Sanjivani University

School of Engineering and Technology

Applied Science (24UETBS102)

Unit 1
Introduction to Fundamental Physics

Content:
Waves and Oscillation:Types of Waves, Superposition of Waves, Standing Waves
(Nodes and Antinodes), , and Its Applications.
SHM: Wave Equations, Simple Pendulum (Problems).
Electrodynamics: Faraday’s Laws, Lenz’s Law, Biot-Savart Law, Physics of
Divergence, Gradient, and Curl, Magnetic Field, Vector Potential, Maxwell
Equations (Qualitative).
Semiconductor Electronics: Band theory of solids, Energy band diagram,
Semiconductor: Properties, Type, P-N Junction diode and applications, I-V
characteristics, P-N-P and N-P-N transistors,
Modern Physics: Photoelectric Effect, Einstein’s Photoelectric equation,
Photocell(working), Solar cell.
Ancient Astronomical Instruments: Chakra, Dhanuryantra, Yasti and Phalak
Yantra etc.
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1. Waves and Oscillation
Introduction:
Wave is nothing but an oscillatory disturbance produced in the medium.
A means by which disturbances are transmitted from one region to another is called as
wave motion.

Example
Sound spread in a hall
Stone dropped in a pond having still surface.

In wave motion only energy is transferred however no part of medium is transported

in the medium.

Waves can be classified into different types based on their characteristics and the
medium through which they travel.
Mechanical Waves: Mechanical waves require a medium (such as air, water, or
solids) to travel through.
Example sound waves
Electromagnetic waves: Waves which do not require material medium for their
propagation
Example: Light Waves
Progressive Wave: The wave which travel continuously in a given direction without
change of form is called as progressive wave.
There are two types of progressive waves

Dr. Kalpana Joshi 1

& Dr. Tanay Ghosh Unit I Introduction to Fundamental Physics Applied Science 24UETBS102
Sanjivani University, Kopargaon.
Sr. Transverse wave Longitudinal wave
No
1 A wave in which particles of the medium A wave in which particles of the medium
vibrate in a direction perpendicular to the vibrate in a direction parallel to the direction
direction of propagation of wave. of propagation of wave.
2 Light wave Sound wave

3 Do not require medium Requires medium

Medium should posses property of elasticity
of volume I. e. Bulk modulus

Surface Waves: These waves travel along the surface of a medium and have
characteristics of both transverse and longitudinal waves.
Example
Water waves.

Recall concepts

Amplitude: Maximum displacement from mean position. SI unit m

Frequency: Number of oscillations performed per second. SI unit Hz
Time Period: Time required to complete one oscillation SI Unit second

T=1/n
Wavelength: Distance covered by wave in one complete oscillation. SI Unit m
Or
Distance between two succesive compression or rarefactions. (in longitudinal wave)
Or
Distance between two succesive crests and troughs (In transverse wave)

Velocity of wave: Distance traveled by wave in one second.

SI unit m/s

Relation between velocity wavelenght and frequency

V=n 
 =wavelength
V= velocity
n= frequency

Dr. Kalpana Joshi 2

& Dr. Tanay Ghosh Unit I Introduction to Fundamental Physics Applied Science 24UETBS102
Sanjivani University, Kopargaon.
Electromagnetic Waves: Waves which do not require a medium .
They are created by the oscillation of electric and magnetic fields and include:

Light waves: Travel with a velocity of 3x108m/s

Radio Waves: Used in communication systems, such as radio and television
broadcasts.
Microwaves: Used in microwave ovens and radar technology.
Infrared Waves: Experienced as heat and used in remote controls and thermal imaging.
Visible Light: The portion of the electromagnetic spectrum visible to the human eye.
Ultraviolet Light: Beyond the visible spectrum, used in sterilization and fluorescent
lighting.
X-Rays: Used in medical imaging and security scanners.
Gamma Rays: Emitted by radioactive materials and used in cancer treatment and
imaging.

Superposition of waves:
Principle:
When two waves propagates simultaneously in a medium the displacement of
the particles in the medium at any instant of time is the algebric sum of the
displacement caused by the individual waves.

