BAQ

Q1. ENUMERATE TWO DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CT AND MRI

Here are two key differences between CT (Computed Tomography) and MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging):

1. Technology Used:

o CT scan: Uses X-rays to create detailed cross-sectional images of the body.

o MRI: Uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to generate images, without using ionizing
radiation.

2. Best For Imaging:

o CT scan: Better for imaging bones, detecting bleeding, and trauma injuries (e.g., head injuries,
fractures).

o MRI: Superior for imaging soft tissues, such as the brain, spinal cord, muscles, and ligaments.

Q2. ENUMERATE TWO ANATOMICAL BODY PLANE

Two anatomical body planes:

1. Sagittal Plane – Divides the body into left and right sections.

2. Transverse Plane – Divides the body into upper (superior) and lower (inferior) sections.

Q3. DEFINE SAGITTAL PLANE

The sagittal plane is a vertical plane that divides the body into left and right sections.

 If it divides the body exactly in the middle, creating equal left and right halves, it is called the midsagittal
(or median) plane.

 If it divides the body unequally, it is called a parasagittal plane.

Q4. DEFINE RIBCAGE

The ribcage is a bony structure in the chest (thoracic region) of the human body that surrounds and protects vital
organs such as the heart and lungs. It is made up of:

 12 pairs of ribs

 The sternum (breastbone)

 The thoracic vertebrae (part of the spine)

Functions of the Ribcage:

1. Protection – Shields the heart, lungs, and other organs from injury.

2. Support – Provides structural support for the upper body.

3. Breathing – Assists in the breathing process by expanding and contracting with the lungs.

Q5. DEFINE THORACIC CAGE AND TWO MUSCLES OF THE THORACIC CAGE

Thoracic Cage:
The thoracic cage (also known as the rib cage) is a bony and cartilaginous structure that surrounds and protects
the organs of the thoracic cavity, such as the heart and lungs. It is composed of:

 12 pairs of ribs

 Sternum (breastbone)

 Thoracic vertebrae (T1–T12)

 Costal cartilages (connecting ribs to the sternum)

Functions of the thoracic cage include:

 Protection of vital organs (heart, lungs)

 Support for upper body

 Assisting in the breathing process by allowing expansion and contraction of the lungs

Two Muscles of the Thoracic Cage:

1. Intercostal Muscles:

o Located between the ribs

o Help with breathing by expanding and contracting the rib cage during inhalation and exhalation

2. Diaphragm:

o A dome-shaped muscle at the base of the thoracic cage

o Plays a major role in respiration by contracting and flattening to allow lung expansion during
inhalation

Q6. DEFINE COSTAL CARTILAGE

Costal cartilage is the hyaline cartilage that connects the ribs to the sternum (breastbone) in the front of the
chest.

Key points:

 It provides flexibility and elasticity to the rib cage.

 Helps the chest expand and contract during breathing.

 Found at the anterior ends of the ribs (except the floating ribs).
Q7. ENUMERATE TWO PARTS OF THE STERNUM

Two parts of the sternum:

1. Manubrium – The upper portion of the sternum.

2. Body (Gladiolus) – The central and largest part of the sternum.

Q8. DEFINE OSSIFICATION

Ossification is the process by which bone is formed in the body.

 It begins during fetal development and continues through childhood and adolescence as the skeleton
grows.

 Ossification involves the transformation of cartilage or fibrous tissue into bone.

There are two main types of ossification:

1. Intramembranous ossification – bone develops directly from connective tissue (e.g., skull bones).

2. Endochondral ossification – bone develops by replacing cartilage (e.g., long bones like the femur).

This process is essential for bone growth, healing, and repair.

Q9. ENUMERATE TWO ANATOMICAL STRUCTURES OF THE UPPER THORAX

Two Anatomical Structures of the Upper Thorax

1. Clavicle (Collarbone) – A long bone that connects the sternum (breastbone) to the scapula (shoulder
blade), helping to stabilize the shoulder.

2. Sternum (Breastbone) – A flat bone located in the center of the chest, to which the first seven pairs of
ribs attach via costal cartilages.

Q10. ENUMERATE TWO NERVE SUPPLY OF THE DIAPHRAGM

Two Nerve Supplies of the Diaphragm

The diaphragm is primarily supplied by the following nerves:

1. Phrenic Nerve (Main motor nerve)

o Origin: Cervical spinal nerves C3, C4, and C5

o Function: Provides motor innervation to the diaphragm (controls its movement during breathing)
and sensory innervation to its central part (including the central tendon, pleura, and peritoneum)

2. Lower Intercostal Nerves (Peripheral sensory supply)

o Origin: Thoracic spinal nerves T5 to T11

o Function: Provide sensory innervation to the peripheral parts of the diaphragm

Q11. ENUMERATE TWO BRANCHES OF THE PULMONARY ARTERIES

Two branches of the pulmonary arteries are:

1. Right pulmonary artery

2. Left pulmonary artery

These arteries carry deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs for oxygenation. Each
pulmonary artery further divides into smaller branches to supply the respective lungs.

Q12. ENUMERATE TWO PARTS OF THE SHOULDER

Two parts of the shoulder:

1. Clavicle (Collarbone) – Connects the arm to the body and provides structural support.

2. Scapula (Shoulder Blade) – A flat, triangular bone that provides attachment for several muscles and forms
part of the shoulder joint.

Q13. DEFINE THORACIC DIAPHRAGM

The thoracic diaphragm is a large, dome-shaped sheet of skeletal muscle that separates the thoracic cavity
(chest) from the abdominal cavity. It plays a crucial role in respiration (breathing).

Q14. DEFINE CARINA

In anatomy, the carina refers to a ridge of cartilage located at the point where the trachea (windpipe) divides
into the two main bronchi (right and left bronchus). This area is known as the tracheal bifurcation.

Q15. ENUMERATE TWO FISSURES OF THE LUNG

Two fissures of the lung:

1. Oblique Fissure – Present in both the right and left lungs, it separates the upper and lower lobes (and
also the middle lobe from the lower lobe in the right lung).

2. Horizontal Fissure – Found only in the right lung, it separates the upper lobe from the middle lobe.

Q16. ENUMERATE TWO SEGMENTS OF LUNG

Two segments of the lung:

1. Apical Segment – Located at the top of the upper lobe of the lung.

2. Posterior Segment – Found in the upper lobe, toward the back of the lung.
Q17. DEFINE HILUM

The hilum is a depression or slit-like opening on the surface of an organ through which structures such as blood
vessels, nerves, lymphatics, and ducts enter or leave the organ.

Q18. DEFINE PLEURA

The pleura is a double-layered membrane that surrounds each lung and lines the chest cavity, helping the lungs
move smoothly during breathing.

Q19. DEFINE PULMONARY ANGIOGRAPHY

Pulmonary angiography is a medical imaging procedure used to visualize the blood vessels of the lungs. It
involves the injection of a contrast dye into the pulmonary arteries, followed by X-ray imaging to detect
abnormalities such as pulmonary embolism, arteriovenous malformations, or other vascular conditions of the
lungs.

Q20. ENUMERATE TWO STRUCTURAL OF THE SUPERIOR, ANTERIOR AND POSTERIOR MEDIASTINUM

Two structures of the superior, anterior, and posterior mediastinum:

1. Superior Mediastinum

 Aortic arch

 Trachea

2. Anterior Mediastinum

 Thymus (or its remnants in adults)

 Lymph nodes

3. Posterior Mediastinum

 Esophagus

 Descending thoracic aorta

Q21. ENUMERATE TWO STRUCTURES OF THE MIDDLE MEDIASTINUM

Two structures of the middle mediastinum:

1. Heart – Enclosed within the pericardium, it is the central organ of the cardiovascular system.

2. Pericardium – The double-walled sac that surrounds and protects the heart.
Q22. ENUMERATE TWO CORONARY ARTERY BRANCHES

Two Coronary Artery Branches:

1. Left Anterior Descending (LAD) artery

2. Right Coronary Artery (RCA)

Alternatively, if you want branches specifically from the main coronary arteries:

 From Left Coronary Artery (LCA):

o Left Anterior Descending (LAD) artery

o Circumflex artery

 From Right Coronary Artery (RCA):

o Marginal artery

o Posterior descending artery (PDA)

Q23. DEFINE MITRAL VALVE

Q23. Define Mitral Valve:

The mitral valve is one of the four heart valves. It is located between the left atrium and the left ventricle of the
heart.

Key points:

 It is also called the bicuspid valve because it has two leaflets (cusps).

 The mitral valve allows blood to flow from the left atrium into the left ventricle.

 It prevents backflow of blood from the left ventricle back into the left atrium during ventricular
contraction (systole).

 Proper functioning of the mitral valve is essential for efficient blood circulation in the heart.

Q24. DEFINE ARCH OF AORTA

The Arch of Aorta is the curved portion of the aorta, the main artery that carries oxygenated blood from the
heart to the rest of the body.

It starts from the ascending aorta, arches backward and to the left, and continues as the descending aorta. The
arch gives off three major branches that supply blood to the head, neck, and upper limbs:

Q25. ENUMERATE TWO LOBES OF LUNGS

Two lobes of the lungs:

 Right lung:

o Upper (Superior) lobe

 o Middle lobe

 Left lung:

o Upper (Superior) lobe

o Lower (Inferior) lobe

Q26. ENUMERATE TWO DIVISIONS OF THE MEDIASTINUM

Q26. Enumerate two divisions of the mediastinum:

1. Superior Mediastinum

2. Inferior Mediastinum

Q27. DEFINE GREAT VEIN

Q27. Define Great Vein:

A great vein is a large vein that drains blood from major parts of the body and returns it to the heart.

Examples of Great Veins:

 Superior vena cava – drains blood from the upper body into the right atrium of the heart.

 Inferior vena cava – drains blood from the lower body into the right atrium.

 Pulmonary veins – carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart.

Q28. DEFINE ATRIUM

An atrium (plural: atria) is one of the two upper chambers of the heart.

Key points:

 There are two atria: the right atrium and the left atrium.

 The atria receive blood returning to the heart:

o The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body via the superior and inferior vena
cava.

o The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs via the pulmonary veins.

 The atria contract to push blood into the lower chambers of the heart, called ventricles.
Q29. DEFINE HEART CHAMBER

A heart chamber is one of the four hollow, muscular compartments of the heart that receive and pump blood.
The heart has four chambers:

 Two atria (right and left atrium): Upper chambers that receive blood coming into the heart.

 Two ventricles (right and left ventricle): Lower chambers that pump blood out of the heart to the lungs
or the rest of the body.

Q30. ENUMRATE TWO ARTERIES OF THE HEART

Two arteries of the heart:

 Right coronary artery (RCA)

 Left coronary artery (LCA)

Q31. DEFINE PERICARDIUM

The pericardium is a double-layered fibroserous sac that surrounds and protects the heart. It consists of an outer
fibrous layer and an inner serous layer, which produces pericardial fluid to reduce friction as the heart beats.

Q32. ENUMERATE TWO CARDIAC VALVES

Q32. Enumerate Two Cardiac Valves:

1. Tricuspid valve

2. Mitral (bicuspid) valve

(These are the atrioventricular valves.)

Alternatively, two other major cardiac valves are:

 Pulmonary valve

 Aortic valve

Q33. DEFINE ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY

Echocardiography is a diagnostic medical test that uses ultrasound waves to create real-time images of the
heart.

Q34. STATE THE FULL FORM OF ECG

The full form of ECG:

ECG stands for Electrocardiogram.

Q35. DEFINE CARDIAC CALCIUM SCORING

Cardiac Calcium Scoring:

Cardiac calcium scoring is a non-invasive imaging test that measures the amount of calcium deposits in the
coronary arteries. It is done using a special type of CT scan called a coronary calcium scan.

 The presence of calcium in the coronary arteries indicates atherosclerosis (plaque buildup), which can
narrow the arteries and increase the risk of coronary artery disease (CAD).

 The test provides a calcium score (Agatston score) that helps estimate the risk of future heart attacks.

 A higher calcium score means more plaque and a higher risk of heart problems.

Q36. ENUMERATE TWO BRANCHES OF THE AORTIC ARCH

Two branches of the aortic arch:

1. Brachiocephalic artery (trunk)

2. Left common carotid artery

Q37. DEFINE THYMUS

The thymus is a soft, bilobed lymphoid organ located in the upper part of the anterior mediastinum, just behind
the sternum and in front of the heart.

Q38. DEFINE CIRCUMFLEX ARTERY

The circumflex artery is a branch of the left coronary artery that supplies blood to the lateral and posterior walls
of the left ventricle of the heart.

Q39. DEFINE ANTERIOR DESCENDING ARTERY

The Anterior Descending Artery, also known as the Left Anterior Descending (LAD) artery, is a major branch of
the left coronary artery.

It runs down the front (anterior) surface of the heart along the interventricular groove and supplies oxygenated
blood to the front wall of the left ventricle, the interventricular septum, and parts of the right ventricle.

It is crucial for supplying blood to a large portion of the heart muscle.

Q40. ENUEMRATE TWO BRANCHES OF THE RIGHT CORONARY ARTERY

Two branches of the Right Coronary Artery (RCA):

 Marginal artery (acute marginal artery)

 Posterior interventricular artery (posterior descending artery)

Q41. ENUMERATE TWO MUSCLE LAYERS OF THE ABDOMEN

Two muscle layers of the abdomen:

1. External oblique muscle

2. Internal oblique muscle

Q42. ENUMERATE TWO ANATOMICAL STRUCTURES WITHIN THE UPPER ABDOMEN

Two Anatomical Structures Within the Upper Abdomen:

1. Liver

2. Stomach

Other important structures in the upper abdomen include the pancreas, spleen, gallbladder, and parts of the
duodenum.

Q43. ENUMERATE TWO BRANCHES OF THE COELIAC ARTERY

Two Branches of the Coeliac Artery:

The coeliac artery (also spelled celiac artery) is a major artery arising from the abdominal aorta. It has three main
branches, two of which are:

1. Left Gastric Artery – supplies the stomach and lower esophagus.

2. Splenic Artery – supplies the spleen, pancreas, and part of the stomach.

Q44. DEFINE ILEOEECAL VALVE

The ileocecal valve is a sphincter muscle located at the junction between the ileum (the last part of the small
intestine) and the cecum (the first part of the large intestine).

Its main function is to regulate the flow of chyme from the small intestine into the large intestine and to prevent
backflow of contents from the large intestine into the small intestine.

Q45. DEFINE THE LOBES OF LIVER

The lobes of the liver:

The liver is divided into lobes, which are large anatomical subdivisions based on external landmarks and internal
vascular structures.

 Right lobe: The largest lobe, located on the right side of the liver.

 Left lobe: Smaller lobe situated on the left side of the liver.

 Caudate lobe: A small lobe located on the posterior (back) surface near the inferior vena cava.

 Quadrate lobe: Located on the inferior surface of the liver, between the gallbladder and the round
ligament.
Q46. ENUMRATE TWO PARTS OF THE PANCREAS

Two parts of the pancreas:

1. Head of the pancreas

2. Body of the pancreas

Q47. ENUMERATE TWO VENOUS DRAINAGES OF THE STOMACH

Two Venous Drainages of the Stomach:

1. Left gastric vein

2. Right gastric vein

Additional Info (optional):

 These veins drain into the portal vein, which carries blood to the liver.

 Other veins involved include the right gastroepiploic vein and short gastric veins.

Q48. ENUMERATE TWO ARTERIES SUPPLYING TO THE ABDOMEN

Two Arteries Supplying the Abdomen:

1. Coeliac Artery – Supplies the stomach, liver, spleen, pancreas, and upper part of the duodenum.

2. Superior Mesenteric Artery – Supplies the small intestine and part of the large intestine (up to the
transverse colon).

Q49. ENUMERATE TWO ARTERIES SUPPLYING TO THE KIDNEY

Two arteries supplying to the kidney:

1. Renal Artery – The main artery that directly supplies blood to the kidney from the abdominal aorta.

2. Segmental Arteries – Branches of the renal artery that further supply different segments of the kidney.

Q50. ENUMERATE TWO PARTS OF THE SMALL INTESTINE

Two parts of the small intestine:

 Duodenum

 Jejunum

The third part is the ileum, completing the three main sections of the small intestine.

Q51. DEFINE PERISTALSIS

Peristalsis is a series of wave-like muscle contractions that move food, liquid, or other contents through the
digestive tract. It occurs in hollow organs such as the esophagus, stomach, and intestines.
Q52. DEFINE UMBILICAL LIGAMENTS

Umbilical ligaments are fibrous remnants of fetal blood vessels that are found in the anterior abdominal wall.
They no longer carry blood after birth but remain as supportive structures.

Types:

1. Medial umbilical ligaments – remnants of the umbilical arteries.

2. Median umbilical ligament – remnant of the urachus (a canal connecting the fetal bladder to the
umbilicus).

3. Lateral umbilical folds (not true ligaments) – cover the inferior epigastric vessels.

Q53. ENUMERATE TWO MUSCLES OF THE ANTERIOR ABDOMINAL WALL

Two Muscles of the Anterior Abdominal Wall:

1. Rectus Abdominis – A long, vertical muscle running along the front of the abdomen; commonly known as
the “six-pack” muscle.

2. External Oblique – A broad, flat muscle on each side of the abdomen that helps in trunk rotation and
lateral flexion.

Q54. ENUMERATE TWO UMBILICAL LIGAMENTS

Two umbilical ligaments:

1. Medial umbilical ligaments – These are remnants of the umbilical arteries and run on the inner surface
of the anterior abdominal wall.

2. Median umbilical ligament – This is a remnant of the urachus, a fetal structure that connected the
bladder to the umbilicus.

Q55. ENUMERATE TWO CONTENTS OF THE ABDOMEN

Two contents of the abdomen:

 Stomach

 Liver

Q56. ENUMERATE TWO ARTERIES SUPPLYING TO THE STOMACH

Two arteries supplying the stomach:

1. Left gastric artery

2. Right gastric artery

Q57. DEFINE ILEOECCAL JUNCTION

The ileocecal junction is the anatomical site where the ileum (the last part of the small intestine) joins the
cecum (the first part of the large intestine).

