
- Removing surface contamination from the soil
- Neutralizing the effects of certain salts by use of other salts or acids
 - Preventing excessive evaporation
- Applying enough water
o. Need to wasteland development
- Wasteland reclamation is need of poor rural people-land is source of income
- It ensures constant supply of fodder, fuel wood and timber for local use
- Soil fertility is regained and ecological balance is maintained
- Moisture is maintained, prevents soil erosion, increasing forest cover maintains local
- climatic conditions
- Regenerated vegetation cover helps in attracting birds which feed on pest in the
surrounding fields and function as natural pest controllers
- Trees help in holding back moisture and reduce surface runoff thus helping in control of
soil erosion
16. Consumerism and Waste products
a. Modern societies use large amounts of goods-those that are manufactured for one time use
are extremely wasteful.
b. People easily adapt to disposable life-style as it leads to a cut down on household chores
and lead a more comfortable life
c. The increasing consumption of natural resources leads to serious environmental problems
around the world
d. Consumption patterns are of depleting non-renewable resources, poisoning and degrading
ecosystems. Plastic bags are non-biodegradable.
e. People in the industrialized countries are 20% of the world population-consume 80% of the
world's resources and produce 80% of wastes
f. The rich get richer at the cost of poor whose lives are not improved
g. Consumerism causes wasteful use of energy and material far beyond that is needed at a
comfortable level
h. Two hundred billion cans, bottles, plastic cartons, handbags, leather, paper, paper cups and
plates are thrown away in the developed countries which are one time use
i. "Disposable" items greatly increase this waste-many industrial consumer products are made
for one-time use
j. Consumerism is related to the constant purchasing of new goods and is driven by huge sums
spent on advertising designed to create both a desire to follow trends and a personal feeling
of satisfaction
k. Materialism is one of the end results of consumerism-consumerism interferes with
sustainable use of resources
l. In developed countries, the landfills are rapidly filled with cheap discarded products
m. With rapid increase in population-the amount of waste in terms of quality and quantity has
Increased waste management pressures
n. Reuse of goods and waste utilization should be part of production-consumption cycle
o. Burning or dumping wastes into streams and oceans or creating more landfills damages the
environment
- Large quantities of solid, liquid and gaseous waste is produced by urban industrial
communities in the form of plastic, paper, leather, tin cans, bottles, mineral refuse, and
pathological waste from hospitals.
- Dead animals, agricultural wastes, fertilizer and pesticide overuse, and human and
animal excreta are rural concerns
- The waste is either discharged into the atmosphere, into water sources or buried
underground
 p. Ash from incineration is a major problem because the ash contains lead, cadmium, mercury,
and arsenic in various proportions from batteries, lighting fixtures and pigments. The toxic
substances are more concentrated in the ash than in the original garbage and can lead to
water pollution.
q. q. Another way market operations reduce waste is by making consumer products in
concentrated form. Municipal composting is another source-reduction technique.

3 R's

a. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, or the 3Rs principle, is the new concept in waste management
b. This method will help to keep consumerism in a sustainable life style
c. Waste will be less and disposable will become easy and less pollution in the environment
d. Some waste is inevitable in any society, we must minimize the generation of waste at the
source
by using minimal resources
e. Biogas a product of waste-compost
f. Reduce-means less use of product at the source and smaller chance of waste generation
- Fancy packaging is not necessary
- Use cloth/jute bag instead of plastic bag
g. Reuse-as the product is reused in its current form without any energy extended to convert it
into new item
- The residual waste can be converted into a useable resource (waste is used to produce
energy )
- Using kitchen wet waste to make compost that can be used as an organic fertilizer
- Material left after oil extraction is used as fodder
- Rinse water can be used to water garden plants
- Donate old clothes to the needy
- The material left over after extraction of oil from seeds is used as cattle feed

