Vol. 14(1), pp.

1-11, January-June, 2024

DOI: 10.5897/JCEMS2023.0373
Article Number: 23CA17B71840
ISSN: 2141-6605
Copyright ©2024 Journal of Chemical Engineering and Materials
Author(s) retain the copyright of this article
http://www.academicjournals.org/JCEMS Science

Full Length Research Paper

Exploring the biodiesel potentials of waste avocado

fruit oil
Ebuka Emmanuel Ezennajiego1* and Chijioke Elijah Onu2
1
Department of Chemical Engineering, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Anambra State, Nigeria.
2
Department of Chemical Engineering, Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka, Anambra State, Nigeria.
Received 29 June, 2023; Accepted 4 September, 2023

The biodiesel potential of waste avocado fruit was investigated. This study is essential for utilizing the
enormous waste generated from avocado cultivation in Nigeria. Biodiesel was produced using a two-
step acid-base catalyzed transesterification process. The acid catalyzed esterification step was required
to convert the free fatty acids present in the oil to methyl esters. Important biodiesel properties such as
flash point, viscosity, cetane value and density were determined to be 154C, 5.58 cSt, 62.69 and 873
kg/m3 respectively. The optimum condition for maximum biodiesel yield was established. The engine
performance test was carried out using a Perkins diesel engine, the effect of break power and engine
speed on both Break Thermal Efficiency (BTE) and Break Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) of the
biodiesel and its blend were studied while performing at average load. The emission test was carried
out using a portable gas analyzer. The CO and HC emission from the APO (Avocado pear Oil) biodiesel
was significantly lower than that of petrol diesel but with slightly higher traces of NOX present. The
obtained results showed that APO biodiesel can be comfortably used in a compression ignition engine
without undergoing any modification while also generating better emission.

Key words: Biodiesel, avocado oil, transesterification reaction, engine test, emission test.

INTRODUCTION

There has been a continuous surge in the demand for energy sources also generates harmful gases which are
energy on a global scale, and this is as a result numerous very toxic to the environment. The problems associated
factors such as of an increase in the world’s population, with the use of these fuels prompted top research
the presence of more industrialized nations and institutions and organizations to seek out alternative
technological advancements. Most of this energy been sources of fuel which possesses desirable qualities
utilized for industrial purposes were generated from better than fossil fuels. This has led to the increased
natural gas, coal and petroleum sources. These sources popularity, demand and development of biofuels such as
are commonly known as fossil or non-renewable biodiesel which is more environmentally friendly,
resources (William, 2006). These fuels which are being renewable, and biodegradable, as well as requires no
derived from the earth crust are said to be limited and are engine modification before it can be used in a diesel
being depleted at a very fast rate. The use of these engine. Biodiesel is said to be a vegetable oil or animal

*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]. Tel: 07032383614.

Author(s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License 4.0 International License
2 J. Chem. Eng. Mater. Sci.