Key Points:

 It acts as a valve (ileocecal valve) that controls the flow of digested material from the small intestine into
the large intestine.

 It prevents the backflow of colonic contents into the ileum.

 Plays a role in regulating digestion and absorption by controlling transit time.

Q58. DEFINE SACRUM

The sacrum is a large, triangular bone located at the base of the spine, between the two hip bones (ilium) of the
pelvis.

Key points:

 It consists of five fused vertebrae (S1–S5).

 It forms the back wall of the pelvic cavity and connects the spine to the pelvis.

 The sacrum supports the weight of the upper body when sitting and standing.

 It has important openings (foramina) that allow nerves and blood vessels to pass through.

Q59. DEFINE SACROILIAC JOINT

The sacroiliac joint is the joint between the sacrum and the ilium bones of the pelvis. It is a strong, weight-
bearing synovial joint that connects the spine to the pelvis and helps transfer the weight of the upper body to
the lower limbs while providing limited movement and stability to the pelvis.

Q60. ENUMERATE TWO BRANCHES OF ARTERY SUPPLYING TO THE PELVIS

Two branches of the artery supplying the pelvis:

The main artery supplying the pelvis is the internal iliac artery. Two of its branches are:

 Obturator artery

 Superior gluteal artery

Q61. ENUMERATE TWO MUSCLES INVOLVED IN THE PELVIS

Two muscles involved in the pelvis:

1. Levator ani muscle

2. Coccygeus muscle
Q62. DEFINE CYSTITIS

Cystitis is the inflammation of the urinary bladder, usually caused by a bacterial infection.

Key Points:

 It is most commonly due to bacterial infection, especially Escherichia coli.

 Symptoms include painful urination (dysuria), frequent urination, urgency, and lower abdominal pain.

 If untreated, it can lead to more serious infections like pyelonephritis (kidney infection).

Q63. DEFINE SEMINAL VESICLE

The seminal vesicles are a pair of elongated, sac-like glands located behind the bladder in males.

Key points:

 They produce and secrete a thick, alkaline fluid that makes up about 60-70% of the volume of semen.

 This fluid contains fructose (a sugar that provides energy for sperm), prostaglandins, and other
substances that help nourish and transport sperm.

 The seminal vesicle fluid mixes with sperm from the testes and secretions from the prostate gland during
ejaculation.

Q64. DEFINE ILIAC VEINS

The iliac veins are large veins in the pelvis that drain deoxygenated blood from the lower limbs and pelvis back
toward the heart.

They are formed by the union of the internal iliac vein (draining the pelvis) and the external iliac vein (draining
the lower limb), and these two veins join to form the common iliac vein, which then drains into the inferior vena
cava.

Q65. DEFINE THE MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

The male and female reproductive organs:

Male Reproductive Organs:

The male reproductive organs are a group of structures responsible for producing, maintaining, and transporting
sperm and semen, as well as secreting male sex hormones (like testosterone). These include:

 Testes: Produce sperm and testosterone

 Epididymis: Stores and matures sperm

 Vas deferens: Transports sperm from the testes

 Seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands: Produce seminal fluid

 Penis: Organ for sexual intercourse and delivery of sperm

Female Reproductive Organs:

The female reproductive organs are structures involved in producing ova (eggs), receiving sperm, supporting
fertilization, and nurturing fetal development. These include:

 Ovaries: Produce ova and female hormones (estrogen, progesterone)

 Fallopian tubes (uterine tubes): Transport ova from ovaries to uterus; site of fertilization

 Uterus: Houses and nourishes the developing fetus

 Vagina: Birth canal and receptacle for the penis during intercourse

 External genitalia (vulva): Includes structures like labia and clitoris

Q66. ENUMERATE ONE PRIMARY AND ONE ACCESSORY SEX ORGAN IN MALE

One primary and one accessory sex organ in male:

 Primary sex organ: Testis

 Accessory sex organ: Prostate gland

Q67. ENUMRATE ONE PRIMARY AND ONE ACCESSORY SEX ORGANS IN FEMALE

One Primary and One Accessory Sex Organ in Female:

 Primary sex organ: Ovary

 Accessory sex organ: Uterus

Q68. ENUMERATE TWO FUNCTIONS OF THE TESTOSTERONE.

Two Functions of Testosterone:

1. Development of Male Secondary Sexual Characteristics

o Promotes growth of facial and body hair, deepening of the voice, and increased muscle mass
during puberty.

2. Stimulation of Sperm Production

o Supports the process of spermatogenesis in the testes, essential for male fertility.

Q69. DEFINE OVARIES AND OVULATION

 Ovaries:
The ovaries are a pair of small, almond-shaped female reproductive organs located on either side of the
uterus. They produce and release eggs (ova) and secrete female hormones such as estrogen and
progesterone.
  Ovulation:
Ovulation is the process during the menstrual cycle when a mature egg is released from an ovary. This egg
then travels down the fallopian tube, where it may be fertilized by sperm.

Q70. DEFINE FALLOPIAN TUBES

Fallopian tubes, also called uterine tubes or oviducts, are a pair of narrow, muscular tubes that connect the
ovaries to the uterus in the female reproductive system.

 Their main function is to transport the ovum (egg) from the ovary to the uterus.

 Fertilization of the egg by sperm usually occurs inside the fallopian tubes.

 They have finger-like projections called fimbriae near the ovary that help capture the released egg.

 The inner lining is ciliated to help move the egg toward the uterus.

Q71. ENUMERATE TWO FUNCTIONS OF THE TESTIS

Two functions of the testis:

1. Production of spermatozoa (spermatogenesis)

2. Secretion of testosterone (male sex hormone)

Q72. ENUMERATE TWO STRUCTURES OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Two Structures of the Male Reproductive System:

1. Testis

2. Epididymis

Q73. ENUMERATE TWO MUSCLE LAYERS OF THE ANTERIOR ABDOMINAL WALL

Two Muscle Layers of the Anterior Abdominal Wall:

1. External Oblique Muscle – The outermost muscle layer; fibers run diagonally downward and medially.

2. Internal Oblique Muscle – The middle muscle layer; fibers run upward and medially, lying beneath the
external oblique.

Q74. ENUMERATE TWO UMBILICAL LIGAMENTS OF THE ANTERIOR ABDOMINAL WALL

Two umbilical ligaments of the anterior abdominal wall:

1. Median umbilical ligament – A single midline ligament, remnant of the fetal urachus.

2. Medial umbilical ligaments – Paired ligaments, remnants of the fetal umbilical arteries.
Q75. ENUMERATE TWO MUSCLE LAYERS OF THE STOMACH WALL

Two muscle layers of the stomach wall:

 Circular muscle layer

 Longitudinal muscle layer

Q76. DEFINE URINARY BLADDER

The urinary bladder is a hollow, muscular organ that stores urine temporarily before it is expelled from the body
through the urethra.

Q77. ENUMERATE TWO PARTS OF THE TESTIS

1. Tunica Albuginea – A tough, fibrous outer covering that protects and supports the testis.

2. Seminiferous Tubules – Coiled structures inside the testis where sperm production (spermatogenesis)
takes place.

Q78. ENUMERATE TWO PARTS OF THE KIDNEY

Two parts of the kidney:

1. Renal Cortex – The outer, granular layer of the kidney.

2. Renal Medulla – The inner, darker, pyramidal region of the kidney.

Q79. ENUMERATE TWO BRANCHES OF THE CELIAC TRUNK

Two branches of the celiac trunk:

 Left gastric artery

 Common hepatic artery

Q80. DEFINE UTERUS

Uterus is a hollow, muscular, pear-shaped organ in the female reproductive system where a fertilized egg
implants and develops into a fetus during pregnancy.

It is located in the pelvis between the bladder and the rectum. The uterus plays a key role in menstruation,
pregnancy, and childbirth.
Q81. ENUMERATE TWO PARTS OF THE STOMACH

Two parts of the stomach:

1. Fundus

2. Body

Q82. ENUMERATE TWO VENTRICLES PRESENT IN THE BRAIN

Two Ventricles Present in the Brain:

1. Lateral Ventricles – A pair of large, C-shaped cavities located in each cerebral hemisphere.

2. Fourth Ventricle – Located between the brainstem and the cerebellum.

Q83. DEFINE BRAINSTEM

The brainstem is the lower part of the brain that connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord. It consists of three
main parts: the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.

The brainstem controls vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, and reflexes, and it also
serves as a pathway for nerve signals between the brain and the rest of the body.

Q84. ENUMERATE TWO DURAL VENOUS SINUSES

Two dural venous sinuses:

 Superior sagittal sinus

 Transverse sinus

Q85. DEFINE CEREBRUM

Cerebrum is the largest part of the brain, responsible for voluntary activities, sensory perception, thinking,
reasoning, memory, emotions, and motor functions.

It is divided into two hemispheres (left and right) and contains the cerebral cortex, which processes complex
brain functions such as language, decision-making, and consciousness.

Q86. DEFINE FACIAL BONES AND ENUMRATE TWO FACIAL BONES

Facial bones are the bones that form the structure of the face, providing support for the facial muscles and
forming cavities for the sense organs like eyes, nose, and mouth.

Two facial bones are:

1. Maxilla

2. Mandible
Q87. DEFINE ETHMOID SINUSES

The ethmoid sinuses are a group of small air-filled cavities located within the ethmoid bone between the nose
and the eyes.

Key points:

 They consist of multiple small interconnected air cells.

 They help lighten the weight of the skull, warm and humidify inhaled air, and contribute to voice
resonance.

 The ethmoid sinuses drain into the nasal cavity.

 They are prone to infection, which can cause ethmoid sinusitis.

Q88. DEFINE MENINGES

The meninges are the three protective membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord. They consist of:

1. Dura mater – The tough, outermost layer.

2. Arachnoid mater – The middle, web-like layer.

3. Pia mater – The delicate, innermost layer that closely covers the brain and spinal cord.

Q89. DEFINE PARANASAL SINUS AND ENUMERATE TWO PARANASAL SINUSES

Paranasal sinuses are air-filled cavities located within the bones around the nasal cavity. They are lined with
mucous membranes and communicate with the nasal passages. Their functions include lightening the weight of
the skull, humidifying and warming inhaled air, enhancing voice resonance, and producing mucus to trap
pathogens.

Two Paranasal Sinuses:

 Maxillary sinus

 Frontal sinus

Q90. DEFINE INTERVERTEBRAL DISC

Intervertebral disc is a fibrocartilaginous cushion located between adjacent vertebrae in the spine.

It acts as a shock absorber, allowing flexibility and movement of the vertebral column while preventing the
vertebrae from rubbing against each other. Each disc has two main parts:

 Nucleus pulposus (the soft, gel-like center)

 Annulus fibrosus (the tough, outer fibrous ring)

Q91. ENUMERATE TWO PAIR OF THE CRANIAL NERVES

Two pairs of the cranial nerves:

1. Olfactory nerve (I)

2. Optic nerve (II)

Q92. DEFINE CSF AND STATE FULL FORM OF IT

Full Form:
CSF stands for Cerebrospinal Fluid.

Definition:
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless fluid that circulates around the brain and spinal cord within the
subarachnoid space and the ventricular system of the brain.

Key points:

 It cushions and protects the brain and spinal cord from injury.

 Helps remove waste products from the brain.

 Maintains a stable chemical environment for the central nervous system.

 Produced mainly by the choroid plexus in the brain’s ventricles.

Q93. ENUMERATE TWO PAIRS OF NUCLEI IN BASAL GANGLIA

Two pairs of nuclei in the basal ganglia:

1. Caudate nucleus

2. Putamen

Q94. DEFINE CAUDATE NUCLEUS

The caudate nucleus is a large, C-shaped structure located deep within the brain, forming part of the basal
ganglia. It plays a key role in regulating voluntary movement, learning, memory, and certain aspects of behavior.

 It consists of a head, body, and tail that curve around the lateral ventricles.

 The caudate nucleus works together with other basal ganglia structures to help control motor functions
and cognitive processes.

Q95. ENUMERATE TWO CRANIAL BONES

Two cranial bones are:

1. Frontal bone

2. Parietal bone
Q96. ENUMERATE TWO SUTURES OF THE SKULL

Two sutures of the skull:

1. Coronal suture

2. Sagittal suture

Q97. ENUMERATE TWO CRANIAL FOSSA

Two Cranial Fossae:

1. Anterior Cranial Fossa – Located at the front of the skull; supports the frontal lobes of the brain.

2. Middle Cranial Fossa – Located centrally; holds the temporal lobes and the pituitary gland.

These depressions (fossae) in the floor of the cranial cavity support different parts of the brain.

Q98. DEFINE GREY MATTER AND WHITE MATTER

Grey Matter and White Matter:

 Grey Matter:
Grey matter is the part of the central nervous system that contains neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, and
synapses. It is involved in processing and regulating information in the brain and spinal cord.

 White Matter:
White matter consists mainly of myelinated nerve fibers (axons) that connect different areas of grey
matter. It is responsible for the transmission of signals between different parts of the nervous system.

Q99. ENUMERATE TWO ARTERIES SUPPLYING TO THE PITUITARY GLAND

Two arteries supplying the pituitary gland:

 Superior hypophyseal artery

 Inferior hypophyseal artery

These arteries are branches of the internal carotid artery and supply the anterior and posterior parts of the
pituitary gland, respectively.

Q100. DEFINE BASAL GANGLIA AND ENUMERATE TWO STRUCTURES OF THE BASAL GANGLIA

Basal ganglia are a group of interconnected structures located deep within the brain that are primarily involved
in coordinating movement, posture, and motor control. They also play a role in habits, emotions, and cognitive
functions.

Two structures of the basal ganglia are:

1. Caudate nucleus

2. Putamen
Q101. DEFINE CEREBRAL HEMISPHERE

The cerebral hemispheres are the two symmetrical halves (right and left) of the cerebrum, which is the largest
part of the brain. Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body and is responsible for functions such as
movement, sensation, reasoning, emotions, and memory.

Q102. DEFINE PITUITARY GLAND

The pituitary gland is a small, pea-sized endocrine gland located at the base of the brain, in a bony structure
called the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone.

Key points:

 Often called the “master gland” because it controls the activity of many other endocrine glands.

 It has two main parts:

1. Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) – Produces hormones like growth hormone (GH), thyroid-
stimulating hormone (TSH), and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).

2. Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis) – Stores and releases hormones like oxytocin and
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) made by the hypothalamus.

It plays a crucial role in growth, metabolism, reproduction, and water balance.

Q103. ENUMERATE TWO AXES OF THE BRAIN

Two axes of the brain:

1. Anteroposterior Axis – Runs from the front (anterior) to the back (posterior) of the brain.

2. Dorsoventral Axis – Runs from the top (dorsal) to the bottom (ventral) of the brain.

Q104. ENUMERATE TWO LOBES OF BRAIN

Two lobes of the brain:

 Frontal lobe

 Parietal lobe

(Other lobes include the temporal lobe and occipital lobe.)

Q105. ENUMERATE TWO EAR BONES.

Two ear bones (also known as auditory ossicles) are:

1. Malleus (hammer)

2. Incus (anvil)
Q106. ENUMERATE TWO VENTRICLES OF THE BRAIN

Two ventricles of the brain:

1. Lateral ventricle

2. Third ventricle

Q107. ENUMERATE TWO ANATOMICAL LANDMARKS FOR HEAD

Two Anatomical Landmarks for the Head:

1. Glabella – The smooth area of the forehead between the eyebrows.

2. External Occipital Protuberance – A prominent bump on the back of the skull near the base.

Q108. DEFINE SELLA TURCICA

The sella turcica is a saddle-shaped depression in the sphenoid bone of the skull. It houses and protects the
pituitary gland (hypophysis), which sits in its central part called the hypophyseal fossa. The name "sella turcica"
means "Turkish saddle" because of its distinctive shape.

Q109. ENUMERATE TWO PAIRS OF SALIVARY GLANDS

Two pairs of salivary glands:

 Parotid glands

 Submandibular glands

(Another pair: Sublingual glands)

Q110. ENUMERATE TWO ANATOMICAL STRUCTURES OF THE PHARYNX

Two anatomical structures of the pharynx are:

1. Nasopharynx

2. Oropharynx

Q111. ENUMERATE TWO ANATOMICAL STRUCTURES OF THE NASOPHARYNX

Two anatomical structures of the nasopharynx:

1. Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoid)

2. Opening of the auditory (Eustachian) tube

Q112. ENUMERATE TWO PARTS OF THE VERTEBRA

Q112. Enumerate Two Parts of the Vertebra:

1. Body (Centrum) – The thick, cylindrical, weight-bearing front part of the vertebra.

2. Vertebral Arch – The curved posterior part that surrounds the spinal cord, consisting of pedicles and
laminae.

Q113. DEFINE THYROID GLAND

The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped endocrine gland located in the front of the neck, just below the larynx.

It produces hormones, primarily thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), which regulate the body's
metabolism, growth, and development.

The thyroid also produces calcitonin, a hormone involved in calcium homeostasis.

SAQ
Q114. ELABORATE ON DIAPHRAGM. ENUMERATE THE RADIOLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE DIAPHRAGM

 The diaphragm is a dome-shaped, muscular and tendinous structure that separates the thoracic cavity
from the abdominal cavity.

 It plays a major role in respiration by contracting and flattening during inspiration to increase thoracic
volume.

Functions:

 Primary muscle of inhalation.

 Assists in venous return and intra-abdominal pressure regulation.

 Contains major openings for passage of:

o Inferior vena cava (at T8 level)

o Esophagus (at T10 level)

o Aorta (at T12 level)

Radiological Features of the Diaphragm:

1. Dome-shaped appearance

o Seen on chest X-ray.

o Right hemidiaphragm is normally higher than the left (due to liver).

2. Sharp costophrenic angles

o Should be clearly visible and sharp.

 o Blunting suggests pleural effusion or other pathology.

3. Clear diaphragmatic outline

o Smooth, continuous border on imaging.

o Loss of outline may indicate lung or subdiaphragmatic disease.

4. No air under diaphragm (in normal cases)

o Air under diaphragm on erect X-ray suggests hollow viscus perforation.

5. Movement assessment

o Diaphragmatic motion can be evaluated using fluoroscopy or ultrasound.

o Normally moves downward on inspiration.