h. Recycle-converts a waste into a resource, it uses energy to transform that resource into a
new usable product
- One industry's waste could be a valuable resource for another industry
- Using sewage in a biogas plant to make fuel
- Cloth rags from the textile industry are brought and used by paper and other industries
- Bagasse, a waste product of sugar industry is used in the paper and ply industries
- Plastic items are recycled into new plastic products
- Metal scrap and broken glass is used to make new metal products
- Most dry garbage is recyclable (paper, plastics, glass and metal)
i. The generated waste or discarded material that cannot be used again in its original form can
be sent back to the industry to be broken down and made into a new product of the same
type or into something entirely different.
j. Waste material generated which can neither be reused or recycled must be disposed off in a
proper manner with minimum impact to the environment
k. Non-toxic solid waste should be properly segregated and disposed off in landfills that are
properly sealed to avoid leakage and contamination of surrounding land and groundwater.
l. Toxic wastes must be treated and disposed off separately
m. Sewage and industrial wastewater should be adequately treated and rawmaterials
recovered from it where possible before it is released into rivers and waterways
 n. Do not litter and throw garbage in public places-Garbage and litter is a visual contaminant
and can cause diseases health problems
o. Buy products that are made of recycled material or organically grown
p. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle principle, i.e, by reducing use at source, by reusing and recycling
whatever possible and finally by proper disposal of residual waste

UNIT 7: HUMAN POPULATION AND THE

ENVIRONMENT

a. Human population had increased globally over 10 billion

b. Needs of human beings cannot be supported by natural resources without degrading
the quality
c. Fossil fuels from oil fields will run dry as the usage has increased
d. The demands for the food has increased and impossible to meet the demands from
the existing agro systems
e. Pastures will be overgrazed by domestic animals and industrial growth will create
ever-greater problems due to pollution of soil, water and air
f. Larger ozone holes will develop due to the discharge of industrial chemicals into the
atmosphere
g. Global warming leading to melting of ice caps and increasing the sea levels and
disappearance of coastal areas, town & cities and floods all low-lying areas
h. Water 'famines' due to the depletion of fresh water
i. Degradation of eco-system will lead to extinction of thousands of species
j. In some countries, food shortage has become a permanent feature. Two of every
three children in South Africa are underweight
k. In other regions famines due to drought have become more frequent
l. Current population growth has led to famine in areas where food production cannot
keep pace with population growth
m. There is disparity between developing country and developed country-in terms of
income, use of resources - the population is more in developing and developed
countries
n. There is disparity between rich and poor in India

Global population growth

a. The world population is growing by more than 90 million per year, of which 93% is in
developing countries.
b. In the first half of the 1900s human numbers were growing rapidly in most
developing countries such as India and China.
c. In rural areas population growth led to increased fragmentation of farmland and
unemployment
d. In the urban sector it led to inadequate housing and an increasing level of air
pollution from traffic, water pollution from sewage, huge amounts of waste
(MSW)and an inability to handle solid waste
 e. There are cultural, economic, political and demographic reasons that explain the
differences in the rate of population control in different countries.
f. Family welfare programs helped to reduce population in China and India
- Hum do Hamare do-program in India
g. The greatest challenge the world now faces is how to supply its exploding human
population with the resources it needs
h. As population expands-water shortages will become acute, soil will become
unproductive and water bodies (rivers, lakes and coastal waters) will become
polluted
i. By 2025, there will be 48 countries that are starved for water. Air will become
increasingly polluted
- Air pollution already kills 3 million people every year
- Water related diseases already kill 12 million people every year in the developing
world.
j. The green revolution in 60s produced large quantities of food to provide to its
growing population but has led to several environmental problems.
k. Global climate is now a threat that will affect the survival of high population density
coastal communities
l. The extinction of plant and animal species is resulting from shrinking habitats that
destroys earth's living web of life
m. m. Pollution and waste has also increased with increase in population globally and
nationally
n. Pollution led to ozone depletion-holes in the layer (carbon in all forms is the main
reason and discharge of industrial chemicals into the atmosphere)
o. Conflict between countries-advanced nations and bio-rich nations
p. There are nations which are suffering from food shortage due to increase in
population
q. Urbanization has increased more than 50% in India and more than 75% globally
r. Urban population increases due to migration-job opportunities, infra-structure
(health and education)
s. Environment and health are linked-if nature is clean and pollution free-health will be
good
t. Lifestyle had increased the use of consumer goods-resulting in large amounts of
production, packaging and transport which adds to enormous amounts of waste