Figure 1. Waste avocado sample

fat-based fuel comprising of long chain alkyl esters compression engine. Simek et al. (2021) in his findings
(Berrios and Skelton, 2008). Biodiesels can be produced concluded that the brake specific fuel consumption
from vegetable oils via a number of methods, one of increases for biodiesel with respect to mineral diesel and
which is tranesterification of triglycerides. A number of there is no much difference between the brake thermal
researches have been carried out on producing efficiency of biodiesel and mineral diesel. Teoh et al.
biodiesels from different feedstock such as castor oil, (2022) mentioned that biodiesels have higher break
Jatropha, soybean, sunflower. Altmann et al. (2021) specific fuel consumption to mineral diesel due to the
worked on the use of alternative fuels in high-power non- biodiesel’s lower energy content. Nabi et al. (2022)
road mobile machinery (NRMM) combustion engines by performed the emission test on waste tire Oil-Diesel-
using rapeseed oil. Glycine max biodiesel. The NOx content of the biodiesel
Avocado (Persea americana Mill.) of the Lauraceae blends was higher than the reference diesel. This was
plant family is a very popular fruit with high oil content associated with higher flame temperature for different
(Mooz et al., 2012). Avocado is a tropical fruit that stands blends. The higher NOx emissions at increasing engine
out for its high nutritional value. It is also a good source of speeds were associated with the higher gross heat
monounsaturated fatty acids and palmitic acid; they have release. Vedaraman et al. (2011) tested biodiesel from
low amounts of polyunsaturated linoleic acid and stearic palm feedstock in a diesel engine and discovered that
acid (Ogunwusi and Ibrahim, 2016). Avocado oil has CO and HC emissions reduced 28 and 30% for B20
been used for cooking, cosmetics, and treating diseases, blend respectively when compared to diesel fuel, and
but its potential as a good source of oil for renewable NOx emissions were comparable to that of diesel fuel.
energy has not been investigated (Knothe, 2013). This This is also similar to the study by (Lapuerta et al., 2008)
fruit which is largely cultivated in Nigeria has a large post- that used B30 and B70 biodiesel blends from waste
harvest loss rate which is caused by many factors such cooking oil where there was a minimal increase in NOx
as lack of preservation facilities, the fruits rate of emissions and a clear reduction in the amount of HC
maturation, wind fall fruits, infected fruits and the marshy emitted. Lin et al. (2009) also agreed that emissions from
nature of the fruit. Therefore, there is the need to explore biodiesel fueled engines was lower than that of petroleum
the potential recuperation of these incurred losses by diesel, he attributed this characteristic to the presence of
processing an otherwise spoiled food crops into viable oxygen in the biodiesel. In this study the use of waste
products by converting its abundant oil content into avocado pear oil as a feedstock for biodiesel production
biodiesel. and its performance in an ignition compression engine
From previous studies, it has been reported that use of was investigated.
biodiesel in ignition engines reduces the level of emission
when compared to petroleum diesel, these has been
confirmed by various researchers while working with MATERIALS AND METHODS
biodiesel samples from various feedstock. Engine
performance and emission tests are usually carried out Materials and sample collection
on biofuels to help qualify the produced biodiesels.
The waste or mashed avocado samples (Figure 1) used were
Parameters such as break Specific fuel consumption and collected from a local avocado plantation in Uga Anambra State,
break thermal efficiency are important properties which the analytical grade methanol and n- hexane were purchased from
help us understand the performance of fuel in an ignition CONRAWS Chemicals Limited, Asata, Enugu Nigeria. The seeds
 Ezennajiego and Onu 3

and its coating were removed and the pulp was left to dry. This was speed of 400 rpm on a magnetic stirring hotplate. This allowed
necessary to remove the moisture content of the avocado pulp as trans-esterification reaction to take place and the required reaction
the pulp is known to contain high volume of moisture. All chemicals time and temperature for each experimental set up was observed.
used were obtained from the university laboratory and are of
analytical grade.
Purification of biodiesel

Oil extraction and pre-treatment At the end of the transesterification process, the product obtained
was then transferred into a separating funnel for about 24 h after
The method used for extracting oil from the dried avocado sample which two separate layers was observed, the topmost layer being
was cold solvent extraction. Ethanol was used as the extracting the biodiesel while the bottom layer contained the glycerol. The
solvent. The solvent choice was based on a study by (Anawe and glycerol (bottom layer) was easily drained off using the funnels
Folayan, 2018), which reported a higher yield for avocado pulp bottom tap. It was easy to separate the two liquids because of their
extraction with ethanol when compared with other solvents. The difference in colour. The biodiesel was purified by washing with
extracted oil was degummed using phosphoric acid, and this was warm distilled water repeatedly until a clean clear solvent is
carried out by adding 20 ml of phosphoric acid to 300 g of the obtained. This was needed to remove every form of impurities
extracted oil and the mixture heated and continuously stirred for 30 (unreacted methanol, catalyst and traces of glycerol) from the
min and allowed to settle for 1 h after which the phospholipids was biodiesel. The biodiesels moisture content was removed by drying it
separated from the degummed oil. in an oven for a specified number of hours till the biodiesel is
completely free of moisture.