6. Detection of diaphragmatic hernia

o Abnormal organs seen in thoracic cavity may indicate diaphragmatic hernia.

Q115. DRAW A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE AXIAL CROSS-SECTION OF THE UPPER THORAX

Q116. ELABORATE ON THORACIC CAGE

The thoracic cage, commonly known as the rib cage, is a bony and cartilaginous structure in the chest that
protects vital organs and supports respiration.

Components:

1. Thoracic Vertebrae – 12 bones forming the posterior part of the cage.

2. Ribs – 12 pairs:

o True ribs (1–7) – directly attached to the sternum via costal cartilages.

o False ribs (8–10) – attached to the cartilage of the rib above.

o Floating ribs (11–12) – not attached to the sternum.

 3. Sternum (Breastbone) – a flat bone at the front, consisting of:

o Manubrium

o Body

o Xiphoid process

4. Costal Cartilages – connect the ribs to the sternum and allow flexibility.

Functions:

 Protects vital organs such as the heart, lungs, and major blood vessels.

 Assists in breathing by expanding and contracting with the lungs.

 Provides attachment points for muscles involved in respiration, the back, and upper limbs.

Q117. ELABORATE ON THE MUSCLES OF THE THORACIC CAGE

The muscles of the thoracic cage play a vital role in respiration and maintaining the structure of the rib cage.
These muscles assist in expanding and contracting the thoracic cavity during breathing.

1. Intercostal Muscles (Located between the ribs):

 External intercostal muscles

o Run downward and forward (like hands in pockets)

o Function: Elevate the ribs during inspiration (inhalation)

 Internal intercostal muscles

o Run downward and backward

o Function: Depress the ribs during forced expiration

 Innermost intercostal muscles

o Deepest layer, similar in function to internal intercostals

o Function: Assist in forced expiration and maintain thoracic wall stability

2. Diaphragm:

 Dome-shaped muscle separating the thoracic and abdominal cavities

 Main muscle of respiration

 Function: Contracts and flattens during inspiration, increasing thoracic volume

3. Accessory Muscles (active during deep or labored breathing):

 Scalene muscles (anterior, middle, posterior): Elevate the first two ribs

 Sternocleidomastoid: Elevates the sternum

 Pectoralis major and minor: Can assist in elevating ribs when arms are fixed

 Serratus anterior and posterior muscles

Summary of Functions:

 Inspiration: External intercostals, diaphragm, accessory muscles

 Expiration (forced): Internal and innermost intercostals, abdominal muscles

Q118. EXPLAIN MEDIASTINUM AND ITS DIVISIONS. DRAW A WELL DIAGRAM OF THE LUNG AND ITS SEGMENTS

Mediastinum is the central compartment of the thoracic cavity located between the two lungs.

It contains vital structures such as the heart, trachea, esophagus, thymus, and major blood vessels (like the aorta
and vena cava), except the lungs.

Divisions of the Mediastinum:

1. Superior Mediastinum:

o Located above the level of the heart (above the sternal angle).

o Contains the thymus, great vessels (aortic arch, brachiocephalic vein), trachea, esophagus, and
part of the vagus and phrenic nerves.

2. Inferior Mediastinum:

o Located below the sternal angle and is further divided into:

 Anterior Mediastinum: Between the sternum and the pericardium. Contains lymph nodes,
fat, and connective tissue.

 Middle Mediastinum: Contains the heart, pericardium, ascending aorta, pulmonary trunk,
and main bronchi.

 Posterior Mediastinum: Located behind the pericardium. Contains the esophagus,

descending thoracic aorta, thoracic duct, and sympathetic trunks.

Q119. EXPLAIN PULMONARY ARTERY

 The pulmonary artery is a large blood vessel that carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle of
the heart to the lungs for oxygenation.

Key Points:

1. Origin:

o Arises from the right ventricle of the heart.

 2. Structure:

o Initially a single trunk known as the pulmonary trunk.

o Divides into:

 Right pulmonary artery → goes to the right lung.

 Left pulmonary artery → goes to the left lung.

3. Function:

o Transports deoxygenated blood to the lungs.

o Allows gas exchange in the lungs (CO₂ removed, O₂ absorbed).

4. Unique Feature:

o It is the only artery (besides fetal umbilical arteries) that carries deoxygenated blood.

5. Clinical Relevance:

o Pulmonary embolism can occur if a blood clot blocks the pulmonary artery.

o Seen on imaging like CT pulmonary angiography.

Q120. DRAW A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE SEGMENTS OF LUNG

Q121. DRAW A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE TRACHEA AND MAIN BRONCHI

Q122. ELABORATE ON HEART

The heart is a muscular, hollow organ located in the thoracic cavity, slightly to the left of the midline, behind the
sternum. It functions as the central pump of the circulatory system, maintaining continuous blood flow
throughout the body.

Structure:

1. Size & Shape:

o Roughly the size of a clenched fist.

o Cone-shaped, with a broad base and a pointed apex.

2. Chambers (4):

o Right Atrium: Receives deoxygenated blood from the body (via superior & inferior vena cava).

o Right Ventricle: Pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs (via pulmonary artery).

o Left Atrium: Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs (via pulmonary veins).

o Left Ventricle: Pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body (via the aorta).

3. Valves:

o Tricuspid Valve – between right atrium and right ventricle.

o Pulmonary Valve – between right ventricle and pulmonary artery.

o Mitral (Bicuspid) Valve – between left atrium and left ventricle.

o Aortic Valve – between left ventricle and aorta.

 4. Layers of the Heart Wall:

o Pericardium: Outer protective sac.

o Myocardium: Thick, muscular middle layer responsible for contraction.

o Endocardium: Inner lining of the chambers and valves.

Function:

 Pumps blood through two circulatory loops:

o Pulmonary circulation: Heart → Lungs → Heart

o Systemic circulation: Heart → Body → Heart

 Maintains oxygen and nutrient delivery and waste removal.

Blood Supply:

 Supplied by the coronary arteries (right and left), branching from the aorta.

Control:

 The heartbeat is regulated by the cardiac conduction system, including:

o SA Node (pacemaker)

o AV Node

o Bundle of His

o Purkinje fibers

Q123. DRAW A WELL LALBELLED DIAGRAM OF THE CROSS-SECTION OF LUNGS

Q124. ELABORATE ON RIGHT ATRIUM

Right Atrium

Location:

 Upper right chamber of the heart

Function:

 Receives deoxygenated blood from the body

 Pumps blood into the right ventricle

Main Openings:

 Superior vena cava (from upper body)

 Inferior vena cava (from lower body)

 Coronary sinus (from heart muscle)

Internal Features:

 Crista terminalis: Muscular ridge dividing smooth and rough parts

 Pectinate muscles: Muscular ridges in anterior wall and auricle

 Fossa ovalis: Oval depression, remnant of fetal foramen ovale

 Right auricle: Muscular appendage increasing atrial volume

Special Structures:

 Sinoatrial (SA) node: Located near SVC opening; natural pacemaker

Clinical Points:

 Right atrial enlargement seen in tricuspid valve disease, pulmonary hypertension

 Arrhythmias like atrial fibrillation can originate here

Q125. EXPALIN ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY

 Echocardiography is a non-invasive diagnostic technique that uses ultrasound waves to create images of
the heart.

Key Points:

1. Purpose:

o To visualize the structure and function of the heart in real-time.

o Assesses heart chambers, valves, wall motion, and blood flow.

2. Types:

o Transthoracic echocardiography (TTE): Ultrasound probe placed on the chest wall.

o Transesophageal echocardiography (TEE): Probe inserted into the esophagus for clearer images.
 3. Uses:

o Diagnose valvular heart diseases (stenosis, regurgitation).

o Assess congenital heart defects.

o Evaluate cardiac function after a heart attack.

o Detect pericardial effusion or cardiac masses.

o Measure ejection fraction to assess heart pumping efficiency.

4. Procedure:

o Patient lies down, gel applied on chest, and probe moved to get different views.

o Produces 2D or 3D images and Doppler flow studies.

5. Advantages:

o Non-invasive, safe, painless, and provides immediate results.

o No radiation exposure.

Q126. ELABORATE ON AORTIC ARCH

The aortic arch is a curved portion of the aorta, the largest artery in the body. It lies in the thoracic cavity and
serves as a major conduit distributing oxygenated blood from the heart to the upper body.

 The aortic arch begins at the end of the ascending aorta (just after the heart) and curves posteriorly and
to the left, becoming the descending aorta.

 It lies behind the sternum and in front of the trachea and esophagus.

 The arch is roughly shaped like a “U” or a semicircle.

Branches of the Aortic Arch:

There are three main branches supplying blood to the head, neck, and upper limbs:

1. Brachiocephalic Trunk (Artery):

o Divides into the right subclavian artery (to right arm) and right common carotid artery (to right
side of head and neck).

2. Left Common Carotid Artery:

o Supplies the left side of the head and neck.

3. Left Subclavian Artery:

o Supplies the left upper limb.

Functions:

 Distributes oxygen-rich blood from the left ventricle of the heart to the upper body.

 Provides branches that supply the brain, neck, shoulders, and arms.
Clinical Relevance:

 Conditions such as aortic aneurysm or aortic dissection often involve the aortic arch.

 Its branches are commonly checked for arterial blockages that can cause stroke or limb ischemia.

Q127. ELABOARET ON RIGHT AND LEFT CORONARY ARTERY

1. Right Coronary Artery (RCA):

 Origin:

o Arises from the right aortic sinus of the ascending aorta.

 Course:

o Runs in the right atrioventricular (coronary) groove.

 Branches:

o Marginal artery (acute marginal artery): Supplies the right ventricle.

o Posterior interventricular artery (posterior descending artery): Runs in the posterior

interventricular sulcus; supplies posterior part of interventricular septum and ventricles.

 Areas Supplied:

o Right atrium, right ventricle, part of left ventricle, SA node (in ~60% people), AV node.

2. Left Coronary Artery (LCA):

 Origin:

o Arises from the left aortic sinus of the ascending aorta.

 Course:

o Passes between the left auricle and pulmonary trunk; then divides into two main branches.

 Main Branches:

o Anterior interventricular artery (left anterior descending - LAD): Runs in anterior interventricular
sulcus; supplies anterior wall of both ventricles and anterior 2/3 of interventricular septum.

o Circumflex artery: Runs in left atrioventricular groove; supplies left atrium and posterior left
ventricle.

 Areas Supplied:

o Left atrium, left ventricle, interventricular septum, part of right ventricle, SA node (in ~40%
people).

Clinical Relevance:

 Blockage of the LAD artery is called the “widow-maker” due to high risk of fatal heart attacks.

 Coronary artery disease commonly involves these arteries, causing ischemia and infarction.
Q128. ELABORATE ON THE VEINS OF THE HEART. DRAW A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE CROSS-SECTION OF
HEART

 The veins of the heart are responsible for draining deoxygenated blood from the heart muscle
(myocardium) and returning it to the right atrium.

Main Veins of the Heart:

1. Coronary Sinus:

o The largest venous channel of the heart.

o Located in the posterior part of the coronary sulcus.

o Receives most of the cardiac veins and empties into the right atrium.

2. Great Cardiac Vein:

o Runs alongside the left anterior descending artery.

o Drains blood from the anterior surface of the heart.

o Drains into the coronary sinus.

3. Middle Cardiac Vein:

o Runs in the posterior interventricular sulcus with the posterior interventricular artery.

o Drains the posterior part of the heart.

o Empties into the coronary sinus.

4. Small Cardiac Vein:

o Runs along the right margin of the heart.

o Drains the right atrium and ventricle.

o Joins the coronary sinus.

5. Anterior Cardiac Veins:

o Drain directly into the right atrium, bypassing the coronary sinus.

o Drain the anterior surface of the right ventricle.

Summary Table:

Vein Location/Path Drains Into Region Drained

Coronary Sinus Posterior coronary sulcus Right atrium Most cardiac veins

Great Cardiac Vein Along LAD artery, anterior interventricular Coronary Anterior heart surface
sulcus sinus

Middle Cardiac Vein Posterior interventricular sulcus Coronary Posterior heart

sinus surface

Small Cardiac Vein Right margin of the heart Coronary Right atrium &
sinus ventricle

Anterior Cardiac Anterior surface of right ventricle Right atrium Anterior right
 Veins ventricle

Q129. DESCRIBE PLEURA. DRAW A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE AXIAL CROSS-SECTION OF CHEST

 The pleura is a thin, double-layered serous membrane that encloses each lung and lines the thoracic
cavity.

Layers of Pleura:

1. Visceral Pleura:

o Covers the surface of the lungs directly, including fissures.

o Closely adheres to the lung tissue.

2. Parietal Pleura:

o Lines the inner surface of the thoracic cavity, diaphragm, and mediastinum.

o Divided into four parts:

 Costal pleura (lining ribs)

 Diaphragmatic pleura (lining diaphragm)

 Mediastinal pleura (lining mediastinum)

 Cervical pleura (cupula) (extending into the neck)

Pleural Cavity:

 The potential space between visceral and parietal pleura.

 Contains a small amount of pleural fluid (~10-20 ml) which lubricates the surfaces and allows smooth
gliding during respiration.
Functions of Pleura:

 Reduces friction between lungs and thoracic wall during breathing.

 Creates a pressure gradient that helps in lung expansion.

 Provides a protective barrier against infections spreading from lungs to thoracic cavity.

Clinical Relevance:

 Pleural effusion: Excess fluid in the pleural cavity.

 Pneumothorax: Air in the pleural cavity causing lung collapse.

 Pleuritis: Inflammation of the pleura causing sharp chest pain.

Q130. DESCRIBE HEART AND CARDIAC CHAMBER. ENUMERATE THE CHAMBERS OF HEART

 The heart is a muscular, hollow organ that functions as a pump to circulate blood throughout the body.

 It is located in the thoracic cavity, within the mediastinum, slightly to the left of the midline.

 It is enclosed by the pericardium and made up of cardiac muscle tissue (myocardium).

 The heart ensures oxygenated blood is delivered to tissues and deoxygenated blood is sent to the lungs
for oxygenation.

Cardiac Chambers:

The heart has four chambers, divided into two atria (upper) and two ventricles (lower):

Enumerate the Chambers of the Heart:

1. Right Atrium

o Receives deoxygenated blood from the body via:

 Superior vena cava

 Inferior vena cava

 Coronary sinus
 o Sends blood to the right ventricle.

2. Right Ventricle

o Pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs via the pulmonary artery.

3. Left Atrium

o Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs via the pulmonary veins.

o Sends blood to the left ventricle.

4. Left Ventricle

o Pumps oxygenated blood to the entire body through the aorta.

o Has the thickest wall to handle high pressure.

Summary Table:

Chamber Receives Blood From Sends Blood To Type of Blood

Right Atrium Body (via SVC, IVC, coronary sinus) Right ventricle Deoxygenated

Right Ventricle Right atrium Lungs (via pulmonary artery) Deoxygenated

Left Atrium Lungs (via pulmonary veins) Left ventricle Oxygenated

Left Ventricle Left atrium Body (via aorta) Oxygenated

Q131. DESCRIBE PULMONARY ARTERY. DRAW A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE PULMONARY ARTERY AND ITS
BRANCHES

 The pulmonary artery is a large blood vessel that carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle of
the heart to the lungs for oxygenation.

 It is unique because it is the only artery (apart from fetal arteries) that carries deoxygenated blood.

Origin and Path:

 Arises from the right ventricle as the pulmonary trunk.

 The pulmonary trunk runs upward and divides into:

1. Right pulmonary artery → goes to the right lung

2. Left pulmonary artery → goes to the left lung

Structure:

 Pulmonary trunk is short and wide.

 It bifurcates near the level of the T5–T6 vertebra.

 Each branch follows the bronchial tree into the lungs, dividing into smaller arteries until they reach the
capillaries where gas exchange occurs.

Function:

 Transports deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs.

  Enables gas exchange in lung capillaries:

o CO₂ is released, and

o O₂ is absorbed into the blood.

Clinical Significance:

 Pulmonary embolism: A blockage (usually a blood clot) in the pulmonary artery can be life-threatening.

 Pulmonary hypertension: Increased pressure in the pulmonary arteries, which can lead to heart failure.

✅ Quick Recap:

Feature Pulmonary Artery

Type of Blood Deoxygenated

Origin Right Ventricle

Destination Lungs

Function Gas exchange via lung capillaries

Clinical Importance Pulmonary embolism, hypertension

Q132. DESCRIBE BRONCHOPULMONARY SEGMENTS.

 Bronchopulmonary segments are functionally and anatomically independent subdivisions of each lung
lobe, each supplied by its own segmental (tertiary) bronchus and branch of the pulmonary artery.

Key Features:

1. Pyramidal-shaped units of lung tissue.

 2. Surrounded by connective tissue septa, which separates one segment from another.

3. Each segment has:

o Its own segmental bronchus

o Its own segmental artery

o Veins that lie in the intersegmental planes (shared between segments)

4. Surgically resectable — they can be removed individually if diseased without affecting adjacent segments.

Number of Segments:

Lung Number of Segments

Right 10 segments
Lung

Left Lung 8–10 segments (some fuse)

Right Lung Segments:

 Upper lobe:

1. Apical

2. Posterior

3. Anterior

 Middle lobe:
4. Lateral
5. Medial

 Lower lobe:
6. Superior
7. Medial basal
8. Anterior basal
9. Lateral basal
10. Posterior basal

Left Lung Segments:

 Upper lobe:

1. Apicoposterior

2. Anterior

3. Superior lingular

4. Inferior lingular

 Lower lobe:
5. Superior
6. Anteromedial basal
7. Lateral basal
8. Posterior basal
Clinical Relevance:

 Segmental pneumonia: Infection localized to one segment.

 Bronchoscopy & surgeries: Segmental anatomy helps guide targeted removal or drainage.

 Tuberculosis: Often affects specific segments (like apical segments).

Q133. DESCRIBE THE MEDIASTINAL DIVISION OF THORAX.

The mediastinum is the central compartment of the thoracic cavity, located between the two lungs. It contains
vital structures such as the heart, great vessels, trachea, esophagus, thymus, and lymph nodes.