Example :
If two musical instruments are palyed simultaneously on stage like sitar and tabla , the
audience can clearly distinguish the sound of these instruments.

Principal of Superposition can be used to study

Interference
Beats
Stationary waves

Intereference:
When two sound waves of same amplitude and frequency travel simultaneously in a
medium, the resulting wave has an intensity different from that of the individual
waves. It is louder at some place whereas there is complete silence at some place.This
is called as intereference.
https://www.acs.psu.edu/drussell/Demos/superposition/superposition.html

Dr. Kalpana Joshi 3

& Dr. Tanay Ghosh Unit I Introduction to Fundamental Physics Applied Science 24UETBS102
Sanjivani University, Kopargaon.
 Interference of waves
Beats:
When two sound waves of same amplitude but slightly different frequencies travel in
a medium along the same direction, the resultant amplitude is alternately maximum
and minimum. They produces resultant sound waves of varying intensities(waxing
and wanning).
The phenomenon of waxing and wanning of sound is called as beats.

Formation of Beats (https://byjus.com/physics/beats/ )

Stationary Waves:
When the two identical progressive waves travel through a medium along the same
line in opposite directions with the equal velocities, they superimpose over each other
and produce a new type of wave called as stationary waves or standing waves along
which is there is no transfer of energy.
Nodes : The points half a wavelength apart in a medium which are permanantly at
rest are cslled as Nodes.
Antinodes: The points in medium mid way between the nodes, where the
displacement is maximum is called as Antinodes

Stationary waves

Dr. Kalpana Joshi 4

& Dr. Tanay Ghosh Unit I Introduction to Fundamental Physics Applied Science 24UETBS102
Sanjivani University, Kopargaon.
 Peroidic motion:
Motion which repeat itself in equal interval of time is called as periodic motion.

Oscillations: To and fro motion along the same path is called as oscillatory motion
Example
Motion of hands of clock
Motion of simple pendulum
Motion of hands of a man walking
Simple Harmonic Motion:
A motion in which force (acceleration) is always directed towards mean position and
magnitude is directly proportional to displacement from mean position.
e.g. Motion of needle of sewing machine
Vibration of string
Motion of prongs of tunning fork. etc
Let us consider a particle moving along a circle of radius a with a constant speed v

Wave Equations:

Sr. Particular Mean Position Extreme

No Position

1 Equation of y  a sin( t   ) t  0,   0  3
t  0,   or
displacement y =0 2 2
Minimum y  a
Maximum
2 Equation of dy d t  0,   0  3
v  (a sin( t   ))  t  0,   or
Velocity dt dt v  a 2 2
v  aw cos(t   ) maximum v0
v   a2  y2 minimum

3. Equation of dv t  0,   0 3 
acceleration   a cos(t   ) t  0,   or
acceleration dt Acceleration=0 2 2
acceleration  a 2 sin( t   ) Minimum acceleration   a 2
acceleration   2 y Maximum

Dr. Kalpana Joshi 5

& Dr. Tanay Ghosh Unit I Introduction to Fundamental Physics Applied Science 24UETBS102
Sanjivani University, Kopargaon.
Where,
y  displaceme nt
v  velocity
a  amplitude
  epoch
  angularvelocity

Simple Pendulum:

Simple pendulum is the simplest form of oscillatory motion.

Ideal simple pendulum is a heavy particle suspended by a massless, inextensible

flexible string from a rigid support.

Practical simple pendulum is a small heavy sphere suspended by a light and

inextensible string from a rigid support.

Simple pendulum
Period for simple pendulum is…
L
T  2
g

Simple pendulum performs linear simple harmonic motion for small amplitude.

Dr. Kalpana Joshi 6

& Dr. Tanay Ghosh Unit I Introduction to Fundamental Physics Applied Science 24UETBS102
Sanjivani University, Kopargaon.
Semiconductor Electronics:
Introduction:
Semiconductors are an essential component of electronic devices, enabling advances
in communications, computing, healthcare, military systems, transportation, clean
energy, and countless other applications.Due to their role in the fabrication of
electronic devices, semiconductors are an important part of our lives. Imagine life
without electronic devices. There would be no smartphones, radios, TVs, computers,
video games, or advanced medical diagnostic equipment.

