PHY-108 Module 06: Current, Resistance & Circuit

MODULE 06: CURRENT, RESISTANCE & CIRCUIT

(Dr. Rubaiyet I. Haque)

LECTURE 13
OUTLINE:
- Kirchhoff’s laws
- Resistors in series and parallel
- RC circuits

KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS
Kirchhoff's laws are a set of fundamental principles that govern the behavior of electric circuits. They
were developed by the German physicist Gustav Kirchhoff in the mid-19th century. Two laws are,
1. Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (𝐾𝑉𝐿)
2. Kirchhoff's Current Law (𝐾𝐶𝐿)
These laws are essential for analyzing and understanding the behavior of complex electrical circuits.
Using Kirchhoff’s circuit law relating to the junction rule and his closed loop rule, we can calculate
and find the currents and voltages around any closed circuit providing we know the values of the
electrical components within it.

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

This law states that the sum of all the voltages around any closed loop in an electric circuit is equal
to zero. In other words, the sum of the voltage drops across all the components in a closed loop must
be equal to the voltage source driving the circuit.
Starting at any point in the loop continue in the same direction
noting the direction of all the voltage drops, either positive or
negative, and returning back to the same starting point. It is
important to maintain the same direction either clockwise or
anti-clockwise or the final voltage sum will not be equal to
zero.

∑𝑉 = 0 ⇒ 𝑉 − 𝑉𝑅1 − 𝑉𝑅2 − 𝑉𝑅3 = 0

Kirchhoff’s voltage law can be used to analyze series circuits.

Kirchhoff’s Current Law

This law states that the sum of currents entering a junction or node in an electric circuit is equal to
the sum of currents leaving that junction or node.
- Total current flowing into a node must be equal to the total current flowing out of that node.

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PHY-108 Module 06: Current, Resistance & Circuit

As presented in the figure, three currents entering the node, 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , 𝐼3 are all positive in value and the
two currents leaving the node, 𝐼4 and 𝐼5 are negative in value. Therefore, the equation can be written
as,
𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 − 𝐼4 − 𝐼5 = 0
The term Node in an electrical circuit generally refers to a connection or junction of two or more
current carrying paths or elements such as cables and components. Also, for current to flow either in
or out of a node a closed-circuit path must exist. We can use Kirchhoff’s current law when analyzing
parallel circuits.

SOLVING SINGLE LOOP CIRCUIT

Figure shows a single loop circuit. Let us consider at point 𝑎, the potential is 𝑉𝑎 . Current 𝑖 flows in
clockwise direction through the circuit. Let us start from the point 𝑎 in clockwise direction.
- The point 𝑎 lies at the low-potential terminal of the battery.
- As the battery is ideal, the potential difference between its
terminals is equal to 𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹 .
- Across the battery, lies the high-potential terminal of the
battery, and, thus, the change in potential is +𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹 .

- The top end of the resistor remains at unchanged potential, as the top wire has negligible resistance.
▪ Similar to the potential of the high-potential terminal of the battery.
- Across the resistor, however, the potential decrease between the higher potential side of the resistor
to the lower potential side by 𝑉 = 𝑖𝑅. Thus, the change in potential is ∆𝑉 = −𝑖𝑅.
- Finally, since the wire has negligible resistance, between the low potential end of the resistance
and the point 𝑎 the potential remains unchanged, which is equal to 𝑉𝑎 .
- As the loop is completed, initial potential value is modified due to potential changes along the
way, and must be equal to the final potential (𝑉𝑎 ).
𝑉𝑎 + 𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹 − 𝑖𝑅 = 𝑉𝑎
𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹 − 𝑖𝑅 = 0
𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹
Solving this equation for 𝑖 gives us, 𝑖 =
𝑅

Similarly, if applying the loop rule in a counterclockwise direction around the circuit, we get,
−𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹 + 𝑖𝑅 = 0
and we again find that,
𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹
𝑖=
𝑅

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PHY-108 Module 06: Current, Resistance & Circuit

Single loop circuit with internal resistance:

Figure a shows a real battery, with internal resistance 𝑟, connected via wired to an external resistor
of resistance 𝑅. The internal resistance of the battery is the electrical resistance of the conducting
materials of the battery and thus is an unremovable feature of the battery. Figure b shows graphically
the changes in electric potential around the circuit.

Fig. (a) A single-loop circuit containing a real battery having internal resistance r and emf 𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹 . (b) The same circuit,
now spread out in a line. The potentials encountered in traversing the circuit clockwise from a are also shown. The
potential 𝑉𝑎 is arbitrarily assigned a value of zero, and other potentials in the circuit are graphed relative to 𝑉𝑎 .