Divisions of the Mediastinum:

The mediastinum is divided into four main parts:

1. Superior Mediastinum:

 Located above a horizontal plane from the sternal angle to the T4 vertebra.

 Contents:

o Aortic arch and its branches

o Brachiocephalic veins and superior vena cava (upper part)

o Trachea

o Esophagus

o Thymus

o Thoracic duct

o Vagus and phrenic nerves

2. Inferior Mediastinum:

Located below the level of the sternal angle and divided into three parts:

a. Anterior Mediastinum:

 Between the sternum and pericardium

 Contents:

o Loose connective tissue

o Fat

o Lymph nodes

o Lower part of thymus (in children)

b. Middle Mediastinum:

 The largest part; contains the heart and associated structures

  Contents:

o Heart and pericardium

o Ascending aorta

o Pulmonary trunk and arteries

o Lower half of superior vena cava

o Pulmonary veins

o Phrenic nerves

o Tracheobronchial lymph nodes

c. Posterior Mediastinum:

 Behind the pericardium and in front of the vertebral column

 Contents:

o Esophagus

o Descending thoracic aorta

o Azygos and hemiazygos veins

o Thoracic duct

o Vagus nerves

o Sympathetic trunks and splanchnic nerves

Summary Table:

Division Location Key Contents

Superior Above sternal angle (T4 level) Aortic arch, trachea, esophagus, thymus

Anterior (Inferior) In front of heart/pericardium Fat, lymph nodes, thymus (in children)

Middle (Inferior) Contains heart Heart, great vessels, phrenic nerves

Posterior Behind heart and pericardium Esophagus, descending aorta, thoracic

(Inferior) duct

Q134. DESCRIBE CORONARY ARTERIES AND VEINS OF HEART.

These arteries supply oxygenated blood to the heart muscle (myocardium). They arise from the ascending aorta
just above the aortic valve.

1. Right Coronary Artery (RCA):

 Origin: Right aortic sinus

 Main Branches:

o Right marginal artery – supplies right ventricle

o Posterior interventricular artery (PDA) – supplies posterior part of interventricular septum

  Supplies:

o Right atrium, right ventricle, part of left ventricle, SA node (~60%), AV node

2. Left Coronary Artery (LCA):

 Origin: Left aortic sinus

 Main Branches:

o Left anterior descending (LAD) artery – supplies anterior wall and septum

o Circumflex artery – supplies left atrium and lateral/posterior left ventricle

 Supplies:

o Left atrium, left ventricle, part of right ventricle, interventricular septum, SA node (~40%)

💙 Coronary Veins

These veins drain deoxygenated blood from the myocardium into the right atrium, mainly via the coronary
sinus.

Main Veins:

 Coronary sinus:

o Main vein of the heart

o Opens directly into the right atrium

o Receives blood from:

o Great cardiac vein – runs with LAD artery (anterior interventricular sulcus)

o Middle cardiac vein – runs with PDA (posterior interventricular sulcus)

o Small cardiac vein – runs with marginal artery

o Posterior vein of the left ventricle

 Anterior cardiac veins:

o Drain directly into the right atrium (do not pass through coronary sinus)

💡 Clinical Relevance:

 Coronary artery disease (CAD): Blockage reduces blood flow → angina or myocardial infarction

 Coronary angiography: Imaging of coronary arteries

 Bypass surgery (CABG): Grafts used to reroute blood around blocked arteries

Q135. DESCRIBE RIGHT CORONARY ARTERY AND ITS BRANCHES.

The Right Coronary Artery (RCA) is one of the two main coronary arteries that supply oxygenated blood to the
heart muscle (myocardium).
It originates from the right aortic sinus of the ascending aorta and runs along the right atrioventricular (AV)
groove between the right atrium and right ventricle.

Main Branches of the Right Coronary Artery:

1. Conus Branch (Infundibular artery):

o Supplies the conus arteriosus (infundibulum) of the right ventricle.

2. Sinoatrial (SA) Nodal Artery:

o Arises in about 60% of people from the RCA.

o Supplies the sinoatrial node, the heart's natural pacemaker.

3. Right Marginal Artery:

o Travels along the right margin of the heart.

o Supplies the right ventricle.

4. Posterior Descending Artery (PDA) / Posterior Interventricular Artery:

o Found in right-dominant circulation (present in about 70% of people).

o Runs in the posterior interventricular sulcus.

o Supplies the posterior third of the interventricular septum and adjacent parts of the ventricles.

5. Atrioventricular (AV) Nodal Artery:

o Arises near the crux of the heart.

o Supplies the atrioventricular node.

Functions of the Right Coronary Artery:

 Supplies blood to the right atrium, right ventricle, part of the left ventricle (inferior wall), the
interventricular septum (posterior part), SA node, and AV node (in most people).

Q136. DESCRIBE PERICARDIUM AND ITS RADIOLOGICAL FEATURES. ENUMERATE THE CARDIAC CHAMBERS AND
VALVES

I. Pericardium

 The pericardium is a fibroserous sac that encloses the heart and the roots of the great vessels.

Layers of the Pericardium:

1. Fibrous Pericardium

o Outer tough connective tissue layer.

o Anchors the heart to surrounding structures like the diaphragm and sternum.

2. Serous Pericardium

o Double-layered membrane:

 Parietal layer: lines the fibrous pericardium.

  Visceral layer (epicardium): adheres tightly to the surface of the heart.

Pericardial Cavity:

 A potential space between the parietal and visceral layers containing serous fluid (15–50 ml), which
reduces friction during heartbeats.

II. Radiological Features of the Pericardium

1. Chest X-ray (CXR):

 Normally, the pericardium is not visible on a plain X-ray unless it is thickened or calcified.

 Pericardial effusion appears as an enlarged, globular cardiac silhouette (“water bottle” shape).

2. CT Scan:

 Shows pericardial thickness; useful for detecting pericardial calcification, effusion, or masses.

 Normal pericardial thickness: <2 mm.

3. MRI:

 Best for assessing pericardial inflammation, fibrosis, or constriction.

4. Echocardiography:

 Most common and effective for real-time evaluation of pericardial effusion or tamponade.

III. Cardiac Chambers

The heart has four chambers:

Chamber Location Function

Right Atrium Upper Receives deoxygenated blood from the body (SVC, IVC, coronary sinus)
right

Right Ventricle Lower right Pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs via pulmonary artery

Left Atrium Upper left Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs via pulmonary veins

Left Ventricle Lower left Pumps oxygenated blood to the body via aorta

IV. Cardiac Valves

There are four main valves that control the direction of blood flow:

Valve Name Between Chambers/Vessels Function

Tricuspid Valve Right atrium and right ventricle Prevents backflow into right atrium

Pulmonary Valve Right ventricle and pulmonary artery Prevents backflow into right ventricle

Mitral (Bicuspid) Left atrium and left ventricle Prevents backflow into left atrium
Valve

Aortic Valve Left ventricle and aorta Prevents backflow into left ventricle

Q137. DESCRIBE CHAMBERS OF THE HEART. DRAW A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE CROSS-SECTIONAL OF
HEART
The heart has four chambers that work together to pump blood throughout the body. These chambers are
divided into two atria (upper chambers) and two ventricles (lower chambers).

🔹 1. Right Atrium:

 Receives deoxygenated blood from the body through:

o Superior vena cava

o Inferior vena cava

o Coronary sinus

 Passes blood to the right ventricle through the tricuspid valve.

🔹 2. Right Ventricle:

 Pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs via the pulmonary artery.

 Blood flows through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary trunk.

🔹 3. Left Atrium:

 Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs through the pulmonary veins.

 Passes blood to the left ventricle through the mitral (bicuspid) valve.

🔹 4. Left Ventricle:

 Pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body via the aorta.

 Has the thickest muscular wall because it generates high pressure to distribute blood systemically.

 Blood flows through the aortic valve into the aorta.

💡 Summary Table:

Chamber Receives Blood From Pumps Blood To Type of Blood

Right Atrium Body (via venae cavae) Right Ventricle Deoxygenated

Right Ventricle Right Atrium Lungs (via pulmonary artery) Deoxygenated

Left Atrium Lungs (via pulmonary veins) Left Ventricle Oxygenated

Left Ventricle Left Atrium Body (via aorta) Oxygenated

Q138. ELABORATE ON URINARY BLADDER

The urinary bladder is a hollow, muscular, distensible organ that stores urine temporarily until it is expelled from
the body through micturition (urination).

📌 Location:

 In males:

o Located anterior to the rectum and superior to the prostate gland

 In females:

o Located anterior to the vagina and uterus

🧱 Structure:

 Shape (when empty): Pyramidal

 Apex: Points toward the pubic symphysis

 Base (posterior surface): Faces the rectum (males) or vagina (females)

 Neck: Lowest, most fixed part, continues as the urethra

 Superior surface: Covered by peritoneum

💪 Wall Layers (from inside out):

1. Mucosa (Transitional epithelium): Allows stretching

2. Submucosa

3. Muscular layer (Detrusor muscle): Smooth muscle for contraction

4. Serosa/adventitia: Outermost layer

🔺 Trigone:
  A triangular area on the internal posterior wall between the two ureteric orifices and the internal
urethral orifice

 Smooth and sensitive to stretch

 Clinically important as infections often localize here

💧 Blood Supply:

 Arteries:

o Superior and inferior vesical arteries (branches of the internal iliac artery)

 Veins:

o Vesical venous plexus → Internal iliac vein

🧠 Nerve Supply:

 Sympathetic: T11–L2 — promotes urine retention

 Parasympathetic: S2–S4 (pelvic splanchnic nerves) — stimulates bladder contraction

 Somatic: Pudendal nerve (for external urethral sphincter control)

🩺 Clinical Relevance:

 Urinary retention: Inability to empty the bladder completely

 Urinary tract infection (UTI): More common in females due to shorter urethra

 Neurogenic bladder: Loss of bladder control due to nerve damage

 Cystoscopy: Endoscopic examination of the bladder

Q139. DRAW A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF TH AXIAL CROSS-SECTION OF LIVER

Q140. DRAW A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE AXIAL CROSS-SECTION OF KIDNEY

Q141. ELABORATE ON PANCREAS, ITS ARTERIAL SUPPLY AND VENOUS DRAINAGE. DRAW A WELL LABELLED
DIAGRAM OF THE PANCREAS

 The pancreas is a long, soft, retroperitoneal gland located in the upper abdomen, behind the stomach.

 It is both an exocrine gland (produces digestive enzymes) and an endocrine gland (produces hormones
like insulin and glucagon).

II. PARTS OF THE PANCREAS

1. Head – Lies within the curve of the duodenum.

2. Uncinate Process – A small hook-like extension of the head.

3. Neck – Lies anterior to the superior mesenteric vessels.

4. Body – Extends leftward across the vertebral column.

 5. Tail – Lies near the spleen and is the only intraperitoneal part.

III. FUNCTIONS OF THE PANCREAS

 Exocrine Function:

o Acinar cells secrete digestive enzymes (amylase, lipase, protease) into the pancreatic duct.

 Endocrine Function:

o Islets of Langerhans secrete hormones:

 Insulin (lowers blood sugar)

 Glucagon (raises blood sugar)

 Somatostatin and pancreatic polypeptide

IV. ARTERIAL SUPPLY OF THE PANCREAS

 Supplied by branches of celiac trunk and superior mesenteric artery (SMA).

Artery Supplies Which Part

Superior pancreaticoduodenal artery (branch of gastroduodenal Head and uncinate

artery) process

Inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery (branch of SMA) Head and uncinate

process

Branches of splenic artery (e.g., dorsal pancreatic, great pancreatic) Body and tail

V. VENOUS DRAINAGE OF THE PANCREAS

 Veins mostly follow the arteries and drain into the portal venous system.

Vein Drains Into

Pancreatic veins Splenic vein

Superior pancreaticoduodenal Portal vein

vein

Inferior pancreaticoduodenal vein Superior mesenteric vein (SMV)

Final venous drainage: Splenic vein + SMV → Portal vein → Liver

VI. CLINICAL CORRELATIONS

 Pancreatitis – Inflammation of the pancreas (acute or chronic).

 Pancreatic cancer – Often involves the head; may compress the bile duct leading to jaundice.

 Diabetes Mellitus – Due to damage or dysfunction of insulin-producing beta cells.

Q142. DRAW A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE ARTERIAL SUPPLY OF STOMACH

Q143. EXPLAIN RADIOLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE ILEOCAECAL VALVE

 The ileocecal valve is the junction between the ileum and cecum, functioning as a sphincter to control
the flow of intestinal contents and prevent backflow.

🔹 Radiological Appearance:

✅ 1. Barium Follow-Through / Small Bowel Study:

 Appears as a smooth, rounded mound or lip-like structure.

 Has a slit-like opening into the cecum.

 Located in the right iliac fossa.

 Helps confirm the terminal ileum entry into the cecum.

✅ 2. CT Scan with Contrast:

  Seen as a soft tissue fold or semi-lunar structure at the ileocecal junction.

 Helps identify the transition from small to large intestine.

 May show surrounding air or fluid depending on bowel contents.

✅ 3. Colonoscopy (Retrograde View):

 Visualized as the ileocecal papilla (small flap inside cecum).

 Appears as a raised, smooth valve that can be intubated.

 Used to access the terminal ileum.

🔹 Clinical Significance:

 Useful in diagnosing:

o Crohn’s disease (thickened, narrowed valve)

o Intussusception

o Ileocecal tuberculosis

 Important anatomical landmark in GI imaging and colonoscopy.

Q144. EXPLAIN LIVER AND ITS SEGMENTAL ANATOMY. DRAW A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE SEGMENTS OF
LIVER.

The liver is the largest solid organ in the human body. It is a vital organ involved in metabolism, detoxification,
digestion (bile production), storage, and synthesis of blood proteins.

📌 Location:

 Lies mainly in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen

 Under the diaphragm, mostly protected by the rib cage

🧱 Anatomical Lobes:

Traditionally divided into two main lobes:

1. Right lobe – larger

2. Left lobe – smaller

Smaller lobes (part of right lobe functionally):

 Caudate lobe

 Quadrate lobe

🧩 Segmental Anatomy of the Liver (Functional Division)

🔄 Based on Couinaud's classification (surgical anatomy):

 Liver is divided into 8 functional segments

 Each segment has its own branch of the portal vein, hepatic artery, and bile duct

 Segments are numbered I to VIII (clockwise around the liver)

🧠 Liver Segments:

Segmen Lobe/Region Notes

t

I Caudate lobe Located posteriorly, near IVC

II Left lobe Lateral superior segment

III Left lobe Lateral inferior segment

IV Left lobe (medial part) Divided into IVa (superior) and IVb (inferior)

V Right lobe Anterior inferior segment

VI Right lobe Posterior inferior segment

VII Right lobe Posterior superior segment

VIII Right lobe Anterior superior segment

🩺 Clinical Importance:

 Segmental anatomy is essential for liver surgery (e.g., tumor resection, transplantation)

 Helps in precise localization of lesions on imaging

 Segment I (caudate) drains directly into IVC and has independent blood supply

🧪 Blood Supply:

 Dual supply:

o Hepatic artery (oxygenated blood)

o Portal vein (nutrient-rich blood from GI tract)

 Venous drainage: Hepatic veins → Inferior vena cava

Q145. ELABORATE ON FEMALE URETHRA

  The female urethra is a short muscular tube that conveys urine from the urinary bladder to the external
urethral orifice.

 It is exclusively urinary (unlike the male urethra which is both urinary and reproductive).

II. LENGTH & LOCATION:

 Length: Approximately 4 cm (1.5 inches)

 Location:

o Lies anterior to the vaginal wall

o Extends from the internal urethral orifice (in the bladder) to the external urethral orifice (in the
vestibule, between clitoris and vaginal opening)

III. STRUCTURE:

 Lining epithelium: Varies along its length

o Transitional epithelium (near bladder)

o Stratified squamous epithelium (near the external opening)

 Surrounded by:

o External urethral sphincter (voluntary control)

o Connective tissue and rich venous plexus

IV. OPENINGS:

 Internal urethral orifice: At the bladder neck

 External urethral orifice: In the vestibule, anterior to vaginal opening

V. RELATIONSHIPS:

Structur Relative Position

e

Anterior Pubic symphysis

Posterior Vagina

Superior Bladder

Inferior Perineal membrane

VI. FUNCTIONS:

 Excretion of urine from the body

 Maintains continence through urethral sphincters

VII. CLINICAL CORRELATION:

 Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are more common in females due to:

o Shorter urethra

o Close proximity of urethral opening to the anus and vagina

  Urethral catheterization is easier due to short length

 Stress urinary incontinence may occur due to weakness of pelvic floor muscles or sphincter

Q146. EXPLAIN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN MALES

The male reproductive system is responsible for the production of sperm, secretion of male sex hormones
(mainly testosterone), and delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract.

🔹 Main Components:

✅ 1. Testes (Testicles):

 Primary male sex organs (gonads)

 Located in the scrotum

 Functions:

o Spermatogenesis – production of sperm

o Secretion of testosterone

✅ 2. Epididymis:

 Coiled tube behind each testis

 Site of sperm maturation and storage

✅ 3. Vas Deferens (Ductus Deferens):

 Muscular tube that transports sperm from the epididymis to the urethra

 Joins with the seminal vesicle to form the ejaculatory duct

✅ 4. Seminal Vesicles:

 Paired glands that secrete fluid rich in fructose

 Contributes to 60–70% of semen volume

✅ 5. Prostate Gland:

 Single gland located below the bladder

 Secretes alkaline fluid that nourishes and protects sperm

✅ 6. Bulbourethral Glands (Cowper’s Glands):

 Small paired glands

 Secrete pre-ejaculate fluid that lubricates the urethra

✅ 7. Urethra:

 Common passage for urine and semen

 Divided into prostatic, membranous, and penile parts

✅ 8. Penis:
  External organ

 Delivers sperm into the female reproductive tract

 Contains erectile tissue (corpora cavernosa & corpus spongiosum)

🔹 Hormonal Regulation:

 Controlled by the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis:

o GnRH (Hypothalamus) → LH & FSH (Pituitary)

 LH → Stimulates Leydig cells to produce testosterone

 FSH → Stimulates Sertoli cells for sperm development

🔹 Functions:

 Sperm production and maturation

 Hormone secretion (testosterone)

 Sexual function and reproduction

Q147. EXPLAIN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN FEMALES

The female reproductive system consists of internal and external organs responsible for producing ova (eggs),
fertilization, pregnancy, childbirth, and hormone production (mainly estrogen and progesterone).