Band Theory of solids

 Introduction :- Atom is the fundamental unit of matter. It consist of centrally
placed nucleus which consists of protons and neutrons in it and negatively charged
electrons are revolving around nucleus in an elliptical orbit. Electrons in the inner
shell (orbit) are bound to nucleus and hence called bound electron. The electrons
in the outermost orbit are called valence electrons.
 Formation of Energy bands in solids:
There are millions of electrons belonging to the first orbit of atoms in the
solid having different energy levels which are closely packed. Thus closely spaced
energy levels of millions of first orbit electrons forms a continuous band of energy
and second orbit electrons forms second band.

Fig. 1Energy level diagram of Atom

Fig. 2 Energy band diagram of solid

Dr. Kalpana Joshi 7

& Dr. Tanay Ghosh Unit I Introduction to Fundamental Physics Applied Science 24UETBS102
Sanjivani University, Kopargaon.
Q. Define energy band, valence band, conduction band, forbidden energy gap?
Energy band: The range of energies possesed by electrons of different atoms in solid
is called as energy band.
Valence band: The range of energies possesed by electrons in the outermost orbit of
an atom is called as valence band.
Conduction band : Valence electrons are loosely attached to the nucleus and can be
detached and become free electrons. These free electrons in a conductor are
responsible to carry current. They are called as conducting electrons.
“The range of energies possesed by conducting electrons is known as conduction
band.”
Forbidden energy Gap: The band (energy gap) between valence band and
conduction band is called forbidden gap.
In order to lift the electrons from valence band to conduction band .Band gap
energy (Eg) must be provided.
Energy of electron in an atom: In an atom various electrons are distributed in
different orbits. In an orbit certain permissible values of energy apart from these
energy levels.
Draw the energy band diagram for conductors, semiconductors and insulators.
Ans. Conductor: Metal (aluminium, silver, copper) contains large number of free
electrons at room temperature. Hence conduction band and valence bands are
overlapping each other. Hence forbidden energy gap is absent.
Semiconductors: Conductivity of semiconductor is greater than insulator and less
than conductors.
Valence band is full and conduction band is almost empty, forbidden gap is very
small of the order of 1eV.
eg. Si and germanium.
Insulators: The forbidden energy gap is very high greater than 5 eV .The electrons
cannot jump from valence band to conduction band.
Eg Glass, wood, rubber, plastic,etc.
Name two semiconductor which are commonly used.
Ans: Silicon and germanium are commonly used semiconductors.

Dr. Kalpana Joshi 8

& Dr. Tanay Ghosh Unit I Introduction to Fundamental Physics Applied Science 24UETBS102
Sanjivani University, Kopargaon.
 .

Define intrinsic semiconductor.

Ans: The semiconductor material in its purest form is called as intrinsic
semiconductor.
( at 0 K)
Explanation: At intrinsic semiconductor like pure silicon or germanium has four
electrons in its outermost orbit of its atom. In order to fill valence shell atoms arrange
themselves in such a way that each atom is surrounded by four atoms. This pattern is
called as crystal. Each atom forms covalent bond with its four adjacent atom.

Dr. Kalpana Joshi 9

& Dr. Tanay Ghosh Unit I Introduction to Fundamental Physics Applied Science 24UETBS102
Sanjivani University, Kopargaon.
 Intrinsic semiconductor At 00K
At absolute zero temperature there are no free electrons available for electrical
conduction. Semiconductor behaves as a perfect insulator at absolute zero
temperature.
At room temperature:-

Intrinsic semiconductor at room temperature

Room temperature is sufficient to break few covalent bonds. Thus few
electrons are free to move in the crystal When electron moves away from atom
vacancy is created i.e. hole in the bond which is positive charge . Hence free
electrons and holes are generated simultaneously (in pairs). This is called as thermal
generation.
What is the effect of temperature on conductivity of semiconductor?
Ans: As the temperature of semiconductor increases its conductivity increases.
Define Extrinsic semiconductor.
Ans: When suitable impurity is added to a pure semiconductor the type of
semiconductor is called as extrinsic semiconductor.
What is doping?
Ans: The process of adding impurity atoms in intrinsic semiconductor to increase its
conductivity is known as doping .