Determination of acid value

Engine and emission test
The acid value of the extracted oil from waste avocado was quite
high, which makes it unsuitable for human consumption. This value The Engine performance test was carried out using a Perkins 4:108
was calculated by mixing 25 ml of diethyl with 25 ml alcohol and 1 diesel engines. The engine’s dynamometer was controlled by a
ml phenolphthalein solution which acts as the indicator. 1 ml of the microprocessor system equipped with data acquisition device.
oil is then dissolved in the mixture; this was then titrated with Logged sensors were fitted to the engine and dynamometer to
aqueous 0.1M NaOH until a pink colouration which persists for measure relevant parameters like engine speed, torque, lubricating
about 15 sec is obtained. The final value if obtained by using the oil temperature, fuel consumption, and cooling water temperature.
equation (1): The engine was tested in a series of exhaustive steady state
operating conditions at engine speeds of 1200, 1400, 1600, 1800,
𝑇𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑙 ×5.61 2000 rev/min. The performance parameters measured includes
𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = brake torque (Nm), fuel consumption (kg/s), Brake power (kW)
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔 ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 specific fuel consumption and brake thermal efficiency.(1)The engine
is four cylinders water cooled, naturally aspirated and four-stroke CI
engine. The engine specifications are listed in Table 4. The
Biodiesel production experiments were performed using petroleum diesel, biodiesel and
its blends ranging from B100 (representing pure biodiesel), B80,
The extracted oil was converted into biodiesel using a two-step B60, B40, B20 and B0 (representing pure petroleum diesel) in order
transesterification process. In this process, the first step is acid to optimize the blend concentrations for usage in compression
catalyzed esterification used to convert free fatty acids (FFA) engines. The ambient temperature and pressure were noted. A
present to methyl esters, followed by a base-catalyzed short test run was also conducted on the engine before the
transesterification process experiment proper; this is to ascertain a perfect working condition
and to identify areas needing adjustments or replacement.
In the process of performing the engine test, the engine was
Esterification reaction started and operated at constant load using tachometer attached
with the dynamometer, while operating at relatively low speed of
The extracted oil was placed in a reacting vessel and heated to a 1200 rpm and then the value of the torque at that speed was
temperature of about 60C using magnetic hot plate stirrer. 100 ml recorded using dynamometer. The time taken for a given volume
of methanol was poured into a 500 ml flask with 22.9g of H2SO4. (50 ml) of the fuel to be consumed at this speed was noted. The
The flask content was stirred for 30 min. The methanol H2SO4 procedure mentioned above was then repeated for other values of
mixture was then added to the heated oil and continually stirred at 1400, 1600, 1800, and 2000.
55C for 60 min after which it was allowed to cool for 1 h until FFA For the emission test, the content of the gaseous fumes including
value of less than 2% was achieved. CO, NOx and HC were measured with a portable gas analyzer
(Testo XL-450) for different engine speeds. The gaseous fumes
required for the test were collected at the pipe end of the engines
Transesterification reaction exhaust pipe

The Biodiesel was produced through a process known as trans-

esterification. Specified amount of the catalyst (by weight of refined RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
oil) potassium hydroxide (KOH) was dissolved completely in the
required amount of methanol. This was to ensure total dissolution of
KOH to produce a clear solution of potassium methoxide. The new
Biodiesel properties
solution was poured into the measured oil placed in a flat bottom
flask. The oil-methoxide mixture was tightly enclosed, maintained at The properties of the produced methyl ester were
a specified temperature and continuously stirred at a constant determined using standard test procedures and the
4 J. Chem. Eng. Mater. Sci.

Table 1. Physicochemical properties of avocado oil and biodiesel.

Property Raw avocado oil Avocado oil biodiesel Biodiesel ASTM standards
Acid value 14.3 0.62 0.5
Density (kg/m3) 913 873 880
Kinematic viscosity at 40°C (mm2s-1) 14 5.58 1.9 - 6
Fire point (°C) 153 160 197
Flash point (°C) 120 154 130 - 170
Cetane index - 62.69 47 - 65
Refractive index 1.46 1.45 1.38
Calorific value (MJ/kg) - 34.683 42.06