🧬 1. Internal Reproductive Organs:

🔹 a. Ovaries

 Paired, almond-shaped glands

 Function: Produce ova (eggs) and secrete hormones (estrogen, progesterone)

🔹 b. Fallopian Tubes (Uterine tubes)

 Tube connecting ovaries to uterus

 Site of fertilization (ampulla region)

 Parts: Infundibulum, ampulla, isthmus, and intramural part

🔹 c. Uterus

 Muscular, pear-shaped organ

 Function: Nurtures fertilized egg and supports fetal development

 Parts:

o Fundus (top)

o Body

o Cervix (lower part opening into vagina)

 Lining: Endometrium (sheds during menstruation)

🔹 d. Vagina

 Muscular tube connecting cervix to external body

 Functions: Birth canal, menstrual flow passage, and receives penis during intercourse

🌸 2. External Reproductive Organs (Vulva):

 Mons pubis – fatty area over pubic bone

 Labia majora & labia minora – folds protecting vaginal opening

 Clitoris – erectile tissue, rich in nerve endings

 Vestibule – space containing openings of vagina and urethra

🔄 3. Associated Glands:

 Bartholin’s glands – secrete lubricating fluid near vaginal opening

 Skene’s glands – near urethra, may aid lubrication

🩺 Functions of the Female Reproductive System:

 Oogenesis – production of ova (eggs)

 Menstrual cycle – prepares body for pregnancy

 Fertilization & implantation

 Support of fetus during pregnancy

 Birth and lactation (indirect)

Q148. DRAW A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE LATERAL VIEW OF SACRUM

Q149. DESCRIBE ABDOMINAL AORTA. DRAW A WELL LABELLED DAIGRAM OF THE ABDOMINAL AORTA
The abdominal aorta is the continuation of the descending thoracic aorta that begins at the level of the
diaphragm (T12 vertebra) and extends down to the level of the L4 vertebra, where it bifurcates into the right
and left common iliac arteries.

It is the main arterial trunk that supplies oxygenated blood to the abdominal organs, pelvis, and lower limbs.

Course:

 Begins at the aortic hiatus of the diaphragm at the level of T12.

 Runs anterior to the vertebral column, slightly to the left of the midline.

 Ends at L4 by dividing into the common iliac arteries.

Major Branches of the Abdominal Aorta:

A. Unpaired (Visceral) Branches:

1. Celiac Trunk (T12):

o Supplies the liver, stomach, spleen, pancreas, and upper duodenum.

2. Superior Mesenteric Artery (SMA) (L1):

o Supplies the small intestine and part of the large intestine.

3. Inferior Mesenteric Artery (IMA) (L3):

o Supplies the distal large intestine (colon and rectum).

B. Paired (Visceral) Branches:

1. Middle Suprarenal Arteries

2. Renal Arteries

3. Gonadal Arteries (testicular or ovarian)

C. Paired (Parietal) Branches:

1. Inferior Phrenic Arteries

2. Lumbar Arteries (4 pairs)

3. Median Sacral Artery (unpaired, near bifurcation)

Functions:

 Supplies blood to most of the abdominal and pelvic organs, diaphragm, and lower limbs.
Q150. DESCRIBE PORTAL VENOUS SYSTEM. DRAW A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE PORTAL VENOUS SYSTEM

 A venous system that drains blood from the gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, spleen, and gallbladder into
the liver for processing before entering systemic circulation.

✅ Main Vessel: Portal Vein

 Formed by:

o Superior Mesenteric Vein (SMV) + Splenic Vein

 Site of formation:

o Behind the neck of the pancreas

✅ Tributaries of Portal Vein:

Vein Drains

Superior Mesenteric Vein Small intestine, cecum, ascending & transverse colon
(SMV)

Splenic Vein Spleen, pancreas, part of stomach

Inferior Mesenteric Vein (IMV) Descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum (joins splenic vein)

Left & Right Gastric Veins Stomach

Cystic Vein Gallbladder

Paraumbilical Veins Anterior abdominal wall (around umbilicus)

✅ Functions:

 Carries nutrient-rich, oxygen-poor blood to the liver

 Allows first-pass metabolism of nutrients, drugs, toxins

 Supports detoxification and immune surveillance

✅ Portal-Systemic (Portocaval) Anastomoses:

Site Portal Vein Branch Systemic Vein Clinical Relevance

Esophagus Left gastric vein Azygos vein Esophageal varices

Rectum Superior rectal vein Middle & inferior rectal veins Hemorrhoids

Umbilicus Paraumbilical veins Superficial epigastric veins Caput medusae

Retroperitoneum Colic veins Lumbar veins Hidden varices (internal)

✅ Clinical Importance:

 Portal Hypertension:

o Causes: Cirrhosis, thrombosis, liver disease

o Effects: Varices, splenomegaly, ascites

 First-pass metabolism:

o Drugs taken orally are processed by liver before systemic effect

Q151. DESCRIBE INFERIOR VENA CAVA. DRAW A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE INFERIOR VENA CAVA

 The Inferior Vena Cava (IVC) is the largest vein in the human body.

 It collects deoxygenated blood from the lower half of the body and drains it into the right atrium of the
heart.

II. FORMATION:

 Formed by the union of the right and left common iliac veins at the level of L5 vertebra.

III. COURSE:

 Ascends on the right side of the vertebral column, behind the liver.

 Passes through the diaphragm at the T8 vertebral level via the caval opening.

 Ends by entering the right atrium of the heart.

IV. TRIBUTARIES:

Tributary Veins Area Drained

Common iliac veins Lower limbs and pelvis

Lumbar veins Posterior abdominal wall

Renal veins Kidneys

Right gonadal vein Right testis or ovary

Right suprarenal vein Right adrenal gland

Hepatic veins Liver

Inferior phrenic veins Diaphragm

Median sacral vein (variable) Pelvis and sacrum

V. FUNCTION:

 Returns deoxygenated blood from the lower body to the right atrium for pulmonary circulation.

VI. RELATIONS:

Structure Relation to IVC

Aorta Lies on the left of the IVC

Right kidney Lies posterior-lateral to the IVC

Liver Anterior and superior to IVC

Duodenum & pancreas Cross anterior to IVC

VII. CLINICAL CORRELATION:

 IVC thrombosis: Can lead to lower limb swelling, renal failure.

 IVC filters: Sometimes placed to prevent pulmonary embolism from deep vein thrombosis (DVT).

 Congenital anomalies: Duplicated IVC or left-sided IVC can occur.

Q152. DESCRIBE THE RADIOLOGICAL FEATURES OF LIVER. ENUMERATE THE ARTERIAL AND VENOUS BLOOD
SUPPLY TO THE LIVER

✅ 1. On X-Ray (Plain Abdominal Radiograph):

 Not directly visible, but:

o May see displacement of bowel loops or elevated right hemidiaphragm in cases of liver
enlargement.

✅ 2. On Ultrasound (USG):

 First-line imaging for liver.

 Normal liver is:

o Homogeneous and echogenic (slightly brighter than kidney cortex).

o Size: ~13–15 cm in midclavicular line.

 Can detect:

o Fatty liver, cirrhosis, tumors, cysts, abscess, etc.

✅ 3. On CT Scan (Contrast-Enhanced CT):

 Well-defined organ in right upper abdomen.

 Divided into right and left lobes, sometimes visualized with segmental anatomy.

 Arterial, portal venous, and delayed phases show vascularity and lesions.

 Used to detect tumors, metastases, trauma, vascular abnormalities.

✅ 4. On MRI:

 Excellent soft tissue contrast.

 Liver appears with:

o High signal in T1 for fat

o High signal in T2 for fluid

 Used for detailed assessment of mass lesions, fatty infiltration, or biliary structures.

✅ 5. Nuclear Imaging (Liver Scans):

 Hepatobiliary scintigraphy (HIDA scan) used to assess bile flow and functionality of liver tissue.

🔹 Arterial Blood Supply to the Liver:

 Hepatic Artery Proper (from Common Hepatic Artery, a branch of Celiac Trunk)

o Supplies ~25% of liver’s blood (oxygen-rich)

o Divides into:

 Right hepatic artery

 Left hepatic artery

🔹 Venous Blood Supply to the Liver:

 Portal Vein (from superior mesenteric vein + splenic vein)

o Supplies ~75% of liver’s blood (nutrient-rich)

o Delivers substances from GI tract for metabolism

🔹 Venous Drainage from Liver:

 Blood exits the liver via hepatic veins (right, middle, left)

 These drain into the inferior vena cava (IVC)

✅ Summary Table:

Feature Details

Imaging Modalities USG, CT, MRI, X-ray, Nuclear Scans

Arterial Supply Hepatic Artery (Right & Left branches)

Venous Supply Portal Vein

Venous Drainage Hepatic Veins → Inferior Vena Cava

Q153. DESCRIBE GALL BLADDER, BILE DUCTS AND THE RELATIONS OF GALL BLADDER. DRAW A WELL LABELLED
DIAGRAM OF THE BILLIARY SYSTEM

🟢 1. Gallbladder

A pear-shaped muscular sac that stores and concentrates bile produced by the liver.

📌 Location:

 Lies in a fossa on the inferior surface of the right lobe of the liver, between segments IV and V.

🧱 Parts of the Gallbladder:

1. Fundus – rounded end projecting below the liver; may touch the anterior abdominal wall

2. Body – lies in contact with the visceral surface of the liver

3. Neck – narrows into the cystic duct

💧 2. Bile Duct System

🔄 Bile Flow Pathway:

1. Right and Left Hepatic Ducts (from liver) →

2. Common Hepatic Duct →

3. Joins with Cystic Duct (from gallbladder) →

4. Forms Common Bile Duct (CBD) →

5. Joins Pancreatic Duct at the Ampulla of Vater →

6. Opens into the 2nd part of the duodenum via the Major Duodenal Papilla

📎 Common Bile Duct (CBD):

 Formed by union of cystic duct and common hepatic duct

 Passes posterior to the first part of the duodenum

 Then through the head of the pancreas to reach the duodenum

📍 3. Anatomical Relations of the Gallbladder:

Surface Structures in Contact

Anterior Anterior abdominal wall, liver (via peritoneum)

Posterio Transverse colon, duodenum

r

Superior Liver (attached to its visceral surface)

Inferior First and second parts of the duodenum

Right Right lobe of the liver

Left Quadrate lobe of liver

🩺 Clinical Relevance:
  Cholelithiasis – Gallstones, may block cystic or common bile duct

 Cholecystitis – Inflammation of the gallbladder, often due to stones

 Murphy’s Sign – Pain during palpation at the right costal margin = inflamed gallbladder

 ERCP (Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography) – Used to visualize bile ducts

Q154. DESCRIBE PANCREAS ITS ARTERIAL SUPPLY AND VENOUS DRAINAGE. DRAW A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM
OF THE PANCREAS

The pancreas is a soft, elongated, glandular organ located in the upper abdomen, posterior to the stomach. It
has both exocrine (digestive enzyme secretion) and endocrine (hormone secretion like insulin and glucagon)
functions.

Anatomical Parts:

 Head: Lies within the curve of the duodenum.

 Uncinate process: A hook-like projection from the head.

 Neck: Narrow part between the head and body, lies anterior to the superior mesenteric vessels.

 Body: Extends to the left, behind the stomach.

 Tail: Lies near the hilum of the spleen.

2. Arterial Supply of the Pancreas:

The pancreas receives blood from branches of the celiac trunk and superior mesenteric artery (SMA):

a. From the Celiac Trunk:

 Splenic artery (main source for the body and tail)

o Dorsal pancreatic artery

o Great pancreatic artery

 o Caudal pancreatic artery

b. From the Gastroduodenal Artery (a branch of the common hepatic artery):

 Superior pancreaticoduodenal artery

o Supplies the head and uncinate process (along with SMA)

c. From the Superior Mesenteric Artery:

 Inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery

o Supplies the lower part of the head and uncinate process

3. Venous Drainage of the Pancreas:

 Venous blood from the pancreas drains mainly into the portal vein either directly or through:

o Splenic vein

o Superior mesenteric vein (SMV)

o Pancreaticoduodenal veins (drain into SMV and portal vein)

Q155. DESCRIBE THE RADIOLOGICAL FEATURES OF PANCREAS

✅ Imaging Modalities Used:

1. X-ray (Plain Abdomen)

o Limited role

o May show calcifications in chronic pancreatitis

o Displacement of bowel gas (mass effect)

2. Ultrasound (USG)

o First-line for screening

o Visualizes pancreatic size, echotexture, cysts, masses

o Can detect:

 Acute pancreatitis (enlarged, hypoechoic gland)

  Pseudocysts

 Gallstones (if biliary cause)

o Limitation: bowel gas can obscure view

3. CT Scan (Contrast-enhanced CT – CECT)

o Gold standard for evaluating pancreatic pathology

o Shows:

 Pancreatic enlargement (acute pancreatitis)

 Necrosis, abscess, pseudocyst

 Calcifications (chronic pancreatitis)

 Tumors (mass, ductal dilatation, metastasis)

 Vascular involvement

o Used to grade severity of pancreatitis (e.g., CT severity index)

4. MRI / MRCP (Magnetic Resonance Imaging / Cholangiopancreatography)

o Better soft tissue contrast

o Shows:

 Pancreatic duct anatomy

 Cysts, small tumors, IPMN (Intraductal Papillary Mucinous Neoplasm)

 Useful when CT is inconclusive

o MRCP: Non-invasive imaging of biliary and pancreatic ducts

5. Endoscopic Ultrasound (EUS):

o High-resolution images

o Useful for detecting small tumors, cysts, and guided biopsies

6. ERCP (Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography):

o Diagnostic + Therapeutic

o Visualizes and treats ductal obstructions, stones, strictures

o Now largely replaced by MRCP for diagnosis due to risks

✅ Normal Radiological Appearance:

Modality Appearance

USG Homogeneous, mid-grey echotexture; lies transversely across upper abdomen

CT Scan Soft tissue density; lies horizontally, retroperitoneal; shows head, body, and tail

MRI Isointense on T1, slightly hyperintense on T2; duct seen as central line in pancreas

✅ Radiological Findings in Common Conditions:

 Condition Radiological Features

Acute Pancreatitis Enlarged pancreas, blurred margins, peripancreatic fat stranding, fluid collections

Chronic Pancreatitis Atrophic pancreas, calcifications, ductal dilatation, pseudocysts

Pancreatic Cancer Hypoenhancing mass (esp. in head), ductal dilatation, vascular encasement, metastasis

Pseudocyst Well-defined, fluid-filled lesion, often after acute pancreatitis

Cystic Neoplasms Septated or multiloculated cystic lesions (serous/mucinous types), sometimes with
calcified walls

Congenital Annular pancreas, pancreas divisum (best seen on MRCP/ERCP)

anomalies

Q156. DESCRIBE TESTIS. DRAW A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE TESTIS

 The testis (plural: testes) is a male reproductive gland located in the scrotum.

 It is responsible for the production of sperm (spermatogenesis) and male sex hormones, mainly
testosterone.

II. LOCATION:

 Housed in the scrotal sac, outside the abdominal cavity to maintain a temperature ~2–3°C lower than
body temperature, ideal for sperm production.

III. SHAPE AND SIZE:

 Shape: Oval

 Size: Approximately 4–5 cm long, 2.5 cm wide, and 3 cm thick

IV. COVERINGS (from outer to inner):

1. Skin (Scrotum)

2. Dartos Muscle

3. External Spermatic Fascia

4. Cremasteric Muscle and Fascia

5. Internal Spermatic Fascia

6. Tunica Vaginalis (serous membrane)

7. Tunica Albuginea (fibrous capsule)

V. INTERNAL STRUCTURE:

 Lobules: About 250–300 lobules per testis

 Each lobule contains:

 o Seminiferous tubules: Site of sperm production

o Interstitial (Leydig) cells: Produce testosterone

o Sertoli cells: Support and nourish developing sperm

VI. DUCT SYSTEM:

 Seminiferous tubules → Straight tubules → Rete testis → Efferent ductules → Epididymis

VII. FUNCTIONS:

Function Description

Spermatogenesis Production of male gametes (sperm)

Hormone Secretion of testosterone (develops male secondary sexual characteristics and supports
secretion sperm production)

VIII. BLOOD SUPPLY:

 Arterial:

o Testicular artery (from abdominal aorta)

 Venous:

o Pampiniform plexus → forms testicular vein

 Right vein → drains into IVC

 Left vein → drains into left renal vein

IX. LYMPHATIC DRAINAGE:

 Drains into lumbar (para-aortic) lymph nodes (not inguinal nodes)

X. CLINICAL CORRELATIONS:

 Cryptorchidism: Undescended testis

 Hydrocele: Fluid accumulation in tunica vaginalis

 Varicocele: Dilation of pampiniform plexus

 Testicular torsion: Twisting of the spermatic cord, emergency condition

 Testicular cancer: Common in young males (15–35 years)

Q157. DESCRIBE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE TRACT. DRAW WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE SAGITTAL CROSS
SECTION OF PELVIS

The female reproductive tract consists of a group of internal and external organs involved in reproduction,
menstruation, pregnancy, and childbirth.

II. MAIN COMPONENTS:

🔹 A. External Genitalia (Vulva):

1. Mons pubis – Fatty tissue over the pubic bone.

2. Labia majora & labia minora – Outer and inner skin folds protecting vaginal opening.

3. Clitoris – Erectile tissue rich in sensory nerves.

4. Vestibule – Contains openings of the urethra, vagina, and Bartholin’s glands.

🔹 B. Internal Genital Organs:

1. 1. Vagina

o Muscular, elastic canal ~8–10 cm long.

o Connects external genitalia to uterus.

o Functions: Receives penis, menstrual flow, and birth canal during delivery.

2. 2. Uterus (Womb)

o Hollow, muscular, pear-shaped organ.

o Located in the pelvic cavity, posterior to bladder.

o Parts:

 Fundus – Top curved portion

 Body (Corpus) – Main part

  Cervix – Narrow lower end that opens into vagina

o Functions: Houses and nourishes fetus during pregnancy.

