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Mathematics in the Real World 1st Edition W. D. Wallis
Digital Instant Download
Author(s): W. D. Wallis
ISBN(s): 9781461485292, 1461485290
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 4.35 MB
Year: 2013
Language: english
W. D. Wallis

Mathematics
in the Real World
W.D. Wallis

Mathematics in the Real

World
W.D. Wallis
Department of Mathematics
Southern Illinois University
Carbondale, IL, USA

ISBN 978-1-4614-8528-5 ISBN 978-1-4614-8529-2 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-8529-2
Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London
Library of Congress Control Number: 2013945165

Mathematics Subject Classification (2010): 05-01, 15-01, 60-01, 62-01, 91B12, 97-01

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013

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This book is dedicated to the memory of
Rolf Rees and Tom Porter, two colleagues
who left us far too soon.
Preface

In recent years, there has been a noticeable increase in the number of college courses
designed to introduce mathematics to non-math students. I am not talking about the
sort of mathematics studied at school, a glorified version of arithmetic with sole
letters thrown in to represent numbers, but real mathematics—the study of patterns
and structures (and yes, sometimes numbers are involved) that arise in our everyday
lives.
This book is designed as a text for such a course, a one-semester course designed
for students with a minimal background in mathematics.

Outline of Topics

The first two chapters discuss the basics of numbers and set theory. Chapter 1
(Numbers and Sets) introduces the idea of a set and a subset (a part of a set); the
sets of numbers that we use are discussed. Much of this material will be familiar to
the reader, but you may see these topics differently after you see how the ideas
are connected. We then introduce the idea of a base for numbers; we normally
use base 10, but other bases are useful for dealing with computers. The rest of the
chapter is about representing and using numerical data: summation, some notation
for summations, and some ways of combining sets are introduced, Venn diagrams
are discussed, and finally we look at arrays of numbers and define matrices.
Counting is covered in Chap. 2 (Counting). The concept of an event, a col-
lection of possible outcomes, is introduced. Summations, which were a topic in
Chap. 1, are studied further. We also distinguish between counting the number of
selections or combinations—subsets of a given size—and counting arrangements or
permutations—subsets where the order of the elements is important.
Counting leads naturally to probability theory. In Chap. 3 (Probability) we
introduce the basic ideas of probability. Randomness and random events are defined.
A number of examples involving dice and playing cards are included. In order
to discuss compound events, tree diagrams (similar to family trees, which we’ll

vii
viii Preface

mention later) are introduced. We go through two examples where probabilities

are different from what many people expect—the birthday problem and the Monty
Hall problem. Finally, the more mathematical concept of a probability model is
introduced.
The next two chapters deal with statistics, and in particular those aspects
(sampling, polls, predictions) that we often see in everyday life. As a first step
toward describing statistics, Chap. 4 (Data: Distributions) examines the way in
which numerical data about our world is collected and described. The ideas of a
population and taking a sample from that population are introduced, together with
ways of displaying this information—the dotplot, histogram, and boxplot—and
parameters that describe the information, such as means, medians, and quartiles.
Probability distributions are introduced, as a way of representing the probability
model of a phenomenon; in particular, we look at the normal distribution.
Chapter 5 (Sampling: Polls, Experiments) looks at how statistics impinges on
our world: estimating numerical properties of our society and deciding how reliable
are those estimates. A sample is the group we examine to study a property (such
as family income and height). The obvious question is: how reliable are our
estimates in describing the whole population? We discuss the reliability of methods
of sampling and ways of obtaining data, by observation or controlled experiments.
Experimental designs are discussed briefly, and in particular Latin squares are
studied. The relation of these designs to sudoku puzzles is mentioned.
We next look at graph theory. This is the study of (linear) graphs. A graph consists
of a set of objects (called vertices) and a set of connections between pairs of vertices
(called edges). For example, the vertices might represent cities and an edge joining
two of them might mean there is a nonstop airline flight between those two cities;
another example is the family tree, mentioned earlier, where vertices are people and
edges represent parent–child connections.
In Chap. 6 (Graphs: Traversing Roads), we start by modelling roads as edges
and look at the problem of traversing all roads in an area. Vertices might represent
cities, parts of a town, or intersections. The Königsberg bridge problem asks whether
one can traverse all roads in an area without any repeats; each road is to be traveled
exactly once. If this is not possible, one can try to cover each road at least once, with
the minimum possible number of repeats. Some basic ideas about graphs (adjacency,
multiple edges, simplicity, connectedness) are discussed.
Chapter 7 (Graphs: Visiting Vertices) starts by defining some special types of
graphs, such as paths, cycles, and bipartite graphs. The problem of visiting all towns
in an area exactly once each—Hamilton’s problem—and the problem of doing so as
cheaply as possible—the traveling salesman problem—are introduced.
In Chap. 8 (More About Graphs) we discuss two further aspects of graph
theory, trees and graph coloring. Trees are graphs reminiscent of the tree diagrams
introduced in Chap. 3. In particular, spanning trees are defined and algorithms
for finding minimum cost spanning trees are outlined. Coloring and chromatic
number are introduced, as are some applications of graph coloring. The famous
four-color theorem is discussed briefly. We use this chapter to illustrate a method of
Preface ix

mathematical proof, the proof by contradiction, which some readers may choose to
skip over on a first reading.
Chapters 9–11 deal with numbers we actually use in everyday life: credit card
numbers, PINs, and so on. We also look at encoding and decoding, both for
transmission of data and for secrecy.
In Chap. 9 (Identification Numbers) we look at the numbers we all use
nowadays—account numbers, social security numbers, etc. We look at how these
numbers are made up, and how they are used. In particular, the formulas for drivers’
license numbers in Illinois and Florida are explained, as well as the check digits
used in credit cards, postal money orders, and book identification numbers (ISBNs)
to make sure the numbers are legitimate and have been transmitted correctly.
In our electronic world, much data are transmitted electronically. Computers
basically transmit strings of digits, so it is necessary to encode and decode messages.
Moreover, errors can occur, so check digits are required, just as they are for
identification numbers. Chapter 10 (Transmitting Data) deals with this topic. One
typical method, Venn diagram encoding/decoding, is examined in detail. This is an
example of nearest neighbor decoding and is an example of a family of codes called
Hamming codes. Variable-length codes, including Morse code and the genetic code,
are also introduced. A surprising application of Hamming codes, the hat game, is
described.
In Chap. 11 (Cryptography) we explore another reason for encoding material:
secrecy. The history of secret writing, including the scytale and the Caesar cipher,
is outlined. More modern techniques include the Vigenère method and substitution
ciphers. Modular arithmetic is defined, and the RSA scheme of cryptography is
studied.
The next two chapters are devoted to voting. In Chap. 12 (Voting Systems) some
simpler voting systems and methods of deciding elections are discussed, starting
with majority and plurality systems, then sequential voting and runoff elections.
Preference profiles are defined. The Hare method for simple elections is described,
together with the generalizations of the Hare method called instant runoff elections.
Condorcet winners are defined, along with Condorcet’s method of dealing with
the case when there is no Condorcet winner. Sequential pairwise elections and
pointscore methods are outlined.
Then in Chap. 13 (More on Voting) we describe two methods for elections when
more than one candidate is to be elected: the generalized Hare method and approval
voting. Then two methods of manipulating the vote are discussed. First is strategic
voting, where voters might vote for their second favorite candidate to ensure that
their least favorite candidate is not elected (called an insincere ballot); second is the
introduction of amendments to change the final outcome. We close with an example
of how different methods, even though they are fair, may give different results.
We finish by discussing various aspects of finance and related topics. Most
readers have some idea of the mathematics of finance, but will be surprised by
what they do not know. Chapter 14 (The Mathematics of Finance) covers simple
and compound interest, the mathematics of compounding, and defines the annual
x Preface

percentage rate (the one lenders tell you about) and annual percentage yield (the
one you actually pay). Geometric growth is introduced.
Chapter 15 (Investments: Loans) studies the mathematics of investments (regular
savings) and (compound interest) loans. These two are similar: when you borrow, it
is as if the lender is making an investment. Your equity when you borrow to cover a
purchase is discussed. Two special types of loan, the add-on loan and the discounted
loan, are explained.
The last chapter, Chap. 16 (Growth and Decay), looks at the growth of human
and animal populations and at radioactive decay. These two are closely related.
Both involve the limiting case of compounding, where the process is continuous.
Exponential functions, exponential growth, and natural logarithms are discussed.
The change in the cost of living is covered, as an extension of exponential growth.