Urbanization

a. The developed countries are urbanized with 75% of the population living in the urban sector
- In 1975-only 27% of the people in the developing world lived in urban areas
- By 2000 had grown to 40%
- By 2030 well informed estimates state that this will grow to 56%.
- The developed world is already highly urbanized with 75% of its population
b. Urban population growth is due to migration
- Education
- Better job options
- Health infra-structure
 c. The town grows into cities by spreading outwards into the surroundings agricultural lands
and natural areas like forests, grasslands and wetlands
d. Also grows skywards with high rise buildings. The town also loses its open spaces and green
cover unless these are consciously preserved. This destroys the quality of life in the urban
areas
e. Good urban planning is essential for rational land use planning, adequate sanitation,
effective water management and drainage system, efficient public transport system,
upgrading slum areas, developing effective waste water treatment plants
f. Unplanned and haphazard growth has serious environmental impacts
- Increasing solid waste
- Improper garbage disposal
- Air and water pollution are frequent side effects of urban expansion
g. Poor opportunities in rural sector stimulates migration to the cities-called "Pull Factor"
- Better job opportunities
- Better Education
- Healthcare
- Higher living standards
- Better income
- Loss of agricultural land to urbanization and industry
h. Small urban centres are growing rapidly leading to loss of agricultural land to urbanization
and industrialization
i. People living in wilderness areas in our forests and mountain regions are neglected-no
development
j. Man population in rural sector will only opt to live where they are if they are given an equally
satisfying lifestyle
k. k. The poor people live hutments in urban slums and suffer from water shortages and
unsanitary conditions-third of the poor people in the world live in urban centers
l. Adequate legal housing for the urban poor remains a serious environmental concern
m. Urban poverty is even more serious than rural poverty
- No direct access to clean river water, fuel wood and non-wood forest products
- Living conditions for urban poor are worse than for rural poor
- They can depend only on cash to buy goods where rural can grow part of their food
n. Crime rates, terrorism, unemployment and serious environmental health related issues are
expected to escalate

Environment and Human Health

a. Environment related issues that affect our health have been one of the most important
triggers
b. Changes in our environment induced by human activities in nearly every sphere of life have
had an influence on the pattern of our health
c. Environment and health are inter-dependent
d. Urbanization and industrialization bring prosperity but also leads to diseases
- Overcrowding-leads to air borne bacterial diseases (Tuberculosis)
- Inadequate quality of drinking water-leads to waterborne diseases (diarrhea)
- High-density traffic lead to respiratory diseases like asthma
e. Modern medicine promotes to solve many health problems
f. Environment related issues affect our health
- Lack of nutrition
 - Clothing
- Improper housing spread many communicable diseases through air, contact,
contaminated food and water directly (Cholera, diarrhea, typhoid)
- Insects and microbial parasites spread malaria and plague like diseases.
g. The contaminated food and water intake, dirt, sewage waste, improper light and pure air,
improper ventilation arrangements in the house, stagnant water and dirt, overcrowding,
lavatory and cleanliness are some of the causes for the spread of diseases.
h. Physical environment include climate, sound and radioactive pollution sunrays and heat, air
A person is surrounded by biological environment where insects and many other biological
microbes, which in tum spread diseases
i. Climate and weather affect human health
- Public health depends on sufficient amounts of good quality food, safe drinking
water, and adequate shelter
- Natural disasters such as storms, hurricanes and floods kill people every year
- Unprecedented rainfall triggers epidemics like malaria and water borne diseases
- The depletion of ozone layer has impact on the global climate and in turn human
health-increasing the amount of harmful UV radiations that reaches the Earth's
surface causes skin cancer
- Global climate change has serious health implications