3. 3. Fallopian Tubes (Uterine Tubes/Oviducts)

o Two tubes ~10 cm long connecting ovaries to uterus.

o Parts: Infundibulum, ampulla, isthmus, interstitial.

o Function: Site of fertilization (in ampulla); transports ova to uterus.

4. 4. Ovaries

o Paired almond-shaped organs located on either side of the uterus.

o Functions:

 Oogenesis – Production of ova (eggs)

 Secretion of hormones – Estrogen, progesterone

III. FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE TRACT:

Function Description

Reproduction Produces ova; allows fertilization

Hormone Secretion Produces estrogen and progesterone

Menstrual Cycle Prepares uterus for pregnancy

Pregnancy & Uterus supports embryo/fetus; delivery via vagina

Childbirth

IV. BLOOD SUPPLY:

 Arterial:

o Uterine artery (from internal iliac)

o Ovarian artery (from abdominal aorta)

 Venous drainage:

o Uterine and ovarian veins (left into left renal vein; right into IVC)

V. CLINICAL CORRELATIONS:

 Endometriosis – Growth of uterine tissue outside uterus

 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID) – Infection of reproductive tract

 Uterine fibroids – Benign tumors of uterus

 Ovarian cysts – Fluid-filled sacs in ovaries

 Ectopic pregnancy – Fertilized egg implants outside uterus, usually in fallopian tube
Q158. DESCRIBE RECTUM. DRAW A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE AXIAL CROSS-SECTION OF MALE
PERINEUM

 The rectum is the terminal part of the large intestine, extending from the sigmoid colon to the anal
canal.

 It serves as a temporary storage site for feces before defecation.

🔹 Anatomical Location:

 Located in the pelvic cavity, in front of the sacrum and coccyx.

 Begins at the level of S3 vertebra and ends at the anorectal junction.

🔹 Length & Structure:

 Length: ~12–15 cm

 No mesentery, no haustra, no appendices epiploicae.

 Has three transverse folds (valves of Houston).

🔹 Divisions:

1. Upper 1/3 – covered anteriorly and laterally by peritoneum.

2. Middle 1/3 – covered only anteriorly.

3. Lower 1/3 – extraperitoneal.

🔹 Relations:

✅ In Males:

 Anteriorly: bladder, seminal vesicles, prostate

 Posteriorly: sacrum, coccyx

✅ In Females:

 Anteriorly: vagina, uterus

 Posteriorly: sacrum, coccyx

🔹 Blood Supply:

✅ Arterial Supply:

 Superior rectal artery (from inferior mesenteric artery)

 Middle rectal artery (from internal iliac artery)

 Inferior rectal artery (from internal pudendal artery)

✅ Venous Drainage:

 Superior rectal vein → portal system

 Middle & inferior rectal veins → systemic circulation

⚠️Portosystemic anastomosis occurs here.

🔹 Lymphatic Drainage:

 Upper rectum → pararectal → inferior mesenteric nodes

 Lower rectum → internal iliac nodes

🔹 Nerve Supply:

 Autonomic (sympathetic and parasympathetic) innervation

 Somatic nerves for external anal sphincter (via pudendal nerve)

🔹 Functions:

 Storage of feces

 Initiates defecation reflex

 Maintains continence with sphincter control

Q159. EXPLAIN UTERUS. DESCRIBE THE LOCATION, PARTS AND RELATION AND BLOOD SUPPLY OF THE UTERUS.
DRAW A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE UTERUS

The uterus is a hollow, pear-shaped, muscular organ of the female reproductive system, located in the pelvic
cavity.
It plays a central role in menstruation, implantation, fetal development, and childbirth.

II. LOCATION:

 Lies in the pelvic cavity, between the urinary bladder (anteriorly) and the rectum (posteriorly).

 Positioned in anteverted and anteflexed orientation (bent forward over the bladder).

III. PARTS OF THE UTERUS:

Part Description

Fundus Dome-shaped top portion above the openings of the fallopian tubes

Body Main central portion where implantation occurs

Isthmus Narrow region between body and cervix (important during labor)

Cervix Lower cylindrical part that projects into the vagina

Cervical Opens into the vagina via the external os, and into the uterus via the internal os
canal

IV. WALLS OF THE UTERUS:

1. Perimetrium – Outer serous layer (part of the peritoneum)

2. Myometrium – Middle thick muscular layer (important for contractions)

3. Endometrium – Inner mucosal layer (sheds during menstruation and supports implantation)

V. RELATIONS OF THE UTERUS:

Surface Related Structures

Anterior Urinary bladder

Posterior Rectum and rectouterine pouch (of Douglas)

Lateral Broad ligaments and uterine arteries

VI. SUPPORTS OF THE UTERUS:

 Pelvic diaphragm (levator ani muscles)

 Uterosacral ligaments

 Cardinal (transverse cervical) ligaments

 Round ligaments of the uterus

 Broad ligament (double fold of peritoneum)

VII. BLOOD SUPPLY:

 Arterial Supply:

o Uterine artery (branch of internal iliac artery)

o Anastomoses with ovarian and vaginal arteries

 Venous Drainage:

o Uterine venous plexus → Internal iliac vein

VIII. LYMPHATIC DRAINAGE:

Region Drains into

Fundus Para-aortic (lumbar) lymph nodes

Body and cervix External and internal iliac lymph nodes

Cervix Sacral lymph nodes

IX. FUNCTIONS:

 Site of menstrual bleeding, fertilization (post-implantation), and fetal development.

 Contracts during labor to expel the fetus.

X. CLINICAL CORRELATIONS:

 Fibroids (leiomyomas) – Benign tumors of myometrium

 Endometriosis – Ectopic growth of endometrial tissue

 Prolapse – Downward displacement of uterus

 Adenomyosis – Endometrial tissue within the myometrium

 Cancer – Cervical or endometrial carcinoma

Q160. DESCRIBE THE LOCATION, PARTS AND RELATION AND BLOOD SUPPLY OF THE KIDNEY. DRAW A WELL
LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE SAGITTAL CROSS SECTION OF KIDNEY

The kidneys are a pair of bean-shaped retroperitoneal organs located on either side of the vertebral column.
They play a crucial role in filtering blood, forming urine, and maintaining fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base
balance.

II. LOCATION:

 Retroperitoneal organs located in the posterior abdominal wall

 On either side of the vertebral column, from T12 to L3 vertebrae

 The right kidney is slightly lower than the left due to the presence of the liver.

III. PARTS OF THE KIDNEY:

Part Description

Capsule Fibrous covering surrounding the kidney

Cortex Outer region; contains glomeruli and convoluted tubules

Medulla Inner region; contains renal pyramids

Renal pyramids Cone-shaped structures in medulla

Renal columns Extensions of cortex between pyramids

Renal papilla Tip of pyramid that drains urine into minor calyx

Minor & Major Collect urine from pyramids and form the renal pelvis
Calyces

Renal pelvis Funnel-shaped reservoir that leads into the ureter

Hilum Medial indentation where vessels, nerves, and ureter enter/exit

IV. RELATIONS OF THE KIDNEY:

🔹 A. Anterior Relations:

Kidney Anterior Relations

Right Liver, duodenum, ascending colon, small intestine

Left Stomach, spleen, pancreas, jejunum, descending colon

🔹 B. Posterior Relations (both kidneys):

 Diaphragm

 Psoas major

 Quadratus lumborum

 Transversus abdominis

 12th rib (both), 11th rib (only left kidney)

 Subcostal nerve, iliohypogastric and ilioinguinal nerves

V. BLOOD SUPPLY:

🔹 Arterial Supply:

 Renal arteries (branch from the abdominal aorta at L1–L2 level)

 Each renal artery divides into:

o Segmental arteries → Interlobar arteries → Arcuate arteries → Interlobular arteries → Afferent

arterioles

🔹 Venous Drainage:

 Renal veins drain into the inferior vena cava (IVC)

 Left renal vein is longer and receives blood from:

o Left suprarenal vein

o Left gonadal vein

VI. LYMPHATIC DRAINAGE:

 Drains into lumbar (para-aortic) lymph nodes

VII. FUNCTIONS OF THE KIDNEY:

 Excretes metabolic waste (urea, creatinine)

 Regulates water and electrolyte balance

 Maintains acid-base balance

 Secretes hormones like erythropoietin (stimulates RBC production)

 Regulates blood pressure via renin-angiotensin system

VIII. CLINICAL CORRELATIONS:

 Kidney stones (renal calculi) – Obstruction in urinary flow

 Hydronephrosis – Swelling due to urine buildup

 Pyelonephritis – Infection of renal pelvis and parenchyma

 Polycystic kidney disease – Genetic disorder with multiple cysts

 Renal failure – Loss of kidney function

Q161. DESCRIBE THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN FEMALES. DRAW A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE SAGITTAL
CROSS SECTION OF FEMALE PELVIS

 The female reproductive system is responsible for production of ova (eggs), secretion of female sex
hormones, fertilization, development of fetus, and childbirth.

🔹 Main Components:

✅ 1. Ovaries:

 Paired oval-shaped glands located on either side of the uterus.

 Produce ova (eggs) via oogenesis.

 Secrete female sex hormones: estrogen and progesterone.

✅ 2. Fallopian Tubes (Uterine Tubes / Oviducts):

 Paired tubes connecting ovaries to uterus.

 Site of fertilization.

 Transport ova towards uterus by ciliary movement and peristalsis.

✅ 3. Uterus:

 Pear-shaped muscular organ located in the pelvis.

 Functions:

o Implantation of fertilized ovum.

o Supports fetal development during pregnancy.

o Contracts during labor to expel fetus.

 Divided into:

o Fundus (top)

o Body (main part)

o Cervix (lower narrow part opening into vagina)

✅ 4. Vagina:

 Muscular, tubular canal extending from cervix to external genitalia.

 Functions as:

o Birth canal

o Passage for menstrual flow

o Receives penis during intercourse

✅ 5. External Genitalia (Vulva):

  Includes:

o Mons pubis

o Labia majora and labia minora

o Clitoris

o Vestibule containing openings of urethra and vagina

🔹 Hormonal Regulation:

 Controlled by the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis:

o GnRH → stimulates pituitary to release FSH and LH.

o FSH → stimulates ovarian follicle development.

o LH → triggers ovulation and corpus luteum formation.

🔹 Functions:

 Production and release of ova.

 Production of female sex hormones (estrogen, progesterone).

 Facilitation of fertilization and pregnancy.

 Support for fetal development and childbirth.

Q162. DESCRIBE THE STRUCTURE, MUSCLE LAYER, AND ANATOMY OF THE STOMACH. DRAW A WELL LABELLED
DIAGRAM OF THE STOMACH

The stomach is a J-shaped muscular organ of the digestive system, located in the upper abdomen.
It serves as a reservoir for food, initiating digestion through mechanical and chemical means.

II. LOCATION:

 Situated in the upper left quadrant of the abdominal cavity, under the diaphragm.

 Lies between the esophagus and the duodenum.

III. STRUCTURE OF THE STOMACH:

Part Description
 Cardia Region where the esophagus enters the stomach

Fundus Dome-shaped, superior portion, usually filled with gas

Body (Corpus) Largest central part

Pyloric Part Narrow distal region leading to duodenum; divided into:

- Pyloric antrum (proximal)

- Pyloric canal (distal, leads to pyloric sphincter)

Pylorus Distal sphincter controlling passage of food to duodenum

IV. CURVATURES:

 Greater curvature: Longer convex lateral border

 Lesser curvature: Shorter concave medial border

V. SURFACES:

 Anterior surface: Faces the anterior abdominal wall and diaphragm

 Posterior surface: Related to pancreas, left kidney, spleen, and transverse colon

VI. MUSCLE LAYERS OF THE STOMACH:

The stomach wall has 3 layers of smooth muscle (unlike most of the GI tract, which has 2):

1. Outer longitudinal layer

2. Middle circular layer

3. Inner oblique layer (unique to the stomach; helps in churning and mixing food)

VII. HISTOLOGICAL LAYERS (from inside to outside):

 Mucosa: Contains gastric glands secreting acid and enzymes

 Submucosa: Connective tissue with blood vessels and nerves

 Muscularis externa: Three muscle layers (as above)

 Serosa: Outer covering (visceral peritoneum)

VIII. ANATOMY AND RELATIONS:

Border/Surface Relation

Greater Attached to the greater omentum

curvature

Lesser curvature Attached to the lesser omentum (contains blood vessels like left gastric artery)

Anterior surface Anterior abdominal wall, left lobe of liver, diaphragm

Posterior surface Pancreas, spleen, left kidney, transverse colon

IX. BLOOD SUPPLY (brief overview):

 Arteries:

o Left gastric artery (lesser curvature)

o Right gastric artery (lesser curvature)

o Left gastro-epiploic artery (greater curvature)

o Right gastro-epiploic artery (greater curvature)

o Short gastric arteries (fundus)

X. FUNCTIONS:

 Stores ingested food

 Mechanical digestion by churning (muscle layers)

 Chemical digestion via gastric secretions (acid, enzymes)

 Controls food passage into duodenum via pyloric sphincter

XI. CLINICAL NOTES:

 Gastric ulcers commonly occur near lesser curvature

 Gastritis is inflammation of the stomach lining

 Gastric cancer often affects the antrum or lesser curvature

Q163. DESCRIBE ANTERIOR ABDOMINAL WALL. DRAW A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE AXIAL CROSS
SECTION OF LIVER

 The anterior abdominal wall is the muscular and fascial structure forming the front boundary of the
abdominal cavity.

 It protects abdominal organs, assists in posture, and helps in movements like flexion and rotation of the
trunk.

🔹 Boundaries:

 Superiorly: Costal margins and xiphoid process

  Inferiorly: Inguinal ligaments and pelvic bones

 Laterally: Flanks (lateral abdominal walls)

🔹 Layers of the Anterior Abdominal Wall (from superficial to deep):

1. Skin

2. Superficial fascia:

o Camper’s fascia (fatty layer)

o Scarpa’s fascia (membranous layer)

3. Muscles and their aponeuroses:

o External oblique muscle (fibers run downward and medially)

o Internal oblique muscle (fibers run upward and medially)

o Transversus abdominis muscle (fibers run transversely)

4. Transversalis fascia

5. Extraperitoneal fat

6. Parietal peritoneum

🔹 Muscle Layers:

 External Oblique: Largest and most superficial, involved in trunk rotation and flexion.

 Internal Oblique: Middle layer, supports abdominal contents and assists in trunk movements.

 Transversus Abdominis: Deepest muscle layer, helps compress abdominal contents.

 Rectus Abdominis: Paired vertical muscles on either side of the midline, responsible for trunk flexion.

🔹 Important Structures:

 Linea alba: Midline fibrous structure where aponeuroses of abdominal muscles meet.

 Linea semilunaris: Lateral border of rectus abdominis.

 Inguinal ligament: Inferior border formed by the external oblique aponeurosis.

 Arcuate line: Lower limit of posterior rectus sheath.

🔹 Functions:

 Protects abdominal organs

 Maintains posture and supports trunk movements

 Assists in forced expiration, coughing, defecation, micturition, and childbirth by increasing intra-
abdominal pressure
Q164. DESCRIBE THE CROSS-SECTIONAL ANATOMY OF STOMACH.

The stomach is a J-shaped muscular organ in the upper abdomen involved in food storage, digestion, and
mechanical breakdown.

🧱 Wall Layers of the Stomach (from inside out):

1. Mucosa

o Innermost lining

o Contains gastric pits and glands secreting mucus, acid, and enzymes

o Epithelium: Simple columnar

2. Submucosa

o Dense connective tissue

o Contains blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves (Meissner’s plexus)

3. Muscularis externa

o Three muscle layers (unique to stomach):

 Inner oblique layer (deepest) — helps in churning food

 Middle circular layer — forms the pyloric sphincter at distal end

 Outer longitudinal layer

o Contains Auerbach’s (myenteric) plexus between circular and longitudinal layers, controlling
motility

4. Serosa

o Outermost layer

o Visceral peritoneum covering the stomach

🧩 Stomach Regions in Cross-Section:

 Cardia: Entry point from esophagus

 Fundus: Dome-shaped, upper part

 Body: Largest central part

  Pyloric part: Distal region, narrows to pyloric canal and sphincter

🧠 Important Features in Cross-Section:

 Rugae: Longitudinal mucosal folds allowing stomach expansion

 Pyloric sphincter: Thickened circular muscle controlling food passage into duodenum

 Gastric glands: In mucosa, secreting acid (parietal cells) and enzymes (chief cells)

🩺 Clinical Relevance:

 Peptic ulcers commonly affect the pyloric antrum and lesser curvature

 Gastric motility disorders relate to muscular layer dysfunction

 Thick muscular layers aid mechanical digestion and mixing of chyme

Q165. ELABORATE ON BONY ORBIT

The bony orbit is a cone-shaped cavity in the skull that houses and protects the eyeball and its associated
structures (muscles, nerves, vessels, and fat).

II. LOCATION:

 Situated on either side of the root of the nose, in the anterior part of the skull.