Table 2. Table of measured data for engine performance Test

Variable Measured data

Ambient air temperature Ta =28°C
Barometer pressure 0.95 bar = 95 KN/m2
Calorific value of diesel fuel used Qnet,v 44200 kj/kg
Gas constant for air, 287 J/kgK
Density of diesel fuel used 835 kg/m3

results were presented in Table 1. The quality of Effect of process parameters on biodiesel yield
biodiesel is a function of its properties such as viscosity,
flashpoint, density and cetane number etc. it can be seen Effect of methanol oil ratio
from the tabulated results that properties such as density
and viscosity of the biodiesel reduced significantly after The methyl ester yield as a function of Methanol to oil
the transesterification process which makes it a suitable molar ratio was studied between the range of 1:1 to 12:1
fuel for a compression ignition engine The viscosity value while other variables where kept constant. From the plot,
of 5.58 cSt was within the ASTM standard. The viscosity an increase in methanol to oil ratio gave a steady
of any biodiesel is an important property. Fuels with high increase in methyl ester yield up to the ninth ratio with a
viscosity can plug the fuel filter and injection system in biodiesel yield of 90%. A further increase in methanol
the engines (Tat and Van, 1999). ratio was not favourable for the conversion of the
The cetane value of the fuel was gotten to be 62.69. triglycerides to methyl esters. A higher molar ratio than
This is an important parameter which tells the quality or the stoichiometric value results in higher rate of ester
performance of a fuel. The higher the number the better formation and could ensure incomplete reaction. The
the fuel burns within the combustion engine, since yield reduced when the solvent to oil molar ratio
biodiesel is composed of long chain hydrocarbon groups exceeded 9:1. Rashid and Anwar (2008) reported that
with virtually no branching or aromatic structures, it when too much alcohol is used in transesterification
typically has a higher cetane number than petroleum reaction, the polarity of the reaction mixture is increased,
diesel (Hoekmana et al., 2012). This is in agreement with thus increasing the solubility of glycerol and promotes the
values obtained for biodiesel obtained from waste reverse reaction between glycerol and biodiesel, thereby
avocado oil. reducing biodiesel yield (Figure 2).
Calorific value measures the energy content of the fuel
which suggests it’s suitability as an alternative to
petroleum diesel. The calorific value of FAME was Effect of catalyst concentration
measured using parr 6100 calorimeter and was found to
be 34.6 as against 44.34 MJ/Kg which is the calorific The effect of catalyst weight on biodiesel yield was
value of petroleum diesel. A lower calorific value is studied between 0.25 to 1.5% (based on weight of oil)
usually attributed to the presence of oxygen in the methyl while other variables were constant. In a typical chemical
esters. The flash point value of 154C gives the reaction, the reactants bond must first be broken before
temperature at which each fuel forms a flammable the reaction would commence. Breaking bonds require
mixture in air. energy and the minimum energy required to start a
 Ezennajiego and Onu 5

Table 3. Table of equations for calculating values.

Variable Equations for calculation of values

𝑣
Fuel volume flow rate Vf (m3/s) = 𝑡
Mass flow rate of fuel Mf (kg/s) Mf (kg/s) = 𝜌fVf
𝜏×𝑁
Brake power bp (kw) bp (kw) =9549.305
𝑏𝑝
Brake thermal efficiency = 𝜂𝐵𝑇 (%) 𝑚
𝑓 ×𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑣
3600𝑚𝑓
BSFC (kg/kwh) (kg/kwh) = 𝑏𝑝

Table 4. Table of the Perkins engine component with its values.

Components Value
Engine
Type Perkins 4:108
Bore 79.735 mm
Stroke 88.9 mm
Swept volume 1.76 L
Compression ratio 22:1
Maximum BHP 38
Maximum speed 3000 rpm
Number of cylinder head 4
Diameter of exhaust 11/2”
Length of exhaust pipe 36”31’

Dynamometer
Capacity 112kw/150hp
Maximum speed 5000 rpm
KW (Nm x rev/min)/9549.305
Center height 14.5”