Problems, Exercises, and Further Reading

A number of worked examples, called Sample Problems, are included in the body of
each section. Many of these are accompanied by a practice exercise labeled “Your
Turn,” designed primarily to test the reader’s comprehension of the ideas being
discussed. It is recommended that students work all of these exercises; complete
solutions are provided at the end of the book.
The book contains a large selection of exercises, collected at the end of the
chapters. They should be enough for students to practice the concepts involved;
most of the problems are quite easy. Answers are provided. There is also a set of
multiple-choice questions in each chapter.
Books of this kind often contain historical sketches, biographies, and the like.
In many years of teaching, I have observed that students hardly ever read these
items. Moreover, students are quite capable of looking up this information for
themselves. For example, Googling “Samuel Morse” or “Morse code” will give as
much information on the gentleman and his inventions as you could possibly need.
So I chose to opt for a concise text; the Internet will provide all needed background
and the student will not need to carry a huge book around.

Carbondale, IL W.D. Wallis

Acknowledgments

This book owes a great deal to many colleagues and mathematicians with whom
I have taught or discussed this material—too many to mention. I am also grateful
for the constant support and encouragement of the staff at Birkhäuser, particularly
Katherine Ghezzi.

xi
Contents

1 Numbers and Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 The Numbers We Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Sums: Sigma Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 More About Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6 Venn Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.7 Arrays, Matrices .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2 Counting .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1 Some Counting Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 Arrangements .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3 Selections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3 Probability .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.1 Some Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2 Events and Probabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.3 Two Interesting Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.4 Probability Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4 Data: Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.1 Describing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.2 Central Tendency: Histograms.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.3 Quartiles: The Boxplot .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.4 Probability Distributions .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.5 Examples: Rolling Dice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.6 The Normal Distribution .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5 Sampling: Polls: Experiments .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.1 Predictions .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.2 Sampling .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.3 Interpreting Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

xiii
xiv Contents

5.4 Polls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.5 Latin Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
6 Graphs: Traversing Roads.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.1 Representing Roads: The Königsberg Bridges. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.2 Some Graph Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.3 Back to Königsberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.4 Applications: Eulerization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
7 Graphs: Visiting Vertices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
7.1 Some Classes of Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
7.2 Hamilton Cycles .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.3 The Traveling Salesman Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
7.4 Algorithms for the Traveling Salesman Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
8 More About Graphs .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8.1 Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8.2 Spanning Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
8.3 Minimum-Cost Spanning Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
8.4 Representations and Crossings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
8.5 Maps and Planarity .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
8.6 Map and Graph Colorings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
8.7 The Handshake Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
9 Identification Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
9.1 Simple Check Digits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
9.2 Codabar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
9.3 ISBNs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
9.4 The Soundex .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
9.5 Driver’s Licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
10 Transmitting Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
10.1 Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
10.2 Venn Diagram Encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
10.3 Binary Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
10.4 Variable-Length Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
10.5 The Hat Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
11 Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
11.1 Secret Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
11.2 Physical Secrecy.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
11.3 The Caesar Cipher.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
11.4 The Vigenère Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
11.5 Substitution Ciphers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
11.6 Modular Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
11.7 The RSA Scheme.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Contents xv

12 Voting Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

12.1 Simple Voting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
12.2 Sequential Voting .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
12.3 Preferential Voting: The Hare Method . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
12.4 The Condorcet Method.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
12.5 Sequential Pairwise Voting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
12.6 Point Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
13 More on Voting.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
13.1 The Generalized Hare Method.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
13.2 Approval Voting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
13.3 Manipulating the Vote .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
13.4 Amendments.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
13.5 Five Candidates, Five Winners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
14 The Mathematics of Finance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
14.1 Simple Interest.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
14.2 Compound Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
14.3 Interest Periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
15 Investments: Loans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
15.1 Regular Savings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
15.2 Compound Interest Loans and Payments . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
15.3 Some Other Loans.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
15.4 Equity .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
16 Growth and Decay .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
16.1 Continuous Compounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
16.2 Inflation: The Consumer Price Index .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
16.3 Animal Populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
16.4 Radioactive Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Your Turn Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Answers to Multiple Choice Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Answers to Exercises .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

Index . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Chapter 1
Numbers and Sets

Most students will already know some of the material in this chapter, but even they
should review some basics (sets, the standard number systems, and so on) so that
we all use the same notation. We shall also introduce Venn diagrams, which will be
a useful tool in more than one place.

1.1 Sets

All of mathematics rests on the foundations of set theory and numbers. We’ll start
this chapter by reminding you of some basic definitions and notations and some
further properties of numbers and sets.
A set is any collection of objects. Sets abound in our lives—most children have
owned a train set (a collection of engines, cars, track pieces, and so on); you have
sets of CDs, sets of colored pencils, and so on. You could talk about all your friends
as a set, or all your clothes.
The objects in the collection are called the members or elements of the set. If x is
a member of a set S, we write x ∈ S, and x ∈ / S means that x is not a member of S.
One way of defining a set is to list all the elements, usually between braces; thus if
S is the set consisting of the numbers 0, 1 and 3, we could write S = {0, 1, 3}.
Another method is to use the membership law of the set: for example, since the
numbers 0, 1 and 3 are precisely the numbers that satisfy the equation x3 − 4x2 +
3x = 0, we could write the set S as

S = {x : x3 − 4x2 + 3x = 0}

(which we read as “the set of all x such that x3 − 4x2 + 3x = 0”). Often we use a
vertical line instead of the colon in this expression, as in

S = {x | x3 − 4x2 + 3x = 0}.

W.D. Wallis, Mathematics in the Real World, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-8529-2__1, 1

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013
2 1 Numbers and Sets

This form is sometimes called set-builder notation.

Sample Problem 1.1 Write three different expressions for the set with elements
1 and −1.
Solution. Three possibilities are {1, −1}, {x : x2 = 1}, and “the set of square
roots of 1”. There are others.
Your Turn. Write three different expressions for the set with the three elements
1, 2 and 3.
The definition of a set does not allow for ordering of its elements, or for repetition
of its elements. For example, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 3, 2} and {1, 2, 3, 1} all represent the same
set. To handle problems that involve ordering, we define a sequence to be an ordered
set. Sequences are denoted by using parentheses (round brackets) instead of the
braces that we use for sets; (1, 3, 2) is the sequence with first element 1, second
element 3 and third element 2, and is different from (1, 2, 3). Sequences can contain
repetitions, and (1, 2, 1, 3) is quite different from (1, 2, 3).

1.2 The Numbers We Use

We shall assume you know the basics of numbers—addition, multiplication and so

on. Whole numbers are also called integers. We refer to a number as a multiple of
another number if it equals the product of that number with an integer; for example
the numbers 6, 12, 18, 36 are some of the multiples of 6, as are −6, −12, −24
(negative multiples) and even 0 (0 = 6 times 0).
It is natural to think of the numbers we use in terms of sets. The set N of
all positive integers or natural numbers is the first number system we encounter;
the natural numbers are used to count things. If one adds zero, to account for the
possibility of there being nothing to count, and negatives for subtraction, the result
is the set Z of integers. We write

N = {1, 2, 3, . . .}
Z = {. . . − 3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}

The use of a string of dots (an ellipsis) means that the set continues without
end. Such sets are called infinite (as opposed to finite sets like {0, 1, 3}). We also
write {1, 2, . . . , 20} to mean the set of all positive integers from 1 to 20. When no
confusion arises, the ellipsis means “continue in the obvious way.”
The set Q of rational numbers consists of the ratios p/q, where p and q are
integers and q = 0. In other words,

Q = {p/q : p ∈ Z, q ∈ Z, q = 0}.
1.2 The Numbers We Use 3

Each rational number has infinitely many representations as a ratio. For example,

1/2 = 2/4 = 3/6 = . . .

An alternative definition is that Q is the set of all numbers with a repeating or

terminating decimal expansion. Examples are

1/2 = 0.5
−12/5 = −2.4
3/7 = 0.428571428571 . . .

In the last example, the sequence 428571 repeats forever, and we denote this by
writing

3/7 = 0.428571 .