If we apply the loop rule clockwise beginning at point a, the changes in potential give us
𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹 − 𝑖𝑟 − 𝑖𝑅 = 0
Solving for the current, we find
𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹
𝑖=
𝑅+𝑟
If the battery is ideal that is, if 𝑟 = 0.

PROBLEM: If R1 = 2Ω, R2 = 4Ω, R3 = 6Ω, determine the

electric current that flows in the circuit below.
ANSWER: Let us consider, the direction of the current is
clockwise. Since, when the current flows across the
resistor, there is a potential drop. Hence, V = IR is signed
negative.

If the current moves from low to high (− to +), then the emf (E) source is signed positive because
of the energy charging at the emf source.
Likewise, if the current moves from high to low voltage (+ to −), then the source of emf (E) is
signed negative because of the emptying of energy at the emf source.
In this solution, the direction of the current is the same as the direction of clockwise rotation.
− 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐸1 − 𝐼𝑅2 − 𝐼𝑅3 − 𝐸2 = 0
Substituting the values in the equation, we get
−2𝐼 + 10 − 4𝐼 − 6𝐼 − 5 = 0
−12𝐼 + 5 = 0
−5
𝐼 = = 0.416 𝐴
−12
The electric current that flows in the circuit is 0.416 A.

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PHY-108 Module 06: Current, Resistance & Circuit

The electric current is signed positive which means that the direction of the electric current is the
same as the direction of clockwise rotation. If the electric current is negative, then the direction of
the current would be in anti-clockwise direction.

PROBLEM 27-01: In Figure, the ideal batteries have emfs 𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹1 =

12 𝑉 and 𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹2 = 6.0 𝑉 . What are (a) the current, the dissipation rate
in (b) resistor 1 (4.0 Ω) and (c) resistor 2 (8.0 Ω), and the energy
transfer rate in (d) battery 1 and (e) battery 2? Is energy being supplied
or absorbed by (f) battery 1 and (g) battery 2?

PROBLEM 27-02: In Figure, the ideal batteries have emfs 𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹1 =

150 𝑉 and 𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹2 = 50 𝑉 and the resistances are 𝑅1 = 3.0 Ω and 𝑅2 =
2.0 Ω. If the potential at 𝑃 is 100 𝑉, what is it at 𝑄?

PROBLEM 27-03: A car battery with a 12 𝑉 emf and an internal resistance of 0.040 Ω is being
charged with a current of 50 𝐴. What are (a) the potential difference 𝑉 across the terminals, (b) the
rate 𝑃𝑟 of energy dissipation inside the battery, and (c) the rate 𝑃𝑒𝑚𝑓 of energy conversion to
chemical form? When the battery is used to supply 50 A to the starter motor, what are (d) 𝑉 and
(e) 𝑃𝑟 ?

PROBLEM 27-18: In Figure, what is the potential

difference 𝑉𝑑 − 𝑉𝑐 between points 𝑑 and 𝑐 if 𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹1 =
4.0 𝑉, 𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹2 = 1.0 𝑉, 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 10 Ω, and 𝑅3 = 5.0 Ω,
and the battery is ideal?

RESISTORS IN SERIES
When resistors are arranged sequentially along a single
pathway, and the same current flow through each resistor is
known as resistors in series.
- For a series connection, same current flows through each
resistor, as there is only one path for the current to follow,
therefore the current is constant throughout.
- When a potential difference 𝑉 is applied across resistances
connected in series, the resistors have identical currents 𝑖.
And the sum of the potential differences across the
resistances is equal to the applied potential difference 𝑉.

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PHY-108 Module 06: Current, Resistance & Circuit

𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 ⇒ 𝑖𝑅𝑠 = 𝑖𝑅1 + 𝑖𝑅2 + 𝑖𝑅3

𝑛

𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 = ∑ 𝑅𝑖
𝑖=1

CHECKPOINT: A battery has an emf of 12 𝑉 and an internal resistance of 2 Ω. Is the terminal-

to-terminal potential difference greater than, less than, or equal to 12 𝑉 if the current in the battery
is (a) from the negative to the positive terminal, (b) from the positive to the negative terminal, and
(c) zero?
ANSWER: (a) less; (b) greater; (c) equal [∴ 𝑉𝑡 = 𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹 − 𝑖𝑟]
𝑖 refers to the current through battery

PROBLEM 27-04: Figure shows a circuit of four

resistors that are connected to a larger circuit. The graph
below the circuit shows the electric potential V(x) as a
function of position 𝑥 along the lower branch of the
circuit, through resistor 4; the potential 𝑉𝐴 is 12.0 𝑉. The
graph above the circuit shows the electric potential 𝑉(𝑥)
versus position 𝑥 along the upper branch of the circuit,
through resistors 1, 2, and 3; the potential differences are
∆𝑉𝐵 = 2.00 𝑉 and ∆𝑉𝐶 = 5.00 𝑉. Resistor 3 has a
resistance of 200 Ω. What is the resistance of (a) resistor
1 and (b) resistor 2?