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& Dr. Tanay Ghosh Unit I Introduction to Fundamental Physics Applied Science 24UETBS102
Sanjivani University, Kopargaon.
 p type extrinsic semiconductor:
Ans: When a pure semiconductor is doped with the trivalent impurity it is called as P
type semiconductor. (gallium, indium, aluminium).
Consider a pure silicon crystal. If trivalent impurity like Al, Ga is added to it
then three valence electrons from each Si atom forms three covalent bands with Ga
atom and instead of fourth bond electron a hole is created.

p-type semiconductor
The majority carriers in p type are holes and impurity is called as acceptor impurity.
 N type Extrinsic semiconductor
When semiconductor is doped with pentavalent impurity it is called as n type
semiconductor.(arsenic, antimony, phosphor) .
Consider a pure Si crystal If it is doped with pentavalent impurity like Arsenic (As)
Antimony etc. which have five electrons in the outermost orbit, arsenic ( impurity)
atom forms four covalent bonds with Si atoms and fifth electron is extra and free in
crystal.
The majority carriers in N type semiconductor are electrons and impurity is called as
donor impurity.

n- type semiconductor

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& Dr. Tanay Ghosh Unit I Introduction to Fundamental Physics Applied Science 24UETBS102
Sanjivani University, Kopargaon.
PN junction Diode

When P Type semiconductor and N type semiconductor are joined together the
structure so formed is called as PN junction diode . (Diode is a device which has two
terminals)

In P type semiconductor majority charge carriers are holes and in N type majority
carriers are electrons.
When PN junction is formed, some electrons from N region cross the junction
and diffuse into the P region. Recombination of holes and electrons takes place at the
junction region creating +ve ions on N region and -ve ions on P region. After some
time the process of recombination stops because of the formation of +ve and -ve ions
on both sides of junction and that region is called as depletion region which is
depleted of electrons and holes.
Due to the formation of +ve and -ve ions of PN junction an electric field VB
is produced at depletion layer called as barrier potential which acts as a small
battery and opposes further diffusion of holes and electrons.(positive towards n-type
and negative towards p-type)
Barrier potential for silicon is 0.7 volts and for germanium is 0.3volt .

P-N junction diode

Biasing:--
Application of external DC supply to PN junction diode is called as biasing.
There are two types of biasing on PN junction diode .
Forward biased PN junction Diode:
Dr. Kalpana Joshi 12
& Dr. Tanay Ghosh Unit I Introduction to Fundamental Physics Applied Science 24UETBS102
Sanjivani University, Kopargaon.
 If P region is connected to positive terminal of battery and N region is connected
to negative terminal of battery the diode is said to be forward biased.

Forward Biased PN junction Diode

Working:-
Holes in the P region get repelled by +ve of battery and cross the junction and
electrons in N region get repelled by - ve of battery and crosses the junction because
of which diode conducts current.
The barrier potential VB opposes the external battery. In order to flow current
through diode. the external voltage supplied must be greater than VB i.e. 0.7 V for Si
and 0.3 V for Ge. Because of pushing of charge carriers towards the junction, width of
depletion layer decreases.
Forward Characteristics ( IV Characteristics)
The plot of current Vs voltage is called as IV characteristics.

If external voltage is increased from zero onwards initially the forward voltage
is increased and values of currents are recorded and graph is plotted.
When external voltage is less than 0.6 V a very few current in the circuit is set up. The
diode current increases sharply beyond 0.6 V of external forward voltage .It is
observed that forward voltage drop Vf is nearly constant as If increases.
Reverse Biased PN junction diode :-
If P type is connected to -ve terminal and N type is connected to +ve terminal
of a battery the diode is said to be reverse biased.