Climate and Health

a. Humans have adapted to live in a wide variety of climates-from hot tropics to the
cold artic, in deserts, marshlands and in high mountains
b. Both climate and weather have a powerful impact on human life and health issues
c. Natural disasters created by extremes of weather (heavy rains, floods, hurricanes)
which occur over a short period of time, can severely affect health
d. Poor people are more vulnerable to the health impacts of climate variability than the
rich.
e. In weather-triggered disasters hundreds of people and animals die, homes are
destroyed, crops and other resources are lost.
f. Public health infrastructure, such as sewage disposal systems, waste management,
hospitals and roads are damaged. The cyclone in Orissa in 1999 caused 10,000
deaths.
g. Heat waves cause heat-related illness and death (e.g. heat stroke). The elderly and
persons with existing heart or respiratory diseases are more vulnerable. Heat waves
in India in 1998 were associated with many deaths
h. Climate plays an important role in vector-borne diseases transmitted by insects such
as mosquitoes. Climate affects their distribution and abundance
Ex: Malaria transmission is particularly sensitive to weather and climate. Unusual
weather conditions, for example a heavy downpour, can greatly increase the
mosquito population and trigger an epidemic.
i. Disease transmitters are sensitive to direct effects of climate such as temperature,
rainfall patterns and wind. Fluctuations in malaria over the years have been linked to
changes in rainfall associated with the El Niño cycle.

Infections diseases (important)