Fuel guage
Capacity 50,100,200 ccs

Air box
Drum size: 42” long by 27” diameter
Orifice size 58.86 mm
Coefficient of discharge 0.6

reaction is referred to as Activation Energy. Catalyst amount of soap and reduction catalyst.
tends to provide alternative reaction pathways for
breaking and remaking of bonds. It was observed from
Figure 3 that as catalyst weight increases the oil Effect of temperature on biodiesel yield
conversion to biodiesel also increased from 0.25 wt% up
to 0.75 wt% fraction and decreased with any further Figure 4 showed the effect of temperature on the
increase in the weight of catalyst. The higher yield of biodiesel yield. An Increase in biodiesel yield with
methyl esters with increase in the weight of catalyst used increase in reaction temperature is in agreement with
is due to the high availability of catalyst in the reaction Arrhenius equation which indicates increase in rate of
medium. Increasing the catalyst beyond the optimum reaction with increase in temperature. An increase in
weight of 0.75% showed decrease in the amount of temperature of molecules usually leads to an increased
methyl ester yield. This may be attributed to the addition kinetic energy of those molecules invariably increasing
of excess catalyst resulting in the production of more the molecules kinetic rate. The effect of temperature
6 J. Chem. Eng. Mater. Sci.

Figure 2. Effect of methanol ratio on biodiesel yield.

Figure 3. Effect of catalyst concentration on biodiesel yield.

Figure 4. Effect of temperature on biodiesel yield

between 45 and 70C on biodiesel yield was studied the temperature showed an appreciable increase in the
while keeping other parameters constant. The conversion volume of methyl ester produced. This is likely because
to biodiesel was quite low at 45C. A further increase in higher temperature accelerates the side saponification
 Ezennajiego and Onu 7

Figure 5. Effect of time on biodiesel yield.

Figure 6. A plot of BSFC (kg/kwh) against break power (kw).

reaction of triglycerides. A further increase in temperature initiated (Table 2 and 3).

could also have an adverse effect on the conversion
process. This can be observed from the plot where
biodiesel yield decreased beyond 60C. This could be Engine performance
ascribed to the fact that methanol is lost because it tends
to evaporate rapidly with temperature ranges close to its Variation of BSFC with break power
boiling point (64.7C) and beyond.
Figure 6 shows the variation of BSFC with Break Power
for the APO biodiesel. The BSFC of the biodiesel fuel
Effect of reaction time with their blends is seen to decrease as the break power
of the engine is increased from 0.6 to 2.303 KW. In some
The effect of reaction time on the transesterification compression engines, it can be seen that high frictional
process was studied and the results plotted in Figure 5. loss reduces break power leading to increased basic
The reaction time was varied from 15 to 105 min, while specific fuel consumption. The BSFC is usually given as
keeping every other parameter constant. From the plots, the inverse of BTE multiplied by fuels heating value, its
as the process commenced, it can be seen that the yield curve trend is usually contrary to that of break thermal
was very low at shorter durations which can be attributed efficiency.
to inadequate dispersion or mixing of methoxide into the
oil. As the reaction progressed, an increase in the yield
was observed as there was enough time reaction Variation of BTE with break power
conversion to take place. There was steady increase up
to the 90th minute, before a decline in volume of methyl The break thermal efficiency tells how much of the fuel is
esters was observed. This was because the reaction time been utilized in the combustion process and power
has reached equilibrium hence a reversible reaction is development. It can be seen from Figure 7 that when the
8 J. Chem. Eng. Mater. Sci.

Figure 7. A plot of BTE (kw) against break power (kw).

Figure 8. A plot of BSFC (kg/kwh) against engine speed (RPM).

break power is increased from, 0.6 to 2.3 KW, the break Variation of BTE with engine speed
thermal efficiency increased as well for biodiesel fuel,
blends and pure diesel. From the plot, the biodiesel had a The Break thermal efficiency which simply gives the ratio
better thermal efficiency than petroleum diesel. Yamin et of the power output to the energy supplied is plotted
al. (2009) attributed this occurrence to the presence of against engine speed for the biodiesel fuel and its blend
oxygen in the biodiesel fuels which aid in improving the in Figure 9. The fuels BTE increased as the engine speed
process of combustion. is increased from 1200 to 2000 rpm. As the engine speed
is increased, there is also an increase in its operating
torque which invariably leads to an increase in the brake
Variation of BSFC with engine speed thermal efficiency.