Dr. Kalpana Joshi 13

& Dr. Tanay Ghosh Unit I Introduction to Fundamental Physics Applied Science 24UETBS102
Sanjivani University, Kopargaon.
 Reverse Biased PN junction Diode
Holes in the P region gets attracted by - ve terminal and electrons in N region
gets attracted by +ve terminal. Because of whuch charge carriers get away from the
junction. Because of pulling away of charges from the junction width of depletion
layer increases. The barrier potential VB assist the external battery.
Thus, reverse bias repels the majority carriers away from the junction i.e they cannot
cross the junction and majority current carriers does not flow through the circuit.
Though diode does not conduct the majority current carrier small amount of current
flows through the reverse biased diode, called leakage current.
The leakage current is due to flow of minority carriers in both the regions. This flow
of minority carriers is because of thermal energy.
By increase in temperature of diode the leakage current increases.
Reverse biased IV characteristics:--
Reverse biased voltage is increased and values of current are recorded and the
graph is plotted.

The current which flows before breakdown VBR is because of thermally produced
minority current carriers. This current is called leakage current which is microampere
(  A.)
As the reverse bias voltage is increased, at a critical voltage VBR , the reverse current
through the diode increases sharply. Most of the diode have breakdown voltage more
than 50V.
Applications of PN Junction Diode
1. As a light source- LED (Light Emitting Diode)
2. A Detector- Photo Diode
3. In liquid Crystal Displays
4. As a rectifier
5. Regulator – Zener Diode
6. Switches

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& Dr. Tanay Ghosh Unit I Introduction to Fundamental Physics Applied Science 24UETBS102
Sanjivani University, Kopargaon.
Static Resistance RF:
The resistance offered by the diode to the forward DC operating
conditions is called DC or Static Resistance.
RF= Vf/IF

Dynamic Resistance:
The resistance offered by the diode in AC operating conditions is called
as Dynamic resistance.
Dynamic Resistance=RF= Vf / IF

Half wave Rectifier:

Rectifier converts AC into DC(Alternating current/Voltage into direct current/
voltage)
Diode is used as a rectifier.

The half wave rectifier circuit is ON during one half cycle of the AC supply that is
output is produced only in half cycle (Positive). During next half cycle output of
rectifier is zero.
As rectifier circuit conducts only in Half cycle it is called as half Wave rectifier.

Dr. Kalpana Joshi 15

& Dr. Tanay Ghosh Unit I Introduction to Fundamental Physics Applied Science 24UETBS102
Sanjivani University, Kopargaon.
Transistor:
A transistor is a semiconductor crystal(silicon or Germenium) consist of three
extrinsic regions doped by p-type and n type materials.
There are two types of tranasistors(Bipolar Junction Transistors).
PNP transistor: When a thin layer of p-type semiconductor is sandwitched between
two n region

Photoelectric effect:

Introduction: Certain metals like magnesium, Zinc Lithium, when exposed to light,
then electrons are emitted. Some alkali metals like Sodium, potassium are sensitive to
even visible light. The electrons emitted are called as photoelectrons.

Photoelectric effect: “The emission of photoelectrons from metal surface, when light
of suitable frequency (wavelength) is incident on it, is called as photoelectric effect ”.

Light energy ____conveted__________ Electrical energy

Into

The photoelectric effect was detected by Hertz in 1887. The phenomenon is also
known as the "Hertz effect".

Planc’s hypothesis(Planc’s quantum theory)

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& Dr. Tanay Ghosh Unit I Introduction to Fundamental Physics Applied Science 24UETBS102
Sanjivani University, Kopargaon.
 According to Planc’s hypothesis, energy is not emitted & absorbed continuously but
in a descrete units or packets (bundle) called as Photon or quanta.
If  is frequency of light, E is energy associated with photon, is directly proportional
to frequency.

E 
E= constant x 
E= h
Where, h= Planc’s constant.=6.63 x 10-34 Js
Statement:- “Energy is always emitted or absorbed in integral multiple of h ”.
E= nh where n= integer.1,2,3

Concept of Photon?
According to Planc’s hypothesis quantum or photon of light of frequency has energy
E=h
The light wave has minimum energy h  . & if it has more energy, it is integral
multiple of h .
Einstein proposed that when light falls on metal, energy E=h  of photon is absorbed
by the atom i.e. energy is transferred from light to atom ,called absorption of energy.
- when light of frequency  is emitted by an atom energy h is transferred from
atom to light i.e. emission.