PROBLEM 27-05: A 5.0 A current is set up in a circuit for 6.0 min by a rechargeable battery with
a 6.0 V emf. By how much is the chemical energy of the battery reduced?

PROBLEM 27-06: A standard flashlight battery can deliver about 2.0W.h of energy before it runs
down. (a) If a battery costs 𝑈𝑆$0.80, what is the cost of operating a 100 𝑊 lamp for 8.0 ℎ using
batteries? (b)What is the cost if energy is provided at the rate of US$0.06 per kilowatt-hour?

PROBLEM 27-08: A certain car battery with a 12.0 𝑉 emf has an initial charge of 120 𝐴. ℎ.
Assuming that the potential across the terminals stays constant until the battery is completely
discharged, for how many hours can it deliver energy at the rate of 100 𝑊?

PROBLEM 27-15: The current in a single-loop circuit with one resistance R is 5.0 A. When an
additional resistance of 2.0 Ω is inserted in series with R, the current drops to 4.0 A. What is R?

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PHY-108 Module 06: Current, Resistance & Circuit

RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
When resistors are arranged in a way where both ends of each resistor are connected to the same two
points, forming a multiple paths for current to flow is known as resistors in parallel.
- The voltage across each resistor in parallel is the same.
- When a potential difference 𝑉 is applied across
resistances connected in parallel, the resistances all have
that same potential difference V. And current flows
through each path must be equals to the current produced
by the emf device.

𝑛
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 1 1 1 1 1
𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 ⇒ = + + ⇒ = + + =∑
𝑅𝑝 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑝 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑖
𝑖=1

CHECKPOINT: A battery, with potential V across it, is connected to a combination of two

identical resistors and then has current i through it. What are the potential difference across and the
current through either resistor if the resistors are (a) in series and (b) in parallel?
𝑉 𝑖
ANSWER: (a) , 𝑖; (b) 𝑉,
2 2

PROBLEM 27-19: A total resistance of 3.00 Ω is to be produced by connecting an unknown

resistance to a 12.0 Ω resistance. (a) What must be the value of the unknown resistance, and (b)
should it be connected in series or in parallel?

PROBLEM 27-20: When resistors 1 and 2 are connected in series, the equivalent resistance is
16.0 Ω. When they are connected in parallel, the equivalent resistance is 3.0 𝛺. What are (a) the
smaller resistance and (b) the larger resistance of these two resistors?

PROBLEM 27-21: Four 18.0 Ω resistors are connected in parallel across a 25.0 𝑉 ideal battery.
What is the current through the battery?

AMMETER AND VOLTMETER

Followings are the three measurement instruments that are used for
measuring different aspects of electrical circuits and are designed
differently to perform their specific functions accurately.
- An ammeter measures current.
- A voltmeter measures voltage (potential differences).
- A multimeter can be used to measure current, voltage, or
resistance.

Ammeter: An instrument used to measure currents is called an ammeter. To measure the current in
a wire, ammeter is installed in series so that the current to be measured passes through the meter.

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PHY-108 Module 06: Current, Resistance & Circuit

Voltmeter: A meter used to measure potential differences is called a voltmeter. To find the potential
difference between any two points in the circuit, the voltmeter terminals are connected between those
points in parallel without breaking or cutting the wire. In figure, voltmeter 𝑉 is set up to measure the
voltage across 𝑅1 .
Multimeter: A multimeter, also known as a volt-ohm meter (VOM), is a device used to measure
electrical values, like, voltage, current, and resistance. It is a very versatile instrument that is
commonly used by electricians, technicians, and engineers in a variety of industries.

PROBLEM 27-49: (a) In Figure, what current does the ammeter

read if 𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹 = 5.0 𝑉 (ideal battery), 𝑅1 = 2.0 Ω, 𝑅2 = 4.0 Ω,
and 𝑅3 = 6.0 Ω? (b) The ammeter and battery are now
interchanged. Show that the ammeter reading is unchanged.

PROBLEM 27-50: In Figure, 𝑅1 = 2.00𝑅, the ammeter

resistance is zero, and the battery is ideal. What multiple of
𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹 /𝑅 gives the current in the ammeter?