The denominator q of a rational number cannot be zero. In fact, division by zero

is never possible. Some people—even, unfortunately, some teachers—think this is a
made-up rule, but it is not. In fact, it follows from the definition of division. When
we write x = p/q, we mean “x is the number which, when multiplied by q, gives p.”
So what would x = 2/0 mean? There is no number which, when multiplied by 0,
gives 2. Whenever you multiply any number x by 0, you get 0. You can never get 2.
How about x = 0/0? There are suitable numbers x, in fact every number will give 0
when multiplied by 0, but we wanted a single answer. So “x = 0/0” tells us nothing
about x; it doesn’t specify any number.
The integers are all rational numbers, and in fact they are the rational numbers
with numerator 1. For example, 5 = 5/1.
The positive integers are called “natural,” but there is no special name for the
positive rational numbers. However, we have a notation for this set, Q+ . In general,
a superscript + denotes the set of all positive members of the set in question.
The final number system we shall use is the set R of real numbers, which consists
of all numbers which are decimal expansions, all numbers √ which represent lengths.
Not all real numbers are rational; one easy example is 2. In fact, if n is any natural √
number other than a perfect square (that is, n is not one of 1, 4, 9, 16, . . . ), then n
is not rational. Another important number which is not rational is π, the ratio of the
circumference of a circle to its diameter.
Remember that every natural number is an integer; every integer is a rational
number; every rational number is a real number. Do not fall into the common error
of thinking that “rational number” excludes the integers, and so on. There are special
words for such things. Rational numbers which are not integers are called proper
fractions, and real numbers which are not rational are called irrationals.
4 1 Numbers and Sets

This is not the end of number systems. For example, the set C of complex
numbers is derived from the real numbers by including square roots of negative
numbers, plus all the sums and products of the numbers. However, we will not
encounter them in this book.

1.3 Bases

In ordinary arithmetic we use ten digits or one-symbol numbers {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,

8, 9} to write all the possible numbers. The symbol for “ten” is 10, meaning “once
ten plus zero times one.” For example, 243 means “twice ten-squared plus four times
ten plus three.” In symbols, we could write

243 = 2 × 100 + 4 × 10 + 3 = 2 × 102 + 4 × 101 + 3 × 100.

To write numbers less than 1, we write 1/10, or 10−1 , as .1; 1/100 = 10−2 = .01,
and so on. Ten is called the base.
In general, suppose a0 , a1 , a2 and b1 , b2 , b3 are any digits. When we write the
number . . . a2 a1 a0 .b1 b2 b3 . . . it means

. . . + a2 × 102 + a1 x101 + a0 × 100 + b1 × 10−1 + b2 × 10−2 + b3 × 10−3 + . . .

Most people believe that we use 10 as the base of our number notation
because people have 10 fingers and thumbs on their hands. But there is no special
mathematical reason for choosing base 10. Historically, base 60 was used first, by
the Sumerians and Babylonians.
We shall consider one other base, the base 2, because it arises in computer
applications. Numbers written in base 2 are called binary numbers. To write binary
numbers, only the two digits 0 and 1 are necessary.
We shall denote the base by putting the number in parentheses and then putting
the base as a subscript. In that notation, (101.11)2 means 1 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20 +
1 × 2−1 + 1 × 2−2, or in regular (base 10) notation 4 + 0 + 1 + .5 + .25, equaling 5.75.
So we could say (101.11)2 = (5.75)10 . But we will usually omit the parentheses and
subscript when the numbers are written in base 10.
Sample Problem 1.2 What is (10111)2 in base 10?
Solution. (10111)2 = 1 × 24 + 0 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 1 × 21 + 1
= 16 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 1
= 23

Your Turn. What is (1100100)2 in base 10?

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Index. 569 Fluorine, 225. Apparatus, 226. Isolation, 225.

Liquid, 226. Name, 225. Properties, 226. Fluor spar, 225, 226. Flux,
281, 375. Food, water in, 31, 32. Fool's gold, 386. Formaldehyde,
412. Formalin, 413. Formation, heat of, 1 12. Formula, 82.
Constitutional, 407. Empirical, 178,407. Graphic, 178, 407, 413, 414.
Molecular, 174. Rational, 407. Simplest, 104, 174, 175. Structural,
178, 407, 413, 414. Fossil, from coal bed, 185. Frame, for soap, 423.
Franklinite, 334. French process for white lead, 362. Fructose, 425.
Fruit sugar, 425. Fuming acid, nitric, 163. Sulphuric, 251. Furnace,
blast, 281, 375. Reverberatory, 281, 282. Fusible alloys, 337, 360.
Metals, 275. Fusion, for crystals, 440. Gahnite, 334. Galena, 357,
362. Crystals, 362. Gallic acid, 432. Gallium, 401. Galvanic cell, 119.
Galvanized iron, 336. Gangue, 280. Gaps in periodic system, 401.
Garnet, 347. Gas, 61. Carbon, 190, 213. Coal, 210. Effect of heat on
volume, 18, 19. Effect of pressure on volume, 18. Equation, 175.
Flame, structure, 218. Holder, 212. Illuminating, 210. Marsh, 202.
Natural, 209. Producer, 25. Sylvestre, 196. Volume, reduction, 53,
54. Water, 25, 196, 213. Water, plant, 214. Gases, absorption by
charcoal, 188. By platinum, 394. Combination by volume, 166. Inert,
69. In mines, 221. Properties, 166. Solution of, 41. Gasolene, 208.
Gay-Lussac, 55, 231. Law, 1 66. Tower, 249. Gelatine plate and film,
313. Gems, aluminium, 347. Artificial, 347. Glass, 260. Quartz, 257.
Generator, acetylene, 207. Water gas, 213. German process for white
lead, 362. Silver, 306, 389. Geyserite, 258. Gin, 411. Glacial acid,
acetic, 415. Phosphoric, 268. Glass, 258. And hydrofluoric acid, 227.
Annealing, 260. Blasting, 257. Blowing, 259, 260.
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570 Index. Glass, Bohemian, 260} Colored, 260.

Constituents, 259. Crown, 260. Cut, 260. Flint, 260. Kinds, 258, 259.
Manufacture, 259. Plate, 259. Polishing, 260. Production, 260.
Typical mixture, 259. Window, 259. Glauber, 140, 445. Salt, 292.
Glazing pottery, 352. Globigerina ooze, 322, 323. Glover tower, 248.
Glucose, 425, 426. Glucosides, 432. Glycerides, 420. Glycerine, 420.
Preparation, 422. Properties, 421. Relation to soap, 420. Uses, 421.
Glycerol, 422. Glyceryl, 429. Oleate, 420. Palmitate, 420. Stearate,
420. Gneiss, 255. Gogebic iron range, 374. Gold, 314. Alloys, 314,
316. Amalgam, 339. Chloride, 315, 316, 317. Coin, 316. Compounds,
317. Cyanide, 315, 317. Distribution, 309, 314. Dust, 314. Dutch,
305. Finely divided, 317. Gold, continued. Fool's, 386. History, 313.
Leaf, 316. Making, 314. Map of distribution, 309. Name, 314.
Nugget, 314. Parting, 315. Pen tips, 394. Plating, 317. Production,
314. Properties, 316. Purification, 315. Red, 316. Reduction of
compounds, 317. Separation from silver, 315. Test, 317. Uses, 316.
White, 316. Graham, 26, 445. Gram, 437. Granite, 255. Grape sugar,
425, 426. Graphic formula, 178, 407, 413, 414. Graphite, 183, 190.
Artificial, 118. Gravimetric, 53. Composition, air, 66. Composition,
water, 55, 57. Gray cast iron, 378. Green fire, 329. Pigments, 368.
Vitriol, 246, 385. Grindstones, 256. Groups of elements, 397. Guano,
271, 331. Guignet's green, 368. Gun cotton, 428. Metal, 305.
Gunpowder, 14, 296. Smokeless, 428. Gypsum, 326. Reduction of,
235.
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Index. Haemoglobin, 373. Halides, 96, 225. Hall,