a. Many infectious diseases re-emerged due to loss of effective control over diseases
such as malaria and tuberculosis
b. Diseases prevent people from travelling to other countries-affecting national
economies for several months
c. Why infectious diseases come back?
- Bacteria mutate by creating new genetically modified strains-they are not
affected by the routinely used antibiotics begin to spread rapidly leading to a
reemergence of the disease
- Overcrowding due to formation of slums in the urban setting leads to several
health hazards
- Respiratory diseases spread easily
- Inadequate quality of drinking water
- Poor disposal of human waste due to absence of a closed sewage system
- Poor garbage management led to a comeback of diseases such as cholera and an
increased incidence of diarrhea, dysentery, infectious hepatitis (jaundice).
d. Global warming will also change the distribution of dengue, yellow fever
e. Warmer wetter climates could cause serious epidemics of diseases such as cholera
f. El Nino which causes periodic warming is likely to affect rodent populations. This
could bring back diseases such as the plague
g. Tuberculosis
- It is a chronic bacterial disease and highly infectious
- TB is a contagious disease that spreads through air
- It kills 2 million approximately every year
- Tuberculosis have been effectively treated with anti-tubercular drugs for
decades. These antibiotics are used to kill off the bacteria that causes the
disease.
- People are sick with pulmonary infection-when they cough, sneeze, talk or
spit-they emit the tubercle bacilli into the air
- When healthy person inhales these he gets infected by the disease
- Symptoms are prolonged fever, coughing and weight loss
- Each patient can infect on an average 10 to 15 people every year
- Nearly 1% of world's population is infected with TB each year
- It is treatable and requires extensive chemotherapy which is often very
expensive and also more toxic to patients
- Patient should be isolated-the disinfections of clothes, utensils, articled in
the room should be properly ensured
h. Malaria
- Is a life threatening parasitic disease transmitted by mosquitoes from person to
person through bite of female Anopheles mosquito
- 40% of the world population mostly living in poor countries are at risk of getting
malaria
- Mosquito is found in tropical and sub-tropical regions causing more than 300
million acute illness and at least one million deaths annually
 Malaria parasite enters human host when infected mosquito bites
 The parasite undergoes series of changes (life-cycle) inside the host to
evade the immune system-infect liver and red blood cells
 It finally develops into a form to infect the mosquito when it bites an
infected person
  The mosquito takes her next blood meal 10 days or more days later-the
parasite matures inside the mosquito
 Malaria symptoms appear about 9 to 14 days after the mosquito bite
 Malaria produces high fever, headache, vomiting and body ache
 Malaria can kill the person by infecting and destroying blood cells (anemia)
and by clogging the capillaries that carry blood to brain or to other vital
organs
- Good environment-clearing pools of stagnant water during monsoons is
effective in reducing the number of mosquitoes
- Mosquito nets treated with insecticide reduce malaria transmission and child
deaths
i. Diarrhea
- Several types of diarrhea give rise to loose motions and dehydration
- It causes 4% deaths-cholera and dysentery are sometimes life-threatening and
epidemic forms
- It is caused by gastrointestinal infections
- Use of contaminated water is the main cause
- It is frequent passage of loose or liquid stool passed with blood and mucous-
symptom of gastrointestinal infections
- Severe diarrhea can become life-threatening due to loss of excessive fluid and
electrolytes such as Sodium and Potassium in watery diarrhea
- Chemical or non-infectious intestinal conditions can also result in diarrhea
- Diarrhea is caused by several bacterial, viral and parasitic organisms-mostly
spread by contaminated water
- Causes
 Water is contaminated with human feces surrounding a rural water source or from
municipal sewage, septic tanks and latrines in urban centers
 Feces of domestic animals also contain microorganisms that can cause diarrhea
through water
 Spread from one individual to another due to poor personal hygiene
 Food is a major cause of diarrhea when it is prepared or stored in unhygienic
conditions
 Water can contaminate food as vegetables during irrigation
 Fish and seafood from polluted water is a cause of severe diarrhea
 Cholera is often water borne-many foods also transmit infection-(In Latin
America-ice and raw under processed seafood are important causes for cholera
transmission)
- Prevention
 Basic hygiene is important to prevent it
 Improved sanitation
 Access to clean drinking water
 Good personal and food hygiene
 Health education about how these infections spread
- Contamination can occur through environmental pollution of the air, water and soil-
use of various chemicals such as pesticides, animal drugs and other agrochemicals
have serious consequences on human health
- Food contaminated by chemicals is a major worldwide public health concern
 - Foodborne infections can cause acute liver disease-40 million people are affected
worldwide
j. Cancer
- Cancer is caused by the uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells that may
affect almost any tissue of the body
- Lung, colon, rectal and stomach cancer are the most common cancers in the world
for both men and women
- In India, oral and pharyngeal cancers form the most common type of cancer which
are related to tobacco chewing.
- Cancer causes 6 million deaths every year or 12% of deaths worldwide
- Canceris preventable by stopping smoking, providing healthy food and avoiding
exposure to cancer causing agents.
- Tobacco smoking is the single largest preventable cause of cancer in the world-80%
to 90% of all lung cancer deaths.
- Another 30% of all cancer deaths, especially in developing countries include deaths
from cancer of the oral cavity, larynx, oesophagus and stomach which are related to
tobacco chewing
- Excess consumption of red and preserved meat may be associated with increased
risk of colorectal cancer
- Common cancers are curable by combination of surgery, chemotherapy (drugs) or
radiotherapy (x-rays). The chance of cure increases if cancer is detected early
- Dietary modification is an important approach to control cancer. Fruits and
vegetables may have protective effect against many cancers
- Excessive solar ultraviolet radiation increases risk of all types of cancer of the skin.
Avoid excessive exposure to sun-use sunscreens and protective clothing
- The prevention of certain occupational and environmental exposure to several
chemicals
 Asbestos is known to cause lung cancer
 Aniline dyes has been linked to bladder cancer
 Benzene can lead to leukemia (blood cancer)

Water Related Diseases-4 types

a. Poor hygiene related behaviour and inadequate sanitation and erratic water supply
cause diseases in public places-schools, hotels, hospitals and health centres
b. Lack of environmental education and awareness
c. Water improperly stored in homes is frequently contaminated
d. Water borne diseases
- Caused by dirty water contaminated by human and animal waste from urban
sewage
- By chemical wastes from industries and agriculture
- Diseases like cholera and typhoid cause serious epidemics
- Diarrhea, dysentery, polio are caused due to improper drinking water
- Excessive levels of nitrates cause blood disorders when they pollute water
sources
- Pesticides entering water cause cancer and neurological diseases
- Improving sanitation and providing treated drinking water reduces these diseases
e. Water based diseases
 - Aquatic organisms that live part of their cycle in water and another part as a
parasite in humans-lead to several diseases
 Round worms live in the small intestine and guinea worms affects the feet
f. Water related vector diseases
- Insects like mosquitoes that breed in stagnant water spread diseases like malaria
and Filariasis
- Filariasis leads to fever and chronic swelling over the legs
- Eliminating mosquito breeding sites like pooling of water (potholes) during
monsoon
g. Water scarcity diseases
- In areas where water and sanitation is poor-there is high incidence of diseases
like tuberculosis, tetanus, leprosy which occur when hands are not adequately
washed