Properties of Photon?
1. Photons are electrically neutral.
2. Photons travel with velocity of light. (3 x 108 m/s)
3. Radiation or light can be considered as shower of Photons.
4. Photons can not be deflected by magnetic field.

Characteristics of photoelectric effect

1. A metal emits electrons only when light of suitable frequency is incident
on its surface called Threshold Frequency  0 .
2. Photoelectric current is directly proportional to intensity of incident light.
(i  I)
3. Velocity of photoelectron is directly proportional frequency. (v   )
4. This process is instantaneous. i. e. emission of photoelectrons starts at the
moment light is incident on metal surface.

1. Threshold Frequency ( 0 ):- Threshold frequency  0 of metal is minimum

frequency of incident light at which emission just begins.
2. Threshold wavelength( 0 ):- Threshold wavelength 0 of metal is the
maximum wavelength of light at which emission just begins.
3. Photoelectric work function (w0):- Photoelectric work function w0 of metal
is energy required to detach the electron from metal.
4. Stopping potential (V):- Stopping potential of photoelectric cell is the
negative potential given to cell at which photoelectric current becomes zero.

Applications of photoelectric cell

1. Photoelectric cell is used in Lux meter. To measure intensity of light.
Dr. Kalpana Joshi 17
& Dr. Tanay Ghosh Unit I Introduction to Fundamental Physics Applied Science 24UETBS102
Sanjivani University, Kopargaon.
 2. It is used for automatic control of traffic signals.
3. It is used to switch on & off street light automatically.
4. It is used in recording & reproduction of sound during shooting of a film.
5. Photoelectric cells are used in television sets, fire alarm.
6. It is used in detecting flaws in metal.
7. Photoelectric cell is used in Burglar alarm

Einstein’s photoelectric equations .

Radiation is considered as shower of photon. When radiation falls on metal, photon
collides with metal atoms, & energy of photon (h ) is absorbed by atom. The part of
this energy is used to detach the electron from the atom i.e. photoelectric work
function ( w0) & remaining energy is used in giving kinetic energy to the electron
(K.E.) i.e.
h = w 0 + K.E.
m
h = h 0 + [photoelectric work function w 0= h 0 ]
2v 2
2
m
h - h 0 = 2
2v
m
= h (  - 0 )
2v 2

This equation is Einstein’s photoelectric equation.

Where, m - mass of electron
v- velocity of electron
h- Planc’s constant
 - frequency of incident radiation
 0 -threshold frequency.
Cases:- In above equation
1. If  < 0
K.E. is negative. & no emission takes place.
2. If  = 0
K.E. is Zero. & emission just begins place.
3. If  > 0
K.E. is positive. & emission takes place.
Hence as (  ) increases with increase in
K.E. increases.
K.E.  Frequency.

Construction & working of photoelectric cell.

Principle: light energy is converted into electric energy.

Construction: Photoelectric cell consists of cathode K, anode A enclosed in a

evacuated glass bulb. The semi cylindrical cathode coated with photosensitive
material forms inner side. The anode is a platinum rod kept along the axis of cathode.
Cathode (K) is connected to negative terminal & Anode (A) is connected to positive
terminal of battery through milliameter.

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& Dr. Tanay Ghosh Unit I Introduction to Fundamental Physics Applied Science 24UETBS102
Sanjivani University, Kopargaon.
Working: when light is allowed to fall on cathode it emits photoelectrons. These
electrons are attracted by anode & photoelectric current flows through circuit &
milliameter shows deflection.

.
Cathode – ve
Anode +ve

Evacuated glass tube

Photoresistor
A photoelectric device is such device whose conductivity will increase with the
increasing light intensity (Decrease in resistivity).
Principle
A photo resistor is made of a high-resistance semiconductor. When light of
sufficiently high frequency falls on the device, its resistance decreases.
The semiconductor absorbs photons that transfer energy to bound electrons, causing
them to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electrons (and their hole
partners) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance

Light Dependent Resistor Symbol

Principle
The resistance decreases as the intensity of incident light increases, and vice versa. In
the absence of light, LDR exhibits a resistance of the order of mega-ohms which
decreases to few hundred ohms in the presence of light.
It can act as a sensor, since a varying voltage drop can be obtained in accordance with
the varying light. It is made up of cadmium sulphide (CdS).