343Process for aluminium, 343, 344. Halogens, 225. Haloid salts,
225. Hardness, of metals, 279. Of water, 37, 327. Permanent, 327.
Temporary, 327. Hard water, 37. Coal, 185, 1 86. Harveyized steel,
380. Hausmannite, 369. Heat, and chemical action, 112, H3And
oxidation, 14. From burning hydrogen, 1 12. In electric furnace, 114.
Of decomposition, 113. Of formation, 112. Of neutralization, 130.
Heavenly bodies, constitution, 404. Helium, 69, 404. Hematite, 373.
Henry's law, 42. Heroult process for aluminium, 344. Hexagonal
crystals, 441. Hofmann, 445. Apparatus, 52. Honey, 425. Horn silver,
133, 308. Humboldt, 55. Hydrargyrum, 338. Hydrate, 93. Chlorine,
139. Hydrated, 46. Hydraulic lime, 325. Main, 210. Mining, 314.
Hydriodic acid, 232. Hydrocarbons, 202, 408. Hydrobromic acid, 230.
Hydrochloric acid, 140-143, Commercial, 141. Hydrochloric,
continued. Composition, 143. Liquefied, 142. Test, 144. Hydrocyanic
acid, 198. Hydrofluoric acid, 227, 257. Vapor density, 228. Hydrogen,
23. And chlorine, 136. And periodic classification, 401. And steam,
24. And water, 50. Arsenide, 273. Chemical conduct, 27. Diffusion,
26. Dioxide, 59. Discovery, 30. Explosions, 28. Flame, 27. In acids,
24, 87, 90. Ions, 121. Liquid, 29. Name, 25, 30. Peroxide, 59.
Physical properties, 25. Preparation, 24. Solid, 29. Valence, 176.
Weight of liter, 25. + Hydrogen sulphide, 240, 241, 242.
Composition, 241. .-Test, 242. Water, 241. Hydroquinone, 431.
Hydroxides, 89, 93. And alcohols, 409. Common names, 93. Organic,
409. Hydroxyl, 89, 94. Hygroscopic, 46. Hypo, 91, 252.
Hypophosphites, 269. Hyposulphite in photography, 313. Hypothesis,
76. Avogadro's, 167.
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572 Index. Ice, 32, 34, 35. Making plant, 153.

Manufactured, 153. Stone, 350. Iceland spar, 320. Illuminants, 216.
Illuminating gas, 210. Carbon monoxide in, 197. Characteristics, 215.
Composition, 215. Illuminating power, 216. Impurities, 240.
Luminosity, 216. Indicator, 98. Inert gases in atmosphere, 69.
Infusorial earth, 256, 257. Ingots, 381. Ink, 385, 418. Indelible, 312.
Printer's, 190. Writing, 433. Inorganic compounds, 405. Insoluble
substances, 41. Sulphate, test, 251. Intervals in periodic
classification, 398. Iodides, 232. Iodine, 230. Commercial
preparation, 231. Compounds, 232. Detection, 232. Determination,
252. Discovery, 231. In seaweed, 230. Name, 232. Preparation, 230.
Production, 233. Properties, 231. Purification, 231. Source, 293.
Test, 232. Uses, 233. Vapor density, 232. lodoform, 233, 412. Ionic
equation, 129, 130. lonization, 125. And acids, bases, and salts, 129.
Application, 129. Table, 127. Ions, 120, 121, 125, 126. Test for, 129.
Iridium, 226, 392, 393, 394. Iridosmine, 394. Iron, 373. Acetate,
417. Alum, 386. And coke, 190. By alcohol, 383. By hydrogen, 383.
Carbide, 209, 285. Carbonate ores, 374. Cast, 377, 378. Chemistry
of smelting, 377. Chlorides, 386. Compounds, 384. See Ferric and
Ferrous. Cyanides, 387. Disulphide, 386. Galvanized, 386. History,
373. Impurities, 377. Liquor, 417. Magnetic oxide, 385. Malleable,
879. Map of deposits, 374. Metallurgy, 379. Ore, 373, 374. Ore,
chrome, 365. Ore, consumption, 377. Ore, deposits, 374. Ore,
reduction, 197, 375. Oxides, 384. Passive, 384. Pig, 377Properties,
383. Pyrites, 373, 385, 386. Rust, 383. Rusting, 14. Silicide, 258.
Smelting, 375.
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Index. 573 Iron, continued. Spiegel, 369. Sulphides, 386.

Symbol, 373. Test, 388. Varieties, 377. Isomerism, 204. Isomers,
204. Isometric crystals, 441. Ivory black, 189. Jasper, 256. Javelle's
water, 139. Kainite, 294, 298, 331. As fertilizer, 298. Kali, 204.
Kalium, 294. Kaolin, 351, 352. Kassiteros,, 354. Kelp, 231. Kerosene,
209. Kieserite, 331, 333. Kilogram, 437. Kindling temperature,
113,218, 221. Kirchhoff, 403, 445. Krypton, 69, 404. Labarraque's
solution, 139. Lactic acid, 290, 418. Lactose, 425. Lake, 350.
Lampblack, 190. Laudanum, 433. Lavoisier, 5, 15, 16, 18, 25, 27, 30,
50, 55, 63, 64, 88, 97, 157, 182, 196, 396, 445. Law, 75. Boyle, 19.
Charles, 19. Conservation of energy, in. Definite proportions, 75, 76,
79. Faraday, 123. Gay-Lussac, 166. Henry, 42. Law, continued.
Matter, 5. Multiple proportions, 77, 78. Periodic, 398. Specific heat,
172. Lead, 357. Acetate, 363,417. Alloys, 360. Argentiferous, 308.
Black, 183, 359. Carbonate, 357, 361. Carbonate, basic, 361.
Chambers, 249. Chloride, 363. Chromate, 367. Chromate, native,
365. Compounds, 363. Compounds, poisonous, 359. Cupellation
process, 310. Dioxide, 361. History, 357. Hydroxide, 362. In drinking
water, 359. Interaction with metals, 359. Metallurgy, 358. Monoxide,
360. Nitrate, 363. Nitrate, behavior with heat, 163. Ore, 357. Oxides,
360. Parkes process for, 309. Pencils, 184. Peroxide, 361. Phosphate,
357. Pipe, 366. Production, 357. Properties, 358. Silver bearing, 308.
Spongy, 360. Sugar of, 363, 417. Sulphate, 357, 363. Sulphide, 242,
357, 362, 363. Test, 363, Tetroxide, 360.
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574 Index. Lead, continued. Uses, 359. White, 361.

Leather, 433. Leblanc process for sodium carbonate, 288. Lemon
juice, 90. Levulose, 425. Liebig, 230, 445. Life and carbon dioxide,
194. Oxygen, 16. Nitrogen, 72. Phosphorus, 270. Potassium, 298.
Light and chemical action, 51, ill. Silver salts, 312,313. Lignite, 185.
Lime, 324. Air slaked, 324. And water, 113, 324. Caustic, 324.
Chloride of, 137. Hydraulic, 325. Light, 29, 324. Making, 192, 324,
325. Milk of, 326. Quick, 324. Superphosphate, 271. Uses, 324. See
Calcium oxide. Limekiln, 193, 325. Limestone, 320. As flux, 377.
Burning, 325. Caves, 321, 322. Fossil, 322. Solubility, 321. Uses,
323. Lime water, 325. And carbon dioxide, 192, 325. Detection, 68.
Preparation, 326. See Calcium hydroxide. Liming, 138. Limonite,
373. Links, 407. Liquid air, 12, 69. Acetylene, 205. Ammonia, 148-
149, 153. Carbon dioxide, 193. Chlorine, 139. Fluorine, 226.
Hydrogen, 29. Oxygen, 18. Sulphur dioxide, 244. Liquids, solubility,
43. Liquor, alcoholic, 411. Distilled, 411. Iron, 417. Red, 350. List of
reference books, 450. Litharge, 360. Lithia water, 298. Lithium, 298.
Citrate, 298. Discovery, 294. Test, 298. Litmus, action on, acid, 90.
Alkali, 92. Base, 92. Neutral substance, 94. Salt, 94. Loadstone, 385.
Lubricating oil, 209. Luminosity, illuminating gas, 2 1 6. Of flame,
218. Luminous paint, 329. Lunar caustic, 312. Luray cavern, 321,
322. Luster, 279. Madder, 432. Magnalium, 346. Magnesia, 333, 334,
370. Alba, 334, 370. Black, 370. Fluid, 334. Mixture, 333. Nigra, 370.
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Index. 575 Magnesia, continued. Stone, 370. Uses, 333.