Arsenic in drinking water

a. It is serious hazard to human health

b. The main source of arsenic in drinking water is arsenic-rich rocks through which the
water has filtered
c. It occurs because of mining or industrial activity in some areas
d. Drinking water that is rich in arsenic leads to arsenic poisoning or arsenicosis
e. Arsenic contamination of water is also due to industrial processes such as those
involved in mining, metal refining, and timber treatment
f. Malnutrition may aggravate the effects of arsenic on blood vessels.
g. Results in color change on skin, hard patches on the palms and soles, skin cancer,
cancer of bladders, kidney & lung and diseases of the blood vessels of the legs and
feet
h. It may also lead to diabetes, high blood pressure and reproductive disorders
i. Natural arsenic contamination occurs in Argentina, Bangladesh, Chile, China, India,
Mexico, Thailand and the United States.
j. Exposure to arsenic leads to gangrene known as "black foot disease"
k. Prevention
- Providing safe drinking water
- Digging deeper wells which are less likely to be contaminated
- Testing of water for levels of arsenic
- People need to be checked for early signs of infection-observing skin problems in
areas
- where arsenic is known to occur
- Health education regarding harmful effects of arsenicosis and how to avoid them

Risks due to chemicals in food

a. Food contaminated by chemicals is a major worldwide public health concern.

Contamination may occur through environmental pollution of the air, water and soil
b. Use of various chemicals such as pesticides, animal drugs and other agrochemicals have
serious consequences on human health.
c. Food additives and contaminants used during food manufacture and processing adversely
affects health
 d. While cholera is often waterborne, many foods also transmit infection.
- In Latin America, ice and raw or under processed seafood are important causes for
cholera transmission
- Outbreaks of infection, generally associated with beef, have been reported in
Australia, Canada, Japan, United States, in various European countries, and in
southern Africa.
- Outbreaks have also implicated alfalfa sprouts, unpasteurized fruit juice, lettuce,
game meat (meat of wild animals) and cheese curd
e. The disease is most often associated with consumption of foods such as soft cheese and
processed meat products that are kept refrigerated for a long time, because Lm (Listeria
monocytogenes) can grow at low temperatures
f. Foodborne trematodes can cause acute liver disease, and may lead to liver cancer. It is
estimated that 40 million people are affected worldwide.

Nutrition, health and human rights

a. There are links between environment, nutrition and health - proper nutrition and health are
fundamental human rights
b. Several environmental issues are closely linked to human rights - include the equitable
distribution of environmental resources, the utilization of resource
c. Primary concerns in environmental issues are - how wealth, resources and energy must be
distributed in a community.
d. Economic disparities remain a fact of life - a widening gap between the rich and the poor,
between men and women, or between the present and future generations must be
minimised if social justice is to be achieved
e. The access to a better lifestyle for men as against women is inherent in many cultures
f. Rights to land, water, food, housing are all a part of our environment that we all share
g. Even in a developing country such as ours, there are enormous economic inequalities
h. The right to the use of natural resources that the environment holds is an essential
component of human right
- People who live in wilderness communities are referred to as ecosystem people.
- They collect food, fuel wood, and non-wood products, fish in aquatic ecosystems, or
hunt for food in forests and grasslands
- When land use patterns change from natural ecosystems to more intensively used
farmland and pastureland the rights of these indigenous people are usually sacrificed
- Another issue is the rights of small traditional fishermen who have to contend against
mechanized trawlers that impoverish their catch and overharvest fish in the marine
environment
- There are serious conflicts between the rights of rural communities for even basic
resources
- such as water, and industrial development which requires large amounts of water for
sustaining its productivity
- The right to land or common property resources of tribal people is infringed upon by
large development projects such as dams, mining and Protected Areas I
i. Nutrition affects and defines the health status of all people, rich and poor - linked to the way
we grow, develop, work, play, resist infection and reach our aspirations as individuals,
communities and societies
j. Malnutrition makes people more vulnerable to disease and premature death. Poverty is a
major cause as well as a consequence of ill-health.
 k. Poverty, hunger, malnutrition and poorly managed environments together affect health and
weaken the socioeconomic development of a country
l. Health and sustainable human development are equity issues