The BSFC of the fuel gives the quantity of fuel required

by the compression engine to generate 1 kw/hr of useful Emission test
energy output. Figure 8 shows the variation of BSFC with
speed for APO biodiesels and blends ranging from 1200 Variation of CO emission with engine load
to 2000 rpm. The BSFC is seen to decrease as the
engine speed is decreased; this trend is the same for Figure 10 shows the variation of carbon monoxide (CO)
biodiesel fuels, blends and pure petroleum diesel. This emission with engine load for the biodiesel and its blend.
could be attributed to the increased time needed for heat An increase in the engine load reduced the concentration
transfer from the working fluid to the cylinder walls of CO emission; this can be as a result of incomplete
(Yamin et al., 2009). combustion process occurring at lower engine loads. This
 Ezennajiego and Onu 9

Figure 9. A plot of BTE (%) against Engine Speed (RPM).

Figure 10. A plot of CO (PPM) against engine load (%).

pattern was the same for all biodiesel blends. Emissions biodiesel’s oxygen content (Adaileh and AlQdah, 2012).
recorded for APO biodiesel fuel emitted significantly less Zhu et al. (2010) attribute this to the fact that under
carbon monoxide when compared to petroleum diesel. higher loads, more heat is generated in the combustion
The pattern obtained is similar to a study by Rachan chamber causing an increase in NOx emission as engine
(2018). load is increased. In addition, Umeuzuegbu et al. (2020)
mentioned that increasing the engine load can reduce the
air-fuel ratio resulting in incomplete combustion of the
Variation of NOx emission with engine load nitrogen components of the biodiesel, thus emitting the
oxides of nitrogen or NOx.
Figure 11 represents the variation of NOx emission with
engine load for the biodiesel and its blends. The NOx
emission of the biofuel was higher than that of petroleum Variation of HC emission with engine load
diesel, there was also considerable increase in NOx
emission with increase in biodiesel content. The NOx Hydrocarbon (HC) emissions are usually formed due to
emission is usually determined by oxygen concentration, incomplete combustion of fuel. It is one of the most
combustion temperature, peak pressure and time. The important parameters that define the nature of
oxygen content in biodiesel can explain the increase in combustion (Du et al., 2022). The variation of HC
the NOx emission across the blends since additional emission with engine load is presented in Figure 12
oxygen for NOx formation may be provided by the which depicts the hydrocarbon HC content of the
10 J. Chem. Eng. Mater. Sci.

Figure 11. A plot of NOx (PPM) against engine load (%).

Figure 12. A plot of HC (PPM) against engine load (%).

variation blends. Petroleum diesel generated higher HC esters before undergoing the base-catalyzed
emission when compared to the biodiesel fuel, there was transesterification process. Several parameters, including
significant decrease in HC emission as quantity of reaction temperature, reaction time, oil-to-methanol ratio,
biodiesel in the blends increased at higher engine loads, and catalyst concentration, were found to influence the
and this may be attributed to the availability of oxygen in biodiesel yield from the feedstock oil. Furthermore, the
biodiesel, which facilitates better combustion (Yadav, properties of the biodiesel met ASTM standards and
2010). HC emission for biodiesel also decreased with exhibited similarities to conventional diesel, making the
increase in engine load and this may be attributed to high feedstock oil a suitable candidate for biodiesel production.
fuel consumption. This was similar to the trend obtained The biodiesel also demonstrated a better Break Thermal
by Onwudili et al. (2023). According to (Rachan, 2018), Efficiency of 0.14% compared to diesel fuel's 0.08%
an increased air to fuel ratio in the combustion chamber when the compression engine operated at average load.
as a result of an increase in engine load enables better In terms of emissions, the biodiesel fuel had lower levels
combustion leading to a reduction in the quantity of of HC (hydrocarbons) and CO (carbon monoxide)
unburned HC. compared to diesel fuel. However, as engine load
increased, there was a relatively higher presence of NOx
(nitrogen oxides) in the emissions.
Conclusion

Based on the research conducted, the acid-base ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

catalyzed transesterification process proved suitable for
producing biodiesel from waste avocado pear oil. This oil The authors are grateful to the Department of Chemical
contains a high level of fatty acids, necessitating an Engineering, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu
esterification step to convert free fatty acids into methyl University, for providing an enabling environment to
 Ezennajiego and Onu 11

perform this work. Rashid U, Anwar F (2008). Production of biodiesel through optimized
alkaline-catalyzed transesterification of rapeseed oil. Fuel 87(3):265-
273.
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Oil Chemists' Society 76(12):1511-1513.
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