Magnesite, 334. Magnesium, 331. Alloy, 346. Bromide, 228. Calcium
carbonate, 331. Carbonate, 331, 334. Chloride, 333. Citrate, 334.
Compounds in soil, 331. Compounds and water, 327. Hydroxide, 333.
Nitride, 153,332. Oxide, 333. See Magnesia. Phosphates, 331.
Preparation, 332. Properties, 332. Ribbon, 332. Sulphate, 333. Uses,
332. Magnetic oxide of iron, 385. Magnetite, 373, 385. Majolica, 352.
Malachite, 301, 308. Malic acid, 418. Malleable iron, 379. Metals,
279. Mammoth cave, 322. Manganates, 371. Manganese, 369.
Alloys, 369. As non-metal, 371. Black oxide, 370. Compounds, 371.
Dioxide, 369. Isolation, 370. History, 370. Name, 370. Ores, 369.
Preparation, 369. Production, 369. Properties, 369. Test, 372.
Manganese, continued. Uses, 369. Manganesium, 370. Manganite,
369. Manganous compounds, 371. Chloride, 370, 371. Hydroxide,
370. Sulphate, 371. Sulphide, 371. Mantle, Welsbach, 222. Map,
copper deposits, 374. Gold, 309. Iron, 374. Silver, 309. Marble, 320.
Marchand tube, 56. Marengo cave, 322. Marquette iron range, 374.
Marsh gas, 202. Marsh's test for arsenic, 273. Massicot, 360.
Matches, 270. Matte, copper, 302. Matter, conservation, 4.
Properties, i, 2. Meadowsweet, 430. Meerschaum, 331. Mendeleeff,
398, 445. Menominee iron range, 374. Mercuric chloride, 340, 357.
Cyanide, 198. Nitrate, 340. Oxide, 1 8, 339. Sulphide, 338, 340.
Mercurous chloride, 339, 357. Nitrate, 340. Mercury, 337. Alloys,
339. Compounds, 339. Deposits, 338. Fulminating, 339. Name, 338.
Native, 337. Ore, 338. Preparation, 338,
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576 Index. Mercury, contintced. Production, 338.

Properties, 338. Purification, 338. Specific heat, 172. Transportation,
338. Uses, 339. Vapor density, 169, 339. Mesabi iron range, 374.
Metal, and non-metal, 278. Babbit's, 336. Bath, 305. Bell, 306.
Britannia, 306, 356. Dutch, 305. Gun, 305. Hypothetical, 150. Muntz,
305. Newton's, 275. Rose's, 275. Speculum, 306. Type, 360. White,
306. Wood's, 275, 337. Metallic ions, 121. Luster, 279. Metalloids,
278. Metallurgy, 280. Copper, 302. Lead, 358. Iron, 375. Silver, 309,
310. Metals, action with nitric acid, 158. Alkali, 284. Alkaline earth,
319. Antifriction, 336. Chemical properties, 279. Classification, 396.
Familiar, 7. Found free, 280. General properties, 278. Known to
ancients, 280. Occurrence, 279. Physical properties, 278. Platinum,
394. Metals, continued. Preliminary treatment, 280. Preparation,
280. Metamerism, 204. Metaphosphates, 269. Metaphosphoric acid,
268. Metastannic acid, 355. Metathesis, 3. Meter, defined, 437. Gas,
212. Methane, 202, 409. Graphic formula, 407. In natural gas, 209.
Series, 202. Methyl, 406, 409. Alcohol, 409. Benzene, 430.
Salicylate, 432. Methylated spirit, 410. Metric abbreviations, 438.
Apparatus, 394. Equivalents, 438. System, 437. Ton, 32.
Transformations, 438. Mexican onyx, 322. Meyer, Lothar, 398, 445.
Mica, 293, 343. Microcosmic salt, 269. Milk of lime, 326. Sulphur,
240. Milner's process for white lead, 362. Mineral, defined, 280.
Compounds, 405. Springs, 37, 42. Water, 37. Minerals, 258. Minium,
360. Mispickel, 272. Mixture, 9, 77. Air, 69. Modification, allotropic,
191. Moissan, 114, 116, 182, 184, 225, 226, 3!9. 365, 445Moissan's
electric furnace, 1 14.
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Index. 577 Molecular equation, 175. Formula, 174.

Molecular weights, 103, 128, 168. And vapor density, 168.
Determination, 170, 171. Exact, 170. Hydrogen, 169. Steam, 169.
Molecules, 80-8 1, 167-168. And atoms, 80. And equations, 175.
Molybdenum, 369. Monacid base, 94. Monads, 176. Monobasic acids,
92. Monocalcium phosphate, 271. Monoclinic crystals, 442. Sulphur,
239. Monophosphates, 269. Mordants, 350, 357, 367. Morphine,
433. Mortar, 326. Moth balls, 432. Mother liquor, 230, 231. Mucilage,
427. Multiple proportions, law, 77-78. Table, 78. Muntz metal, 305.
Muria, 140. Muriate of ammonia, 151. Muriatic acid, 92, 140.
Muscovado sugar, 424. Mutton fat, 420. Naphtha, 208. Naphthalene,
432. Nascent state, 138. Natrium, 284. Natron, 284. Natural gas,
209. Natural groups, 400. Waters, 38. Nature of solution, 48.
Negative electrode, 121. Photographic, 313. Neon, 69, 404. Neutral,
94. Reaction, 94. Neutralization, 88, 89, 97. And ionic theory, 130.
Heat of, 130. Newton's metal, 275. Niagara Falls, industries at, 1 1 6,
117, 118, 155, 291, 344. Nicholson and Carlisle, 53, 119. Nickel,
388. Alloys, 306. Carbonyl, 198. Coin, 306, 389. Hydroxide, 389.
Ores, 388. Plating, 389. Properties, 389. Steel, 383, 389. Test, 389.
Uses, 389. Nickeloid, 389. Nicotine, 433. Niter, 72. Meal, 295.
Source, 295. Nitrates, 158. Behavior with heat, 159. Deposits, 155.
Test, 159. Nitric acid, 154, 155, 156. Action with metals, 158. And
copper, 159, 162. And electric sparks, 155. Composition, 157.
Formation, 155. Fuming, 163. Preparation, 155. Test, 159. Uses,
157. Nitric oxide, 159, 162. Composition, 162. Nitrides, 72.
Magnesium, 153. Nitrification, 155.
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578 Index. Nitrites, 159. Nitrogen, 72. Discovery, 63. Effect

on flame, 220. In atmosphere, 63. Name, 72. Oxides, 78, 1 60.
Pentoxide, 163. Peroxide, 159, 162, 163. Preparation, 72. Properties,
63, 72. Proportion in air, 64. Relation to life, 72. Tetroxide, 163.
Trioxide, 163. Valence, 177, 178. Nitrous acid, 159. Nitrous oxide,
160, 161. Composition, 161. Discovery, 161. Nitrobenzene, 430.
Nitroglycerine, 422. Nitrosyl-sulphuric acid, 248. Nomenclature,
acids, 91. Bases, 93. Hydroxides, 93. Salts, 95. Non-luminous flame,
219, 220. Non-metallic ions, 121. Non-metals, 88. Classification,
396. General properties, 278. Nordhausen sulphuric acid, 252.
Normal bismuth nitrate, 276. Normal salts, 96. Nugget, gold, 314.
Occlusion, 26. Ocean water, 38. Salts in, 38. Oil, and water, 43.
Lamp flame, 218. Lubricating, 209. Of bitter almonds, 431, 432. Of
vitriol, 92, 246. Oils, 420. Olefiant gas, 204. Olein, 420.
Oleomargarine, 421. Olive oil, 420, 421. Onyx, 255. Opal, 256.
Opaque, 279. Open hearth process for steel, 382. Opium, 433.
Orange mineral, 361. Ore, defined, 280. Calcination, 281. Classes,
280. Dressing, 281. Organic acids, 92, 414. Chemistry, 405.
Compounds, 405, 406, 408. Orpiment, 272, 273. Orthophosphoric
acid, 268. Orthorhombic crystals, 441. Sulphur, 239. Osmium, 392,
394. Ostwald, 445. Oxalic acid, 417. Oxidation, 14, 192, 357. And
decay, 17. By potassium permanganate, 371, Of food, 1 6. Oxide,
carbonic, 197. Oxides, 15. Acidic, 97. Basic, 97. Of nitrogen, 160,
246-248. Relation to acids and bases, 96. Oxidized silver, 311.
Oxidizing agent, 14, 60. In matches, 270. Oxidizing flame, 221, 222.
Oxychloride, antimony, 275. Bismuth, 276. Oxygen, 11. Absorption
by silver, 311. And blood, 16, 17. And combustion, 15.
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Index. 579 Oxygen, continued. And flames, 218. And