Value education

a. Value education in the context of our environment is expected to bring about a new
sustainable way of life
b. Education both through formal and non-formal processes address
- Understanding environmental values,
- Valuing nature and cultures, social justice
- Human heritage,
- Equitable use of resources
- Managing common property resources
- Appreciating the cause of ecological degradation
c. The problems that are created by technology and economic growth are a result of our
improper thinking on what 'development' means
d. Mindset must change before concepts such as sustainable development can be acted upon
e. Unsustainable development is a part of economic growth of the powerful while it makes the
poor poorer
f. Consumerism is one aspect of this process favoured by the rich
g. Values in environment education must bring in several new concepts
- Why and how can we use less resources and energy?
- Why do we need to keep our surroundings clean?
- Why should we use less fertilizers and pesticides in farms?
- Why is it important for us to save water and keep our water sources clean?
- Or separate our garbage into degradable and non-degradable types before disposal?
h. These issues are linked to the quality of human life and go beyond simple economic growth
- They deal with a love and respect for nature.
- Are the values that will bring about a better humanity
- One in which we can live healthy, productive and happy lives in harmony with nature
i. Every human being has a great variety of feelings for different aspects of his or her
surroundings.
j. True environmental values go beyond valuing a river for its water, a forest for its timber and
non-wood forest products, or the sea for its fish.
k. Environmental values are inherent in feelings that bring about a sensitivity for preserving
nature as a whole
l. Support the concept of the oneness of all creation, of respecting and valuing all the different
components of Nature-feeling for Nature is a part of our Constitution, which strongly
emphasizes this value.
m. We must appreciate that we belong to a global community that includes another 1.8 million
known living forms
n. Earth's diversity than a walk through the wilderness, feeling and exploring its beauty and
experiencing its infinite variety. The tiny creatures that live complex lives and the towering
trees are all a part of this phenomenon we call 'life'
o. We need to develop a sense of values that lead us to protect what is left of the wilderness
by creating effective National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries
p. On the one hand we need to protect natural ecosystems, while on the other, we must
protect the rights of local people.
Women and Child Welfare