Applications
Analog Applications
a. Camera Exposure Control
b. Auto Slide Focus - dual cell
c. Photocopy Machines - density of toner
d. Colorimetric Test Equipment
e. Densitometer
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& Dr. Tanay Ghosh Unit I Introduction to Fundamental Physics Applied Science 24UETBS102
Sanjivani University, Kopargaon.
 f. Electronic Scales - dual cell
g. Automatic Gain Control – modulated light source
h. Automated Rear View Mirror

2. Digital Applications
a. Automatic Headlight Dimmer
b. Night Light Control
c. Oil Burner Flame Out
d. Street Light Control
e. Absence / Presence (beam breaker)
f. Position Sensor

3. Light dependent resistors are a vital component in any electric circuit which is
to be turned on and off automatically according to the level of ambient light -
for example, solar powered garden lights, and night security lighting.

4. An LDR can even be used in a simple remote control circuit using the
backlight of a mobile phone to turn on a device - call the mobile from
anywhere in the world, it lights up the LDR, and lighting (or a garden
sprinkler) can be turned on remotely!

Different forms of Einstein’s Photoelectric equation

K.E= h (  -  0 )
1 1
K.E= h c(  ) c= , c= 0 0
 0

1. The photoelectric workfunction of certain metal is 10x 10^-19 J. Calculate

threshold frequency.(h=6.63 x 10^-34).
2. The threshold frequency of a metal is 1.8 x10^15Hz.is made incident on the metal
plate of frequency 1.8 x10^15Hz. calculate the maximum kinetic energy of the
ejected photoelectron.

Ancient Astronomical Instuments

1. Chakra:
This instrument is a type of protractor used for angular marking of land and angular
positioning of cities. It was also used to measure time and to measure some
astrological parameters like ‘natta’ and ‘unnatta’.

2. Dhanuryantra:
Dr. Kalpana Joshi 20
& Dr. Tanay Ghosh Unit I Introduction to Fundamental Physics Applied Science 24UETBS102
Sanjivani University, Kopargaon.
This machine is known as chaapa Yantra (Chaapa means a semicircle). Basically it
was used for the measurement of vertical angle. Height of the terrestrial objects,
diameter of earth, diameter of moon, circumference of earth and distance between
moon and the earth was calculated by Bhaskaracharya using this instrument.

To calculate the height of the terrestrial object, stick was focussed at the bottom and
top of the object and the angle was measured. This angle was then used to calculate
the height with the help of jya and cotijya. This jya and cotijya are similar as sine and
cosine resp.

Semicircular disk instrument of Bhaskaracharya known as chaapa yantra.This

instrument appears to be the modified version of Dhanu Yantra of Lalla.
Bhaskaracharya has attached a long stick along the diameter of the semicircular disk.
Disk has the angular graduations and a pivoted chain at the center of the disk, this
chain is used in similar way like a plumb bob. Description of this instrument is also
given in Siddhanta Shiromani.

3. Yasti Yantra:

Bhaskaracharya has developed his unique method to calculate the height of terrestrial
objects like trees and mountains.

This machine has a stick pivoted to a board. To use this machine one has to focus the
top and bottom of the object and draw the two lines on the board. With these two lines,
two triangles are constructed and based on their proportions, height of the object is
calculated. It is to be noted here that there is no need to measure the distance between
the object and the observer. This instrument was also used for land survey.

It is also refered as Dhi Yantra. Dhi Yantra means a machine to be used with
intelligence. The principle and constructional details of this machine are available in
fair detail in Siddhanta Shiromani of Bhaskaracharya .

4. Phalak Yantra:

Dr. Kalpana Joshi 21

& Dr. Tanay Ghosh Unit I Introduction to Fundamental Physics Applied Science 24UETBS102
Sanjivani University, Kopargaon.
It consist of a board. It is provided with a pin and an index arm.
This yanrta was used to determine time graphically by observing sun’s altitude.

Dr. Kalpana Joshi 22

& Dr. Tanay Ghosh Unit I Introduction to Fundamental Physics Applied Science 24UETBS102
Sanjivani University, Kopargaon.