ozone, 22. And water, 51. Breathing pure, 17. Erin's process, 12.
Discovery, 18. In acids, 87, 88, 91, 97. In atmosphere, 63. Liquid, 1
8. Name, 18, 88. Nascent, 138. Preparation, II, 293. Properties, 12.
Relation to life, 16. Solid, 1 8. Uses, 17. Weight of liter, 18.
Oxyhydrogen blowpipe, 17, 28, 29. Oxymuriate, tin, 357. Ozone, 21,
113. In atmosphere, 62. Formula, 169. Paint, black, 190. Blue, 417.
Lead, 357. Luminous, 329. Red, 273, 340, 361, 384. White, 336,
362. Yellow, 273, 367. Pakfong, 306. Paktong, 306. Palladium, 392,
394. Absorption by, 26, 394. Palmitic acid, 417. Palmitin, 420. Palm
oil, 417. Paper, making, 429. Parchment, 428. Paracelsus, 30.
Paraffin, series, 203. Wax, 209. Paregoric, 433. Pads green, 273,
417. Parkes process for silver, 309. Parting, gold and silver, 315.
Passive iron, 384. Paste, gems, 262. Glass, 260. Starch, 427. Pastry,
raising, 290. Pearlash, 297. Peat, 185. Pentads, 176. Percentage
composition, 103. Periodic classification, 398. Gaps, 401. Periodic
law, 398. Periodic process for bromine, 229. Periodic table of
elements, 399. Periods in periodic classification, 398. Permanent
hardness, 327. Peroxide, hydrogen, 59. Sodium, 293. Petit, 172,445.
Petrified wood, 256, 257, 258. Petroleum, 207-209. Origin, 209.
Production, 209. Refining, 208. Pewter, 356, 360. Phenol, 431.
Derivatives, 431. Phenyl, 406. Methane, 406. Philosopher's stone,
314. Phlogiston, 15, 1 8. Phosgene, 198. Phosphates, 265, 269.
Acid, 26$. Dicalcium, 271. Disodium, 269. Monocalcium, 271.
Primary, 269. Rock, 271. Secondary, 269. Slag, 271. Tricalcium, 271.
Phosphine, 269.
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58° Index. Phosphonium compounds, 269. Phosphor

bronze, 305. Phosphoric acids, 268. Oxide, 268. Phosphorite, 265.
Phosphorous oxide, 268. Phosphorus, 265. Acids, 268. Action on air,
65, 72. And ozone, 21. And plants, 270. Black, 267. Discovery, 265.
Electrolytic manufacture, 266. In plants and animals, 265.
Manufacture, 265, 266. Minor compounds, 269. Name, 267.
Ordinary, 266. Oxides, 268. Pentachloride, 270. Pentoxide, 65, 268.
Properties, 266. Purification, 266. Red, 267. Relation to life, 270.
Salts, 268. Trichloride, 270. Uses, 267. Vapor density, 169, 267.
Yellow, 266. Photography, ill, 312. Photometer, 216. Phylloxera, 240.
Physical changes, I, 2. Pickles, 90, 416. Picrates, 431. Picric acid,
431. Picromerite, 294. Pig iron, 377. Pinchbeck, 305. Placer mining,
314. Plants and atmosphere, 194. And nitrogen, 72, 73. And
phosphorus, 270. Plants and atmosphere, continued. And potassium,
298. And silica, 257. Plaster, 326. Of Paris, 327. Plata, 392. Plate,
developing, 313. Photographic, 312. Platina, 392. Platinic chloride,
394. Platinum, 392. Absorption of gases, 394. Alloys, 394. And aqua
regia, 392. And iridium, 226, 392. And sulphur dioxide, 245. And
sulphuric acid, 249. Arsenide, 392. Black, 394. Compounds, 394.
Discovery, 392. Dish, 393. Foil, 393. In electric light bulbs, 393.
Metals, 394, 401. Name, 392. Native, 392. Ore, 392. Preparation,
392. Print, 394. Production, 392. Properties, 393. Sheet, 393.
Source, 392. Spongy, 392, 393. Uses, 393. Plumbago, 183.
Plumbum, 357. Nigrum, 357. Polyhalite, 294. Polymerism, 206.
Polymers, 206. Porcelain, 352. Portland cement, 325. Positive
electrode, 121.
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Index. Potash, 297. Name, 294. Red prussiate, 387. Yellow

prussiate, 387. Potassium, 293. Alum, 349. Antimonyl tartrate, 274.
Bichromate, 366. Bromide, 230. Carbonate, 297. Chlorate, u, 12,
296, 297. Chloride, 295. Chloroplatinate, 394. Chromate, 366.
Chromium sulphate, 368. Cyanide, 198, 298, 315. Dichromate, 366.
Discovery, 284. Ferricyanide, 387. Ferrocyanide, 198, 387. Hydroxide,
297, 298. Hypochlorite, 139. Iodide, 232, 233. Manganate, 371.
Name, 294. Nitrate, 155, 295. Nitrite, 295. Permanganate, 370.
Preparation, 294. Preservation, 294. Properties, 294. Relation to life,
298. Salts and starch, 298. Salts at Stassfurt, 293. Silicate, 258.
Sulphate, 298. Sulphocyanate, 198, Tartrate, 418. Test, 294. Pottery,
352. Powder, gun, 296. Smokeless, 428. Precipitate, 45.
Precipitation, 44. Prefix, centi-, 437. Prefix, continued. Deca-, 437.
Deci-, 437. Hecto-, 437. Hydro-, 91, 95. Hypo-, 91. Kilo-, 437. Milli-,
437. Per-, 91, 95. Press cake, 296. Pressure, normal, 18, 19.
Priestley, n, 16, 18, 55, 64, 140, 158, 161, 445. Primary phosphates,
269. Print, photographic, 313. Problems, 21, 30, 49, 59, 86, 108,
132, 146, 165, 180, 201, 224, 234, 254, 264, 277, 283, 300, 318,
330, 342, 353, 364, 372» 391, 395, 436, 439, 440. Based on
equations, 107. Producer gas, 25. Products, 83. Addition, 204.
Substitution, 203. Proof spirit, 410. Propane, 203, 409. Properties of
matter, I, 2. Propyl, 409. Propylene, 202, 204. Proust, 77, 445. Prout,
398, 446. Prussian blue, 388. Prussiate of potash, red, 387. Yellow,
198, 387. Prussic acid, 198. Puddling, 379. Pulp, paper, 429.
Purification, water, 39. Purifiers, gas, 212. Purple of Cassius, 317.
Putty, 323. Pyrite, 386. Pyrogallic acid, 431. Pyroligneous acid, 415.
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582 Index. Pyrolusite, 369. Pyromorphite, 357.

Pyrophosphates, 269. Pyrophosphoric acid, 269. Pyrosulphuric acid,
252. Pyrrhotite, 373. Quadrivalent elements, 176. Qualitative
analysis, 50, 242. Quantitative analysis, 50. Quantitative significance
of equations, 104. Quantivalence, 176. Quartation, 315. Quartz, 255,
256. Quartzite, 256. Quicklime, 324. Quicksilver, 338. Quinine, 433.
Quinquivalent elements, 176. Radical, 89, 150, 198. Organic, 406.
Valence, 177. Rain water, 37. Ramsay, 68, 69, 446. Rational formula,
407. Rayleigh and Ramsay, 68. Reaction, 3. Acid, 90. Alkaline, 92.
Chemical, 83. Illustrating equation, 106. Neutral, 94. Realgar, 272,
273. Red fire, 329. Hematite, 374. Paint, 340, 361, 384. Lead, 360.
Liquor, 350, 417. Reduction, 15, 28, 55, 357. Process for lead, 358.
Reducing agent, 28. Flame, 222. Reference books, 450. Refining
petroleum, 208. Relative humidity, 66. Respiration, 16, 191. Retorts,
coal, 210. Reverberatory furnace, 281, 282. Reversion, 271.
Rhigolene, 208. Rhodium, 392. Rhodocroisite, 369. Rinmann's green,
390. River water, 38. Rochelle powder, 290. Rock, crystal, 255.
Phosphate, 271. Rocks, 258. Decayed, 265. Phosphorus from, 265.
Silicates, 255. Roll sulphur, 238. Rosaniline, 431. Rosendale cement,
325. Rose's metal, 275. Rouge, 384. Royal water, 1 60. Rubidium,
284, 299, 413. Ruby, 347. Ore, 301. Rum, 411. Run, water gas, 213.
Rusting of iron, 383. Rutherford, 63, 64, 446. Ruthenium, 392.
Saccharose, 423. Safety lamp, 221. Sal ammoniac, 151. Saleratus,
290. Salicylic acid, 431. Sal soda, 289. Salt, 94. Acid, 96. As glaze,
352. Basic, 96. Cake, 288. Common, 286,
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Index. 583 Salt, continued. From White Sea, 287. Glauber's,