III. SHAPE AND SIZE:

 Shape: Pyramidal or conical

 Apex: Directed posteriorly toward the optic canal

 Base: Anterior opening, roughly quadrilateral, bounded by facial bones

IV. BONY WALLS OF THE ORBIT:

Wall Bones Involved Description/Relations

Roof Frontal bone, lesser wing of sphenoid Separates orbit from anterior cranial fossa; frontal
sinus lies above

Floor Maxilla, zygomatic, palatine bones Separates orbit from maxillary sinus below

Medial Ethmoid (lamina papyracea), maxilla, Thin, separates orbit from ethmoidal air cells and
wall lacrimal, body of sphenoid nasal cavity

Lateral Zygomatic bone, greater wing of sphenoid Thickest and strongest wall; separates orbit from
wall temporal fossa

V. OPENINGS IN THE ORBIT:

 Optic canal (in apex) – transmits optic nerve (CN II) and ophthalmic artery

 Superior orbital fissure – transmits cranial nerves III, IV, V1 (ophthalmic), VI, and superior ophthalmic vein

 Inferior orbital fissure – transmits maxillary nerve (V2) branches and infraorbital vessels

 Anterior and posterior ethmoidal foramina – transmit ethmoidal vessels and nerves
VI. CONTENTS OF THE ORBIT:

 Eyeball

 Extraocular muscles (7 muscles: 4 recti, 2 obliques, levator palpebrae superioris)

 Optic nerve (CN II) and ophthalmic artery

 Cranial nerves III, IV, V1, VI

 Lacrimal gland

 Orbital fat

 Blood vessels and lymphatics

VII. FUNCTION:

 Protects the eye

 Provides attachment for extraocular muscles

 Allows passage of nerves and vessels to the eye

VIII. CLINICAL CORRELATIONS:

 Orbital fractures (blowout fractures) often involve the thin floor or medial wall

 Orbital cellulitis – infection within the orbit

 Exophthalmos – protrusion of eyeball (seen in Graves’ disease)

Q166. DRAW A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE AXIAL CROSS SECTION OF THE LUMBER VERTEBRA
Q167. ELABORATE ON THALAMUS

The thalamus is a paired, symmetrical, large egg-shaped mass of gray matter located in the diencephalon of the
brain. It acts as the major relay station for sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex.

II. LOCATION:

 Situated on either side of the third ventricle in the diencephalon.

 Forms the lateral walls of the third ventricle.

 Lies above the hypothalamus and below the corpus callosum.

III. STRUCTURE:

 Composed of multiple nuclei grouped into functional regions:

o Anterior group

o Medial group

o Lateral group (dorsal and ventral tiers)

 o Intralaminar nuclei

o Midline nuclei

 Divided by the internal medullary lamina, a Y-shaped white matter structure.

IV. FUNCTIONS:

 Sensory relay: All sensory input (except smell) passes through the thalamus before reaching the cerebral
cortex.

 Motor relay: Connects motor areas of the brain, including basal ganglia and cerebellum, to the motor
cortex.

 Regulation of consciousness, alertness, and sleep.

 Processing and integration of sensory and motor information.

V. MAJOR NUCLEI AND THEIR FUNCTIONS:

Nucleus Function / Connections

Anterior nucleus Limbic system; memory and emotion

Ventral posterolateral (VPL) Receives somatosensory info from body; projects to somatosensory cortex

Ventral posteromedial (VPM) Receives sensory input from face and head; projects to somatosensory
cortex

Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) Visual relay to primary visual cortex

Medial geniculate nucleus Auditory relay to primary auditory cortex

(MGN)

Ventral lateral (VL) Motor relay from cerebellum and basal ganglia to motor cortex

Dorsomedial nucleus Connects to prefrontal cortex; involved in cognition and emotion

VI. BLOOD SUPPLY:

 Mainly from branches of the posterior cerebral artery, including the thalamogeniculate arteries and
posterior communicating artery.

VII. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE:

 Thalamic stroke can cause sensory loss, motor deficits, or thalamic pain syndrome (central pain).

 Lesions may lead to sensory neglect, altered consciousness, or cognitive/emotional disturbances.

Q168. DRAW A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE CORONAL CROSS-SECTION OF PARA-NASAL SINUSES
Q169. EXPLAIN THE FUNCTION AND COMPONENTS OF BASAL GANGLIA. EXPLAIN LENTIFORM FORM AND
CAUDATE NUCLEUS OF BASAL GANGLIA

The basal ganglia (also called basal nuclei) are a group of interconnected masses of gray matter deep within the
cerebral hemispheres involved in the regulation of voluntary motor control, procedural learning, and cognition.

II. FUNCTION OF BASAL GANGLIA:

 Regulation of voluntary motor movements: Initiate and control smooth, purposeful movements

 Motor planning and execution: Helps in starting and stopping movements

 Muscle tone regulation: Maintains posture and muscle tone

 Procedural learning and habits: Important in habit formation and procedural memory

 Cognitive and emotional functions: Influence motivation and decision-making

III. COMPONENTS OF BASAL GANGLIA:

Structure Description & Location

Caudate nucleus C-shaped nucleus located in the lateral wall of lateral ventricle

Lentiform nucleus Triangular mass lateral to the caudate; consists of:

- Putamen (lateral part)

- Globus pallidus (medial part)

Subthalamic nucleus Small nucleus below thalamus, part of subthalamus

Substantia nigra Located in midbrain; important in dopamine production

IV. LENTIFORM FORM:

  The lentiform nucleus is lens-shaped and located lateral to the internal capsule.

 It has two parts:

o Putamen (outer, larger, more pigmented)

o Globus pallidus (inner, paler)

 The lentiform nucleus works closely with the caudate to regulate movement.

V. CAUDATE NUCLEUS:

 It has a head, body, and tail forming a C-shape around the lateral ventricle.

 The head is large and rounded, located in the anterior horn of the lateral ventricle.

 The body arches over the thalamus.

 The tail curves downward into the temporal lobe ending near the amygdala.

 Plays a role in motor processing, learning, and reward systems.

VI. SUMMARY OF FUNCTIONS OF SPECIFIC COMPONENTS:

Component Primary Role

Caudate nucleus Cognitive processing, motor control, learning

Putamen Regulates movements and influences various types of learning

Globus pallidus Regulates voluntary movement by inhibiting thalamus

Subthalamic Modulates output of basal ganglia

nucleus

Substantia nigra Produces dopamine; modulates movement initiation

VII. CLINICAL RELEVANCE:

 Parkinson’s disease: Degeneration of substantia nigra → dopamine deficiency → tremor, rigidity,

bradykinesia

 Huntington’s disease: Degeneration of caudate nucleus and putamen → involuntary movements,

cognitive decline

 Hemiballismus: Lesion of subthalamic nucleus → violent flinging movements

Q170. ELABORATE ON THE INDICATION, CONTRAINDICATION AND POSITIONING FOR CT BRAIN

🔹 1. Indications for CT Brain:

 Head trauma (to detect hemorrhage, skull fractures)

 Stroke evaluation (ischemic or hemorrhagic)

 Intracranial hemorrhage (subdural, epidural, intracerebral)

 Brain tumors (detection and assessment)

 Hydrocephalus
  Infections (abscess, encephalitis)

 Evaluation of headaches (suspected mass lesion or hemorrhage)

 Postoperative assessment (after neurosurgery)

 Congenital anomalies

 Follow-up of known brain lesions

🔹 2. Contraindications for CT Brain:

 Pregnancy (relative contraindication due to radiation risk)

 Severe allergy to contrast media (if contrast-enhanced CT planned)

 Unstable patients who cannot remain still or cooperate

 Renal impairment (relative, for contrast use)

 Previous exposure to high radiation doses (cumulative risk)

🔹 3. Positioning for CT Brain:

 Patient position: Supine (lying on the back)

 Head positioning:

o Head first into the gantry (scanner)

o Head immobilized to prevent movement (using straps or cushions)

o Neck in neutral position, no excessive flexion or extension

 Scan plane:

o Axial images acquired from the base of the skull to the vertex

o Additional sagittal or coronal reconstructions may be done if needed

🔹 Additional Notes:

 Non-contrast CT is usually the first step in acute settings (e.g., trauma, stroke).

 Contrast-enhanced CT may be required for tumor or infection evaluation.

 Patient should remove all metal objects from the head and neck region.

 Proper hydration advised if contrast is used.

Q171. DRAW WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE PARANASAL SINUS

Q172. ELABORATE ON THE LOBES OF BRAIN. DRAW A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE LOBES OF BRAIN

The brain is divided into lobes based on the bones of the skull and functional anatomy. Each lobe of the brain
has specific cognitive and sensory functions, and they are part of the cerebral hemispheres.

II. MAIN LOBES OF THE BRAIN:

There are four major lobes in each cerebral hemisphere:

1. Frontal lobe

2. Parietal lobe

3. Temporal lobe

4. Occipital lobe

In addition, there are two internal lobes:

 Insular lobe (insula)

 Limbic lobe

III. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EACH LOBE:

Lobe Location Main Functions

Frontal lobe Anterior to central sulcus; above the - Motor control (primary motor cortex) - Personality
lateral sulcus (Sylvian fissure) and behavior - Speech production (Broca’s area) -
Planning, reasoning, problem-solving

Parietal lobe Posterior to central sulcus; above - Sensory perception (primary somatosensory cortex) -
occipital lobe Spatial orientation - Proprioception - Language and
mathematics

Temporal Below the lateral sulcus - Hearing (primary auditory cortex) - Language
lobe comprehension (Wernicke’s area) - Memory and
 emotion (hippocampus and amygdala)

Occipital Posterior part of the brain - Vision (primary visual cortex) - Interpretation of
lobe visual stimuli

Insular lobe Deep within the lateral sulcus, - Taste perception - Emotion and homeostasis - Pain
(Insula) covered by frontal and temporal lobes and visceral sensation

Limbic lobe Medial side of each cerebral - Emotion - Learning and memory (hippocampus) -
hemisphere (includes parts of frontal, Olfaction
parietal, and temporal lobes)

IV. IMPORTANT LANDMARKS & SULCI:

 Central sulcus: Divides frontal and parietal lobes

 Lateral sulcus (Sylvian fissure): Divides temporal from frontal and parietal lobes

 Parieto-occipital sulcus: Separates parietal and occipital lobes

 Longitudinal fissure: Divides right and left hemispheres

V. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE:

Lobe Affected Possible Deficits

Frontal lobe Personality changes, motor weakness, speech issues (Broca’s aphasia)

Parietal lobe Sensory loss, spatial neglect, difficulty in calculation (Gerstmann syndrome)

Temporal Memory loss, auditory hallucinations, Wernicke’s aphasia

lobe

Occipital lobe Visual disturbances, cortical blindness

Insular lobe Altered taste, emotion regulation problems

Limbic lobe Memory impairment, emotional disturbances

Q173. ELABORATE ON THE SPHENOID SINUS

  The sphenoid sinus is one of the four paired paranasal sinuses, located within the body of the sphenoid
bone, deep in the skull behind the nasal cavity.

🔹 Location:

 Lies posterior to the nasal cavity and below the sella turcica, which houses the pituitary gland.

 Medial to the cavernous sinuses and optic nerves.

🔹 Anatomy:

 Paired sinuses, separated by a thin bony septum (may be asymmetrical).

 Open into the sphenoethmoidal recess above the superior nasal concha.

 Fully pneumatized (air-filled) by age 12–14 years.

🔹 Relations (Clinical Importance):

Structure Relation

Pituitary gland Superior

Optic nerve & chiasm Superolateral

Cavernous sinus Lateral

Internal carotid Lateral

artery

Nasopharynx Inferior

Ethmoid air cells Anterior

🔹 Functions:

 Lightens the weight of the skull.

 Warms and humidifies inhaled air.

 Enhances voice resonance.

 Produces mucus to trap pathogens and debris.

🔹 Clinical Relevance:

 Sphenoid sinusitis may cause:

o Deep headache (retro-orbital or vertex)

o Visual disturbances (due to optic nerve involvement)

 Surgical access to pituitary gland is often done through the sphenoid sinus (transsphenoidal approach).

🔹 Radiological Appearance:

 Best visualized on CT scan or MRI.

 Should appear air-filled in healthy individuals.

 Opacification suggests sinusitis or mass lesion.

Q174. DRAW A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE VENOUS DRAINAGE OF BRAIN

Q175. EXPLAIN PAROTID GLAND

The parotid gland is the largest of the three paired salivary glands, responsible primarily for producing serous
(watery) saliva to aid in digestion and lubrication of food.

📌 Location:

 Lies in the retromandibular region, anterior and inferior to the ear

 Extends from the zygomatic arch to the angle of the mandible

🧱 Structure:

 Shape: Pyramidal

 Encased in: A tough parotid fascia (from deep cervical fascia)

 Divided into superficial and deep lobes by the facial nerve

🔄 Duct (Stensen’s duct):

 Emerges from the anterior border of the gland

 Crosses masseter muscle, pierces buccinator, and opens into the oral cavity opposite the upper second
molar tooth

🧠 Important Structures Passing Through the Parotid Gland (from superficial to deep):

1. Facial nerve (CN VII): Divides into terminal branches within the gland

2. Retromandibular vein

3. External carotid artery

🩸 Blood Supply:

 Arterial: Branches of external carotid artery (especially posterior auricular and superficial temporal
arteries)

 Venous drainage: Retromandibular vein

🧬 Lymphatic Drainage:
  Drains into parotid nodes, then to deep cervical lymph nodes

🧠 Nerve Supply:

 Parasympathetic (secretomotor):

o Originates from glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX)

o Via otic ganglion → auriculotemporal nerve (branch of mandibular nerve – V3)

 Sympathetic:

o From superior cervical ganglion via plexus on external carotid artery (vasomotor only)

 Sensory:

o From auriculotemporal nerve (V3) and greater auricular nerve (C2, C3)

🩺 Clinical Relevance:

 Parotitis: Inflammation of the gland (e.g., mumps)

 Parotid tumors: May require surgery; risk of facial nerve damage

 Sialography: Imaging of the duct for blockages

 Frey’s syndrome: Gustatory sweating post-surgery due to aberrant nerve regeneration

Q176. EXPLAIN NASOPHARYNX AND FUNCTION OF NASOPHARYNX

The nasopharynx is the upper part of the pharynx (throat), located behind the nasal cavity and above the soft
palate. It serves as a passageway for air from the nose to the oropharynx and is part of the upper respiratory
tract.

II. LOCATION & BOUNDARIES:

Boundary Description

Superior Base of the skull (body of sphenoid and occipital bone)

Inferior Soft palate (separates it from the oropharynx)

Anterior Choanae (posterior nasal apertures) connecting to nasal cavity

Posterior Upper part of pharyngeal wall

Lateral Contain openings of Eustachian (auditory) tubes and pharyngeal

walls recess

III. STRUCTURES FOUND IN THE NASOPHARYNX:

1. Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids) – part of the immune system

2. Opening of Eustachian tube – connects middle ear to pharynx

3. Tubal tonsil – lymphoid tissue around Eustachian tube

4. Pharyngeal recess (fossa of Rosenmüller) – behind the opening of the Eustachian tube

IV. FUNCTIONS OF THE NASOPHARYNX:

 1. Respiratory Function:

o Acts as an airway for inhaled air from the nasal cavity to the larynx.

2. Pressure Regulation:

o Eustachian tubes open into the nasopharynx to equalize air pressure between the middle ear and
atmosphere.

3. Immune Defense:

o Contains lymphoid tissue (pharyngeal and tubal tonsils) to trap and destroy pathogens.

4. Sound Resonance:

o Plays a minor role in voice resonance during speech.

V. CLINICAL NOTES:

 Adenoid hypertrophy: Enlarged pharyngeal tonsils can block airflow and cause snoring, sleep apnea, or
Eustachian tube dysfunction.

 Nasopharyngeal carcinoma: A malignant tumor often arising in the pharyngeal recess.

Q177. EXPLAIN INTERNAL AUDITORY MEATUS

 The Internal Auditory Meatus (IAM) is a short bony canal located in the petrous part of the temporal
bone.

 It allows the passage of nerves and blood vessels from the brain to the inner ear structures.

🔹 Anatomical Location:

 Situated in the posterior cranial fossa.

 Lies between the cerebellopontine angle and the inner ear (labyrinth).

🔹 Length:

 Approximately 1 cm long.

🔹 Structures Passing Through the IAM:

It transmits four main structures:

Structure Function

Facial nerve (CN VII) Facial muscle control

Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII) Hearing and balance

Labyrinthine artery Blood supply to the inner ear

Nervus intermedius (part of CN Taste and parasympathetic innervation

VII)

These nerves divide into anterior and posterior divisions inside the meatus.

🔹 Clinical Importance:
  Vestibular Schwannoma (Acoustic Neuroma):

o A common benign tumor arising in the IAM affecting CN VIII.

o Can cause hearing loss, tinnitus, and balance problems.

 Bell's Palsy:

o Compression or inflammation of the facial nerve may occur in or near the IAM.

 MRI is the imaging modality of choice to evaluate lesions in the IAM.

Q178. DESCRIBE PITUITARY GLAND. DRAW A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE SAGITTAL CROASS-SECTIONAL OF
PITUITARY GLAND

The pituitary gland is a small, pea-sized endocrine gland located at the base of the brain. It is often called the
"master gland" because it controls the activity of many other endocrine glands in the body.

📌 Location:

 Sits in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone (a depression called the hypophyseal fossa)

 Covered superiorly by the diaphragma sellae (a fold of dura mater)

 Located inferior to the hypothalamus and connected to it via the infundibulum (pituitary stalk)

🧱 Parts of the Pituitary Gland:

🔹 1. Anterior Pituitary (Adenohypophysis)

 Origin: Ectoderm (from Rathke’s pouch)

 Produces and secretes hormones:

o GH (Growth hormone)

o TSH (Thyroid-stimulating hormone)

o ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone)

o FSH (Follicle-stimulating hormone)

o LH (Luteinizing hormone)

o PRL (Prolactin)

🔹 2. Posterior Pituitary (Neurohypophysis)

 Origin: Neuroectoderm (from the diencephalon)

 Stores and releases hormones made by the hypothalamus:

o ADH (Antidiuretic hormone/vasopressin)

o Oxytocin

🩸 Blood Supply:

 Superior hypophyseal artery (supplies the anterior lobe)

  Inferior hypophyseal artery (supplies the posterior lobe)
→ Both are branches of the internal carotid artery

🔄 Venous Drainage:

 Drains into hypophyseal veins, then into cavernous sinus

🧠 Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal Portal System:

 Allows hypothalamic hormones to directly reach the anterior pituitary

 Regulates secretion of pituitary hormones

🩺 Clinical Importance:

 Pituitary tumors (e.g., adenomas) can cause:

o Hormonal imbalance (e.g., acromegaly, Cushing’s disease)

o Pressure effects, such as bitemporal hemianopia (due to optic chiasm compression)

 Hypopituitarism – Deficiency of pituitary hormones

 Diabetes insipidus – ADH deficiency from posterior pituitary damage

Q179. DESCRIBE THIRD AND FOURTH VENTRICLE. DRAW A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE AXIAL CROSS
SECTIONAL OF VENTRICLES
The third and fourth ventricles are part of the ventricular system of the brain, which contains and circulates
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). They are connected by the cerebral aqueduct (aqueduct of Sylvius) and are lined by
ependymal cells.