a. There are several environmental factors that are closely linked to the welfare of women
and children.
b. Each year, close to eleven million children worldwide are estimated to have died from the
effects of disease and inadequate nutrition. More than one in five children die before
they are 5 years old.
c. Around the world, three out of every four children suffer from at least one of these
conditions-pneumonia, Diarrhea, measles, malaria and malnutrition
d. Respiratory conditions:
- Most respiratory diseases are caused by or are worsened by polluted air
- Crowded ill-ventilated homes and living in smoky households with open fires can
trigger respiratory conditions especially in children
- 400,000 to 550,000 children under five and women die each year in India due to
indoor smoke.
- Chula smoke is the third highest cause of disease and death after dirty water and
lack of sanitation
- BY providing access to clean water, sanitation, food and ventilated homes, over half
the
e. Pneumonia
- Acute respiratory infections-most frequently pneumonia, is a major cause of
death in
- children under five, killing over two million children annually.
- Most patients of pneumonia can be treated with oral antibiotics
- Children may die very quickly from the infection and thus need treatment
urgently.
- Correct management could save over 1 million lives per year globally
f. Gastro intestinal conditions:
- Contaminated water and food causes widespread ill health especially in children
g. Diarrhea:
- Diarrhea is caused by a wide variety of infections.
- Treating malnutrition that often accompanies Diarrhea can further reduce
mortality.
- Vigilance to detect other diseases that can occur concurrently with Diarrhea,
such as measles or malaria, is an important measure
- Two million children die each vear in developing countries from diarrheal
diseases
- Simple measures such as oral rehydration using clean boiled water with salt and
sugar.
- In severe cases intravenous fluids must be started.
- Improved hygiene and management of the home and surroundings is the most
important preventative measure, as well as improved nutrition.
- Measles vaccinations have also been observed to have reduced the number of
cases of diarrhea.
h. Measles
 - Measles is a rash that appears with fever and body ache in children and is caused
by a virus. It infects over 40 millian children and kills over 800,000 children under
the age of five Prevention includes wider Immunization coverage.
-
- Measles is prevented by a vaccine.
-
- Young children with measles often develop other diseases such as acute
respiratory infections, diarrhea and malnutrition that are all linked to poor
environmental conditions in their surroundings.
-
- Children who survive an attack of measles are more vulnerable to other
dangerous infections for several months.
i. Malaria:
- This condition is closely linked to pooling and stagnation of water in tropical
environments.
- Malaria is a widespread tropical disease which is caused by a parasite
transmitted to humans by mosquitoes
- It has proved difficult to control because mosquitoes have developed resistance
to insecticides used against them
- Approximately 700,000 children die of malaria globally each year, most of them
in sub-Saharan Africa.
- Young children are particularly vulnerable because they have not developed the
partial immunity that results from surviving repeated infections.
- Deaths from malaria can be reduced by several measures
- Prompt treatment with appropriate anti-malarial drugs, recognition and
treatment of other co-existing conditions, such as malnutrition and anemia,
- Prevention by using mosquito-proof bed-nets
j. Poverty-environment-malnutrition
- A close association between poverty, a degraded environment, and malnutrition.
- This is further aggravated by a lack of awareness on how children become
malnourished.
k. Malnutrition:
- Malnutrition is rarely listed as the direct cause of death it contributes to about
half of all childhood deaths
- Lack of access to food, poor feeding practices and infection, or a combination of
the two, are major factors in mortality
- Poor feeding practices - inadequate micronutrient supplements, providing the
wrong foods, giving food in insufficient quantities, contribute to malnutrition.
- Malnourished children are more vulnerable to disease
- Children between 6 months and 2 years of age are at increased risk of
malnutrition
- There are strong connections between the status of the environment and the
welfare of women and children in India.
- Women in lower income group families, both in the rural and urban sector, work
longer hours than men.
- Their work pattern differs and is more prone to health hazards. The daily
collection of water, fuel wood and fodder is an arduous task for rural women.
 - In urban areas, where lower economic group women live in crowded smoke filled
shanty's in unhygienic slums, they spend long hours indoors, which is a cause of
respiratory diseases.
- In urban centers, a number of women support a living by garbage picking. They
separate plastics, metal and other recyclable material from the waste produced
by the more affluent groups of society. During this process, they can get several
infections
- Women are often the last to get enough nutrition as their role in traditional
society is to cook the family meal and feed their husband and children. This leads
to malnutrition and anemia due to inadequate nutrition.
- The girl child is given less attention and educational facilities as compared to
boys in India.
- This social-environmental divide is a major concern that needs to be corrected
throughout the country

Role of Information Technology in Environment and Human Health

a. The understanding of environmental concerns and issues related to human health has
exploded during the last few years due to the sudden growth of Information Technology
b. The computer age has turned the world around due to the incredible rapidity with which IT
spreads knowledge
c. IT can do several tasks extremely rapidly, accurately and spread the information through the
world's networks of millions of computer systems
d. Environmental studies include software such as using Geographical Information Systems
(GIS). GIS is a tool to map land use patterns and document change by studying digitized
toposheets and/or satellite imagery
e. The Internet with its thousands of websites has made it extremely simple to get the
appropriate environmental Information for any study or environmental management
planning - assists scientists and students but is a powerful tool to help increase public
awareness about environmental issues.
f. Specialized software can analyze data for epidemiological studies, population dynamics and
a variety of key environmental concerns
g. The relationship between the environment and health has been established due to the
growing utilization of computer technology.
h. It looks at infection rates, morbidity or mortality and the etiology (causative factors) of a
disease. As knowledge expands, computers will become increasingly efficient