292. Microcosmic, 269. Preparation of common, 287. Springs, 228.
Saltpeter, Chili, 231, 292. Source, 295. Salts, 94. . Action on litmus,
94. Ammonium, 150. And ionization, 129. Epsom, 333. Ethereal,
419. Formation, 94. General properties, 88. Haloid, 225. In ocean,
38, 287. Nomenclature, 95. Normal, 96. Organic, 419. Smelling, 152.
Sand, 255, 256. And hydrofluoric acid, 228. Blast, 257. Sandstone,
256. Saponification, 422. Sapphire, 347. Satin spar, 326. Saturated
compounds, 177. Hydrocarbons, 203. Point of air, 66. Solution, 44.
Scandium, 401. Scheele, 16, 18, 64, 133, 265, 446. Scheele's green,
273. Scrubber, 212. Seal, 210. Sea water, salts in, 287. Silver in, 308.
Secondary phosphates, 269. Seidlitz powders, 290, 418. Selenite,
326. Selenium, 252. Series, homologous, 202. Paraffin, 203.
Serpentine, 331. Shell, in limestone, 322. Rock, 322. Shot, 360.
Sicily, sulphur from, 236. Siderite, 373, 387. Siemens-Martin process
for steel, 382. Silica, 255. And plants, 257. Deposition, 258. From
springs, 258. Hydrated, 256. Soluble, 258. Silicates, 257, 258.
Siliceous sinter, 258. Silicic acid, 257. Silicides, 258. Carbon, 117.
Silicified wood, 256, 257. Silicon, 255. Bronze, 305. Carbide, 117.
Tetrafluoride, 228, 257. Silicon dioxide, 255. Properties, 256.
Varieties, 255. Silver, 308. Acetate, molecular weight, 1 70. Alloys,
308, 311. Amalgam, 309. Amalgamation process, 309. Bearing lead,
308. Brick, 310. Bromide, 312. Chloride, 308, 309, 312. Coins, 311.
Compounds, 312. Compounds and light, 312, 313. Determination of
atomic weight, 171. Distribution, 309. German, 306. Glance, 308.
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584 Index. Silver, continued. Halogens, solubility, 252.

History, 308. Horn, 133, 308. In sea water, 308. Iodide, 312.
Metallurgy, 309, 310. Name, 308. Nitrate, 312. Ores, 308. Oxidized,
311. Plating, 311, 312. Production, 308. Properties, 310. Pure, 310.
Separation from gold, 315. Specific heat, 173. Sterling, 311.
Sulphides, 308, 311. Tarnishing, 311. Test, 312. Water, 338. World's
supply, 308. Silverware, blackening, 242, 311, Simplest formula, 104,
175. Sinter, siliceous, 258. Sirius, 23, Sirup, table, 426. Slag, 281,
324, 375. Phosphate, 271. Slaked lime, 324. Slate, 343. Smalt, 390.
Smelling salts, 152. Smelting, 281. See Metallurgy. Smithsonite, 334.
Smokeless gunpowder, 428. Snow crystals, 35. Soap, 420, 422. And
hard water, 327. Boiling process, 423. Cold process, 423. Hard, 422.
Soft, 422. White, 422. Soap, continued. Yellow, 423. Soapstone, 331.
Soda, 289, 290. Ash, 289. Baking, 290. Cooking, 290. Crystals, 289.
Washing, 289. Water, 42, 90, 193. Sodium, 284. Acetate, 417. Alum,
349. Aluminate, 348, 349. Amalgam, 292, 339. And water, 24, 51.
Arsenate, 273. Arsenite, 273. Bicarbonate, 195, 289. Carbonate,
284, 288, 289. Chloride, 286, 287. Cyanide, 286, 293. Dioxide, 293.
Discovery, 284. Hydroxide, 290, 291, 292. Hypochlorite, 139.
Hyposulphite, 138, 252. lodate, 230. Iodide, 319. Lactate, 418.
Manganate, 372. Manufacture, 284, 285. Monoxide, 293. Name, 284.
Nitrate, 292, 293. Oxides, 286. Peroxide, 286, 293. Preservation,
286. Properties, 285. Silicate, 258. Stannate, 357. Sulphate, 292.
Sulphide, 288. Sulphite, 243. Test, 141, 286.
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Index. 585 Sodium, continued. Thiosulphate, 252.

Tungstate, 369. Uses, 286. Soft coal, 185, 189. Water, 37, 327.
Solder, 356, 360. Soldering, 263. Solid carbon dioxide, 193. Solids,
solution, 43. Table, 44. Soluble glass, 257. Silica, 258. Sulphate, test,
251. Solute, 41. Solution, 41, 126. And chemical action, 47. And
electrolysis, 126. Boiling point, 127. Freezing point, 127, 128. Gases,
41. Labarraque's, 139. Liquids, 43. Nature, 48. Saturated, 44. Solids,
43. Supersaturated, 45. Terms, 41. Thermal phenomena, 47. Solvay
process for sodium carbonate, 289. Solvent, 41. Universal, 43.
Souring, 138. Sour milk in cooking, 418. Specific gravity of metals,
279. Specific heat, 172. Law, 172. Table, 173. Spectra, 402.
Nebulae, 404. Stars, 404. Spectroscope, 23, 402. Discovery by, 284,
404. Spectrum, 401. Spectrum, continued. Absorptive, 403. Analysis,
401, 403. Banded, 402. Bright line, 402. Dark line, 402. Sunlight,
403. Speculum metal, 306. Spelter, 335. Sperrylite, 392. Sphalerite,
334. Spiegel iron, 369, 378. Spinel, ruby, 347. Spinels, 347. Spirit of
salt, 140. Spirits, hartshorn, 147. Spongy platinum, 392, 393.
Springs, mineral, 37, 42. Stable refuse, 271. Stack, 210. Stahl, 1 6,
446. Stalactite, 321. Stalagmite, 321. Stamp, mill, 280. Standard
conditions, 19. Wax candle, 216. Stannic chloride, 357. Oxide, 356.
Stannous chloride, 356. Stannum, 354. Starch, 426, 427. And
potassium salts, 298. Test, 232, 427. Stas, 171, 398, 446. Stassfurt
deposits, 133, 228, 261, 293, 331- . Steam, 36. Stearic acid, 417.
Stearin, 420. Candles, 422. Steel, and coke, 190. Bessemer, 381.
Chrome, 366. Crucible, 381. Harveyized, 380.
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586 Index. Steel, and coke, continued. Manufacture, 380.

Nickel, 389. Open hearth, 383. Properties, 380. Tempering, 380.
Uses, 383. Sterling silver, 311. Stibine, 274. Stibium, 274. Stibnite,
274. Still, 40, 379. Stone, artificial, 258. Ice, 350. Stoneware, 352.
Stove polish, 183. Strass, 260. Stream tin, 356. Striking back,
Bunsen flame, 220. Strontia, 328. Strontium, 328. Carbonate, 328.
Hydroxide, 328. Nitrate, 328. Oxide, 328. Sulphate, 328. Sulphide,
329. Test, 329. Structural formulas, 178. Stucco, 327. Sublimate,
151. Corrosive, 340. Sublimation, 151, 440. Subnitrate of bismuth,
276. Substitution, 3, 203. Products, 203. Sucrose, 423. Suffix, -ate,
95. -ic, 91, 144. -ide, 95. -ite, 95. -ous, 91, 144. Sugar, 423. Barley,
424. Beet, 424. Sugar, continued. Brown, 424. Cane, 423, 424.
Fermentation, 410. Fruit, 425. . Granulated, 425. Grape, 425, 426.
Kinds, 423. Of lead, 363. Of milk, 425. Raw, 424. Refining, 425.
Term, 423. Test, 426. White, 424. Suint, 293. Potassium carbonate
from, 297. Sulphates, 235, 251. Acid, 251. Important, 251. Normal,
251. Test, 141, 251. Sulphides, 238, 241. Color, 242. Native, 235.
Solubility, 242. Sulphites, 245. Acid calcium, 245. Acid sodium, 245.
Sodium, 243. Sulphur dioxide from, 243. Sulphur, 235. Action with
heat, 238. Allotropic modifications, 239. Amorphous, 239, 240. And
metals, 238. And silver, 311. Burning, 245. Compounds, 240.
Crystallized, 239. Dioxide, 242, 244, 245. Extraction, 236. Flowers,
238. Formation, 235. Forms, 239.
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Index. 58? Sulphur, continued. Free, 235. In human body,