II. THIRD VENTRICLE

The third ventricle is a narrow, vertical, slit-like cavity situated in the midline of the diencephalon between the
two halves of the thalamus.

✅ Boundaries:

Wall Structures

Roof Epithalamus (pineal body, choroid plexus)

Floor Hypothalamus, optic chiasma, infundibulum

Lateral walls Medial surfaces of the thalami

Anterior wall Lamina terminalis, anterior commissure

Posterior wall Posterior commissure, pineal stalk

✅ Openings:

 Interventricular foramina (foramina of Monro) – connect to the lateral ventricles

 Cerebral aqueduct – connects to the fourth ventricle

✅ Functions:

 CSF circulation from lateral ventricles → 3rd ventricle → 4th ventricle

 Enclosed by diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus)

III. FOURTH VENTRICLE

The fourth ventricle is a diamond-shaped cavity located between the pons and upper medulla anteriorly and
the cerebellum posteriorly.

✅ Boundaries:

Wall Structures

Roof Formed by superior medullary velum, cerebellum, and choroid plexus

Floor Rhomboid fossa (formed by pons and medulla)

Lateral walls Cerebellar peduncles

✅ Openings:

 Cerebral aqueduct – connects to the third ventricle

 Median aperture (foramen of Magendie) – opens into cisterna magna

 Two lateral apertures (foramina of Luschka) – open into subarachnoid space

✅ Functions:

 Passage of CSF to the subarachnoid space

  Protects brainstem and cerebellum

 Involved in CSF distribution and drainage

IV. FUNCTIONAL SUMMARY:

Ventricle Location Main Function

Third Ventricle In diencephalon between thalami Relays CSF from lateral to fourth ventricle

Fourth Ventricle Between brainstem and CSF exits to subarachnoid space

cerebellum

Q180. DESCRIBE BASAL GANGLIA. DRAW A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE AXIAL CROSS SECTION OF BASAL
GANGLIA

 The basal ganglia (also called basal nuclei) are a group of subcortical nuclei located deep within the
cerebral hemispheres that are primarily involved in the control and coordination of voluntary motor
activities.

🔹 Main Components of Basal Ganglia:

1. Caudate nucleus

2. Putamen

3. Globus pallidus (internal and external segments)

 4. Subthalamic nucleus

5. Substantia nigra (in the midbrain)

🔸 Striatum = Caudate nucleus + Putamen

🔸 Lentiform nucleus = Putamen + Globus pallidus

🔹 Location:

 Located deep within the white matter of the cerebral hemispheres, lateral to the thalamus.

🔹 Functions:

 Regulation of voluntary movements

 Initiation and termination of motor actions

 Modulation of motor output to ensure smooth, controlled motion

 Involved in procedural learning, habit formation, and emotions

🔹 Connections:

 Receive input from:

🔸 Cerebral cortex

 Send output to:

🔸 Thalamus → then back to motor areas of the cortex

 Major pathways include:

o Direct pathway: Facilitates movement

o Indirect pathway: Inhibits movement

🔹 Clinical Significance:

Disorder Involvement

Parkinson’s Disease Degeneration of substantia nigra, ↓ dopamine

Huntington’s Disease Degeneration of caudate nucleus

Hemiballismus Lesion in subthalamic nucleus

Dystonia, chorea, tremors Various basal ganglia dysfunctions

Q181. DESCRIBE CIRCLE OF WILLIS. DRAW A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE CIRCLE OF WILLIS

The Circle of Willis is a circular anastomosis (arterial ring) located at the base of the brain, formed by the joining
of arteries that supply the brain and surrounding structures. It provides collateral blood flow in case of blockage
or reduced blood supply.

II. LOCATION:

 Situated in the subarachnoid space at the base of the brain

 Surrounds the optic chiasma and infundibulum of the pituitary gland

III. FORMATION – COMPONENT ARTERIES:

🔵 Anterior circulation (from internal carotid arteries):

1. Anterior cerebral arteries (right and left)

2. Anterior communicating artery – connects the two anterior cerebral arteries

3. Internal carotid arteries (right and left) – each gives rise to middle cerebral artery (not part of the circle)

🔴 Posterior circulation (from vertebral arteries):

4. Posterior cerebral arteries (right and left) – branches of basilar artery

5. Posterior communicating arteries (right and left) – connect internal carotid to posterior cerebral arteries

V. FUNCTION:
  Ensures continuous blood flow to the brain even if one part is blocked

 Protects brain from ischemia

 Acts as a safety mechanism (collateral circulation)

VI. CLINICAL IMPORTANCE:

Condition Relevance

Aneurysms Most common site: Berry aneurysm, especially at bifurcations

Stroke (CVA) Helps prevent total loss of blood supply in blockages

Ischemic events Circle can compensate if one artery is narrowed

Arteriovenous Abnormal vascular connections may involve this area

malformations

Q182. DESCRIBE DURAL VENOUS SINUSES AND VENTRICLES OF BRAIN. DRAW A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF
DURAL VENOUS SINUSES

 Dural venous sinuses are endothelial-lined channels located between layers of the dura mater.

 They drain venous blood from the brain and surrounding structures into the internal jugular veins.

🔹 Key Characteristics:

 No valves or muscle layer

 Drain cerebral veins, diploic veins, and CSF via arachnoid granulations
🔹 Main Dural Venous Sinuses:

Name Location / Drains Into

Superior sagittal sinus Upper midline, drains into confluence of sinuses

Inferior sagittal sinus Inferior margin of falx cerebri → joins straight sinus

Straight sinus Formed by inferior sagittal sinus + great cerebral vein

Transverse sinuses Run along occipital bone, drain into sigmoid sinuses

Sigmoid sinuses Continue as internal jugular veins

Cavernous sinuses On either side of sella turcica, connected to facial veins

Occipital sinus Along midline of occipital bone

Confluence of sinuses Meeting point of superior sagittal, straight, and occipital sinuses

🔹 Clinical Relevance:

 Cavernous sinus thrombosis (serious infection via facial veins)

 Dural sinus thrombosis can cause raised intracranial pressure and neurological symptoms

🔷 Part 2: Ventricles of the Brain

 Ventricles are interconnected cavities within the brain filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

 Lined by ependymal cells and connected to the central canal of the spinal cord.

🔹 Components of the Ventricular System:

Ventricle Location / Features

Lateral ventricles (2) One in each cerebral hemisphere; largest

Third ventricle Midline, between two halves of the thalamus

Fourth ventricle Between pons and cerebellum

Cerebral aqueduct (of Sylvius) Connects third to fourth ventricle

Interventricular foramina (of Monro) Connect lateral ventricles to third ventricle

Foramina of Luschka & Magendie Open fourth ventricle to subarachnoid space

🔹 Functions of Ventricles:

 Production and circulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

 Cushioning and protection of the brain

 Maintains intracranial pressure

 Helps in waste removal

🔹 Clinical Relevance:
  Hydrocephalus: Abnormal accumulation of CSF due to blockage in ventricles

 Ventriculomegaly: Enlargement of ventricles seen in imaging

 CSF sampling via lumbar puncture (not directly from ventricles)

Q183. DESCRIBE THE BRANCHES OF CAROTID ARTERY. DRAW A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE COMMON
CAROTID ARTERY AND ITS BRANCHES

The common carotid artery bifurcates into the internal carotid artery (ICA) and the external carotid artery
(ECA). Both give off important branches supplying the head and neck.

II. COMMON CAROTID ARTERY

 Bifurcates at the level of C3-C4 vertebra (around the upper border of the thyroid cartilage).

 Divides into:

o Internal carotid artery (ICA) – mainly supplies the brain

o External carotid artery (ECA) – supplies face, scalp, and neck

III. INTERNAL CAROTID ARTERY (ICA) BRANCHES:

 The ICA has no branches in the neck.

 Enters the skull through the carotid canal.

 Main intracranial branches include (important for brain circulation and Circle of Willis):

1. Ophthalmic artery – supplies the eye and orbit

2. Posterior communicating artery – connects ICA to posterior cerebral artery (part of Circle of
Willis)

3. Anterior cerebral artery – supplies medial frontal and parietal lobes

4. Middle cerebral artery – supplies lateral cerebral hemispheres

IV. EXTERNAL CAROTID ARTERY (ECA) BRANCHES:

  Gives off 8 main branches that supply the face, scalp, and neck:

Branch Area Supplied

1. Superior thyroid artery Thyroid gland, larynx

2. Ascending pharyngeal Pharynx, prevertebral muscles

artery

3. Lingual artery Tongue and floor of mouth

4. Facial artery Face muscles, skin, tonsils

5. Occipital artery Posterior scalp and neck muscles

6. Posterior auricular artery Scalp behind the ear

7. Maxillary artery Deep face structures, maxilla, teeth, muscles of mastication

8. Superficial temporal artery Scalp, temple region

V. SUMMARY TABLE:

Artery Branches Supplies

Common Bifurcates into ICA and ECA Neck, head

carotid

Internal Ophthalmic, posterior communicating, anterior cerebral, middle cerebral Brain, eye
carotid

External Superior thyroid, ascending pharyngeal, lingual, facial, occipital, posterior Face, scalp,
carotid auricular, maxillary, superficial temporal neck

VI. CLINICAL NOTES:

 ICA stenosis can cause cerebral ischemia or stroke.

 ECA branches are important for collateral circulation in head and face trauma.

 Palpation of common carotid artery pulse is clinically important.

 Carotid body and sinus near bifurcation are important for blood pressure and respiratory reflexes.
Q184. DESCRIBE CAROTID ARTERIES.

Carotid arteries are major paired arteries in the neck that supply blood to the head and neck, including the
brain, face, and scalp.

II. TYPES OF CAROTID ARTERIES:

1. Common Carotid Artery (CCA)

2. Internal Carotid Artery (ICA)

3. External Carotid Artery (ECA)

III. COMMON CAROTID ARTERY (CCA):

 Location:
Runs upward in the neck on either side of the trachea and esophagus within the carotid sheath.

 Origin:

o Right CCA arises from the brachiocephalic trunk.

o Left CCA arises directly from the arch of the aorta.

 Course:
Ascends in the neck to the level of the upper border of the thyroid cartilage (C3-C4 vertebra), where it
divides into ICA and ECA.

 Function:
Transports blood from the heart to the head and neck.

 Key Feature:
Contains the carotid sinus (baroreceptor) and carotid body (chemoreceptor) near bifurcation.

IV. INTERNAL CAROTID ARTERY (ICA):

 Origin: From the bifurcation of the CCA at C3-C4 level.

 Course:
Ascends without branching in the neck, enters the skull through the carotid canal.

 Branches:
No branches in the neck. Major intracranial branches include ophthalmic artery, anterior cerebral artery,
middle cerebral artery, and posterior communicating artery.

 Function:
Supplies blood mainly to the brain, eyes, and forehead.

V. EXTERNAL CAROTID ARTERY (ECA):

 Origin: From the bifurcation of the CCA.

 Course:
Ascends superficially in the neck, passing medial to the mandible.

 Branches:
Gives off 8 main branches supplying the face, scalp, neck, oral cavity, and pharynx:

1. Superior thyroid artery

 2. Ascending pharyngeal artery

3. Lingual artery

4. Facial artery

5. Occipital artery

6. Posterior auricular artery

7. Maxillary artery

8. Superficial temporal artery

 Function:
Supplies external structures of the head and neck.

VI. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE:

 Carotid pulse: Easily palpable at the side of the neck, useful for assessing heart rate.

 Carotid sinus hypersensitivity: Can cause syncope due to exaggerated baroreceptor reflex.

 Carotid artery stenosis: May lead to ischemic stroke.

 Carotid endarterectomy: Surgical removal of plaque from carotid artery to prevent stroke.

VII. SUMMARY TABLE:

Artery Origin Branches Area Supplied

Common carotid Right: brachiocephalic trunkLeft: Bifurcates into ICA & ECA Head & neck
artery arch of aorta

Internal carotid From common carotid artery No neck branchesIntracranial Brain, eyes,
artery branches forehead

External carotid From common carotid artery 8 branches Face, scalp, neck,
artery oral cavity

Q185. DESCRIBE THYROID GLAND AND ITS BLOOD SUPPLY. DRAW A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE THYROID
GLAND

 The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped endocrine gland located in the anterior neck, responsible for
producing thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) and calcitonin.

2. Location:

 Situated anterior to the trachea, below the larynx (around C5 to T1 vertebral levels).

 Lies deep to the sternothyroid and sternohyoid muscles.

 Consists of two lobes (right and left) connected by a narrow isthmus that lies over the 2nd and 3rd
tracheal rings.

 Sometimes a pyramidal lobe extends upwards from the isthmus (remnant of the thyroglossal duct).
3. Structure:

 Each lobe is roughly 4–6 cm long, 1.5–2 cm wide, and 2–3 cm thick.

 Encased in a fibrous capsule.

 The gland is composed of follicles lined by follicular cells producing thyroid hormones.

II. BLOOD SUPPLY OF THE THYROID GLAND:

Artery Origin Area Supplied

Superior thyroid First branch of the external carotid artery Superior part of thyroid gland,
artery adjacent muscles

Inferior thyroid artery Branch of the thyrocervical trunk (from Inferior part of thyroid gland,
subclavian artery) parathyroid glands

Thyroid ima artery Arises from brachiocephalic trunk or aortic Supplies lower part of thyroid gland
(variable) arch (if present)

Venous Drainage:

 Superior, middle, and inferior thyroid veins drain the gland.

 Superior and middle veins drain into the internal jugular vein.

 Inferior thyroid vein drains into the brachiocephalic vein.

III. CLINICAL NOTES:

 The close relation of the inferior thyroid artery to the recurrent laryngeal nerve is important during
thyroid surgery to avoid nerve damage.

 Thyroid ima artery is present in some individuals and may cause unexpected bleeding during surgery.

 Enlargement of the thyroid gland (goiter) can compress nearby structures like the trachea or esophagus.

IV. SUMMARY:

Feature Details

Location Anterior neck, below larynx, on trachea

Shape Butterfly-shaped with 2 lobes and isthmus

Blood Supply Superior thyroid artery (ECA)Inferior thyroid artery (thyrocervical trunk)Thyroid ima artery
(variable)

Venous Superior, middle (into internal jugular vein), inferior thyroid veins (into brachiocephalic vein)
Drainage
Q186. DESCRIBE CAROTID ANGIOGRAPHY.

Carotid angiography is a diagnostic imaging procedure that visualizes the carotid arteries (common, internal, and
external carotid arteries) by injecting a contrast dye and using X-ray imaging (fluoroscopy) to assess blood flow
and detect abnormalities.

II. PURPOSE:

 To detect stenosis (narrowing), occlusions, aneurysms, or arteriovenous malformations in carotid

arteries.

 Evaluate the cause of stroke or transient ischemic attacks (TIA).

 Plan surgical or interventional procedures (e.g., carotid endarterectomy, stenting).

 Assess vascular anatomy before head and neck surgeries.

III. PROCEDURE:

1. Access:

o Usually performed by inserting a catheter through the femoral artery in the groin or the radial
artery in the wrist.

2. Catheter Navigation:

o The catheter is guided up through the aorta into the common carotid artery or directly into the
internal carotid artery.

3. Contrast Injection:

o Radiopaque contrast dye is injected into the carotid artery.

4. Imaging:

o Continuous X-ray imaging (fluoroscopy) records the flow of contrast through the carotid arteries.

o Images (angiograms) reveal areas of narrowing, blockage, or abnormal vessels.

 5. Post-procedure:

o Catheter removal and pressure applied to the puncture site to prevent bleeding.

o Monitoring for complications.

IV. INDICATIONS:

 Suspected carotid artery stenosis causing ischemic symptoms.

 Transient ischemic attacks (TIAs) or minor strokes.

 Evaluation of carotid artery aneurysms or dissections.

 Preoperative assessment before vascular surgery.

 Trauma to neck vessels.

V. RISKS AND COMPLICATIONS:

Risk Description

Bleeding or At catheter insertion site

hematoma

Stroke or TIA Due to dislodgement of emboli during procedure

Allergic reaction To contrast dye

Infection At puncture site

Arterial injury Rare but possible during catheter manipulation

VI. ALTERNATIVES:

 Duplex ultrasonography (non-invasive)

 CT angiography (CTA)

 MR angiography (MRA)

VII. SUMMARY:

Aspect Details

Definition Imaging of carotid arteries using contrast dye and X-rays

Purpose Detect stenosis, occlusion, aneurysm, plan treatment

Access Femoral or radial artery catheterization

Imaging Fluoroscopy with contrast injection

technique

Risks Bleeding, stroke, allergic reaction

Alternatives Ultrasound, CT angiography, MR angiography

Q187. DESCRIBE SALIVARY GLAND AND ITS PAIRS. ENUMERATE THE FUNCTIONS OF SALIVARY GLAND

 Salivary glands are exocrine glands that produce and secrete saliva into the oral cavity.

 Saliva aids in digestion, lubrication, and oral hygiene.

🔹 Types/Pairs of Salivary Glands:

Gland Name Location Duct Name

Parotid gland Largest; located anterior to ear, over masseter Stensen’s duct (opens near upper 2nd
muscle molar)

Submandibular Beneath the floor of the mouth, along the Wharton’s duct (opens near lingual
gland mandible frenulum)

Sublingual gland Smallest; located under the tongue Multiple small ducts called Rivinus
ducts

🔹 Structure:

 Composed of serous and mucous acini (secretory units).

 Contain ducts to transport saliva into the oral cavity.

🔹 Functions of Salivary Glands:

1. Lubrication: Moistens the oral cavity, facilitating speech and swallowing.

2. Digestion: Contains enzymes like amylase for carbohydrate digestion.

3. Protection: Saliva contains antibacterial agents (lysozyme, immunoglobulins) that protect oral mucosa.

4. Buffering: Maintains pH balance in the mouth to prevent tooth decay.

5. Tooth Maintenance: Provides calcium and phosphate ions to aid in tooth remineralization.

6. Taste: Saliva dissolves food particles to enable taste sensation.

7. Cleaning: Flushes out food debris and microbes.