236. In United States, 236. In volcanic districts, 235. Kiln, 236. Milk
of, 240. Monoclinic, 239. Native, 235. Orthorhombic, 239. Properties,
238. Purification, 237. Roll, 238. Source, 236. Springs, 37, 235.
Trioxide, 245, 246. Use, 240, 252. Vapor density, 238. Water, 37.
Sulphuretted hydrogen, 240. Sulphuric acid, 246. And organic
matter, 250. And water, 250. Chemical changes in making, 248.
Concentration, 249. From pyrites, 386. Fuming, 251. Impurities, 363.
Manufacture, 246, 248, 249. Nordhausen, 252. Plant, 247-248.
Properties, 250. Reduction, 250. Test, 251. Uses, 251. Sulphuric
ether, 414. Sulphurous acid, 244, 245. Anhydride, 245. Sulphocyanic
acid, 198. Sun, elements in, 23, 404. Sunlight and carbon dioxide,
194. Chemical action, m. Nitric acid, 156. Superheater, 213.
Superphosphate of lime, 271. Supersaturated solution, 45. Supporter
of combustion, 15. Sylvite, 294. Symbols, 81. And atomic weights,
103. Chemical, 8. Latin, 8. Table, 448, 449. Synthesis, 3, 50. Table
salt, 287. Tables, atomic weights, 448, 449. Borax bead colors, 262.
Composition of coal, 186. Composition of natural waters, 38.
Equivalents, 100. Famous chemists, 447. Important elements, 6.
lonization, 127. Latin symbols, 8. Metric equivalents, 438. Metric
system, 437. Metric transformations, 438. Multiple proportions, 78,
79. Periodic, 399. Solubility of carbon dioxide, 42. Solubility of solids,
44. Specific heats, 173. Uncommon elements, 7. Water in food, 32.
Talc, 331. Tallow, 421. Tannic acid, 432. Tannin, 432. Tanning, 433.
Tar, 213. Extractor, 212. Well, 210. Tartar, crude, 418. Emetic, 274,
419. Tartaric acid, 418. Tea, 433. Tellurides, 314. Tellurium, 252.
Compounds, 314.
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588 Index. Temperature and luminosity, 218. Kindling, 113,

218. Low, 204. Standard, 19. Tempering, 380. Temporary hardness,
327. Tension of water vapor, 36. Terms, electrochemical, 120. Terra
cotta, 352. Tests, acetic acid, 419. Alcohol, 419. Aluminium, 347.
Antimony, 275. Arsenic, 273. Barium, 329. Bismuth, 276. Borax
bead, 262. Boron, 261. Cadmium, 337. Calcium, 328. Carbon, 189.
Carbon dioxide, 192, 325. Chloride, 144. Chromium, 367, 368.
Cobalt, 390. Copper, 304. Gold!, 317. Hydrochloric acid, 144.
Hydrogen sulphide, 242. Ions, 129. Iron, 388. Lead, 363. Lithium,
298. Manganese, 372. Marsh's, for arsenic, 273. Nickel, 389.
Nitrates, 159. Nitric acid, 159. Potassium, 294. Silver, 312. Sodium,
286. Starch, 427. Strontium, 329. Sugar, 426. Sulphate, insoluble,
251. Tests, continued. Sulphate, soluble, 251. Sulphuric acid, 251.
Zinc, 337. Tetrads, 176. Tetragonal crystals, 441. Theine, 433.
Theory, 75. Atomic, 79. Electrolysis, 125. Electrolytic dissociation,
125, 126. Thermal equation, 112. Thermometers, 439. Thiosulphate,
sodium, 252. Thomas-Gilchrist process for steel, 382. Tiles, 352. Tin,
354. Alloys, 356. Amalgam, 339, 356. Block, 355. Crystals, 356.
Dioxide, 354, 356. Foil, 356. History, 354. Interaction with metals,
355. Metallurgy, 354. Ore, 354. Oxymuriate, 357. Plate, 355.
Production, 354, 356. Properties, 355. Purification, 355. Stone, 354.
Stream, 356. Uses, 355. Tinkel, 261. Tinware, 355. Tobacco, 433.
Toluene, 202, 430. Toluidine, 431. Toning, in photography, 313.
Topaz, 347. Travertine, 322. Triacid base, 94.
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Index. 589 Triads, 176. Tribasic acid, 92. Triclinic crystals,

442. Trivalent elements, 176. Tungsten, 369. Turnbull's blue, 388.
Turquoise, 347. Tuscany, boric acid from, 261. Tuyeres, 376. Type
metal, 360. Water, 89. Univalent elements, 176. Unsaturated
compounds, 177. Hydrocarbons, 204, 206. Uranium, 369. Salts, 369.
Specific heat, 173. Urea, 405. Valence, 176. Classification by, 397.
Representation, 407. Valentine, Basil, 246. Van Helmont, 196, 446.
Van't Hoff, 446. Vapor density, 169. And molecular weight, 168.
Iodine, 232. Mercury, 339. Sulphur, 238. Zinc, 336. Vapor tension,
36. Varec, 231. Vaseline, 209. Vegetable matter and coal, 184-185.
Vein mining, 315. Venetian red, 384. Verdigris, 417. Vermilion, 340.
Vinegar, 90. Preparation, 415. Quick process, 416. Wood, 415. Vital
force, 405. Vitriol, blue, 307. Green, 385. Oil of, 92, 246. White, 337.
Volatile alkali, 93, 149. Volta, 119. Voltaic cell, 119. Volume equation,
175. Volumetric, 53. Composition of air, 64. Composition of water,
53, 55, 57. Washing soda, 289. Washington monument, cap, 345.
Water, 31. Analysis, 39. And chlorine, 51. And hydrogen, 50. And
oxygen, 51. And sodium, 24, 51. As solvent, 32, 33. Baryta, 329.
Boiling point, 36, 439. Chalybeate, 37, 387. Chlorine, 135.
Composition, 25, 27. Density, 34. Distilled, 40. Drinking, 39.
Electrolysis, 52, 123. Expansion, 34. Freezing, 34, 439. From burning
hydrogen, 27. Function in nature, 32. Gas, 25, 196, 213, 214, 215.
Glass, 25^. Gravimetric composition, 55, 57. Hard, 37, 327.
Hardness, 327. Hydrogen sulphide, 241. Industrial application, 33. In
food, 31, 32. In human body, 32. In liquid state, 31. In vegetables,
31, 32.
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590 Index. Water, continued. Javelle's, 139. Lithia, 298.

Mineral, 37. Natural, 37. Occurrence in nature, 31. Ocean, 38. Of
crystallization, 45, 46. Physical properties of pure, 33. Purification,
39, 371. Quantitative composition, 53. Rain, 37. River, 38. Silver,
338. Soda, 42. Soft. 37, 327. Type, 89. Underground, 37. Volumetric
composition, 53, 55, 57. Water vapor, 31, 36. Condensed, 31, 36. In
atmosphere, 62, 66. Watt, 55. Wax, paraffin, 209. Welding iron, 379.
Weldon, mud, 370. Process, 134, 370. Welsbach light, 222. WTet
process, 47, 282. Whetstone, 256. Whisky, 411. White arsenic, 272.
Cast iron, 378. Lead, 361. Magnesia, 370. Metal, 306. Paint, 242,
336, 362. Vitriol, 337. Whitewash, 326. Whiting, 323. Willemite, 334.
Willson, 1 1 6. Winds, 62. Wine, in, 297. Witherite, 329. Wohler, 343,
405, 446. Wood alcohol, 409. Ashes, 297. Charcoal, 187. Petrified,
256, 257, 258. Preserving, 337. Silicified, 256, 257. Spirit, 409.
Vinegar, 415. Wood's metal, 275, 337. Worm, condenser, 40.
Wrought iron, 378. Xenon, 69, 404. Yeast, 410. In bread-making,
427. Yellow paint, 367. Zinc, 334. Alloys, 306, 336. Blende, 334.
Carbonate, 334. Chloride, 122, 337. Deposits, 334. Determination of
atomic weight 173Dust, 335, 336. Hydroxide, 337. Metallurgy, 334.
Ores, 334. Oxide, 334, 335, 336, 362. Production, 334. Properties,
335. Silicate, 334. Smelting, 334. Sulphate, 336. Sulphide, 334, 336.
Test, 337. Uses, 336. Vapor density, 336. White, 336. Zincates, 335,
337. Zincite, 334. Zero, absolute, 439.
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