PROBLEM 27-53: In Figure, assume that 𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹 = 3.0 𝑉, 𝑟 =

100 Ω, 𝑅1 = 250 Ω, and 𝑅2 = 300 Ω. If the voltmeter resistance
𝑅𝑉 is 5.0 𝑘Ω, what percent error does it introduce into the
measurement of the potential difference across 𝑅1 ? Ignore the
presence of the ammeter.

RC CIRCUITS
An RC circuit is a circuit that consists of a resistor (𝑅) and a
capacitor (𝐶) connected.
- These types of circuits are commonly used in electronics for
various applications, such as, filtering, timing, and signal
processing.

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PHY-108 Module 06: Current, Resistance & Circuit

An RC circuit connected to a voltage source:

- Let us consider an RC circuit that is connected to a voltage source.
- Initially, the capacitor charges up through the resistor until it reaches same voltage as the source.
▪ This process is called charging.
▪ The rate at which the capacitor charges up depends on the values of the resistor and capacitor,
as well as the voltage of the source.
- After the capacitor is fully charged, the circuit enters a state called steady-state.
▪ In this state, capacitor acts like an open circuit, preventing current from flowing through it.
▪ The only current flowing through the circuit is the current passing through the resistor.
- When voltage source is removed from the circuit, capacitor begins to discharge through the
resistor.
▪ This process is called discharging.
▪ The rate at which the capacitor discharges depends on the values of the resistor and capacitor,
as well as the initial voltage of the capacitor.

Application:
- RC circuits can also be used for filtering, where they are used to selectively allow or block certain
frequencies of an input signal.
- This is achieved by selecting appropriate values for the resistor and capacitor to create a low-pass
or high-pass filter circuit.

Charging a capacitor:
Let us consider, an RC series circuit consists of the capacitor,
an ideal battery of emf 𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹 , and a resistance 𝑅 (Figure). The
capacitor of capacitance 𝐶 is initially uncharged.
- When the switch S is closed on point 𝑎, the 𝑅𝐶 circuit is
completed, and charge begins to flow between a capacitor
plate and a battery terminal on each side of the capacitor.
- The charge 𝑞 on plates increase, leading to the increase of
Fig. When switch S is closed on a, the
potential difference 𝑉𝐶 (= 𝑞/𝐶) across the capacitor. capacitor is charged through the resistor.
- When 𝑉𝐶 equals the potential difference across the battery When the switch is afterward closed on b,
the capacitor discharges through the
(𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹 ), the current stops to flow and thus we get 𝑖 = 0. resistor.
- From equation (𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉), we get the equilibrium charge
on the fully charged capacitor is equal to 𝑞 = 𝐶𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹 .
Applying the loop rule to the circuit, traversing it clockwise from the negative terminal of the battery,
𝑞
𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹 − 𝑉𝑅 − 𝑉𝐶 = 0 ⇒ 𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹 − 𝑖𝑅 − = 0
𝐶
The terms 𝑉𝑅 and 𝑉𝐶 refers to the potential difference across the resistor and capacitor, respectively.
These terms are negative because there is a drop in potential across the capacitor and resistor.
𝑑𝑞
We know, 𝑖 =
𝑑𝑡

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PHY-108 Module 06: Current, Resistance & Circuit

𝑑𝑞 𝑞
Therefore, equation become, 𝑅 + = 𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹
𝑑𝑡 𝐶

Solution of this equation gives us, 𝑞 = 𝐶𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 )

Here 𝑒 is the exponential base, 2.718, and not the elementary charge. The derivative of q(t) is the
current 𝑖(𝑡) while charging the capacitor. Thus,
𝑑𝑞 𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶
𝑖= =( )𝑒
𝑑𝑡 𝑅
- Initially, the capacitor acts like ordinary connecting wire relative to the charging current.
- Once completely charged, the capacitor acts like a broken wire.

Since 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉, the potential difference across the capacitor 𝑉𝐶 (𝑡) during the charging process is,
𝑞
𝑉𝐶 = = 𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 )
𝐶
Thus, 𝑉𝐶 = 0 at 𝑡 = 0 and that 𝑉𝐶 = 𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹 when the capacitor becomes fully charged at 𝑡 → ∞.

Discharging capacitor:
Let us consider the capacitor presented in Figure is fully charged to a potential 𝑉0 equal to the emf
(𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹 ) of the battery. When the emf device is removed from the circuit by changing the switch 𝑆
position from 𝑎 to 𝑏, the capacitor starts to discharge through resistance 𝑅, at a time 𝑡 = 0,.
The differential equation describing 𝑞(𝑡) with no battery in the discharge loop, 𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹 = 0. We get
from the Kirchhoff’s voltage law,
𝑞
𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑖𝑅 + = 0
𝐶
The solution to this differential equation is,
𝑞 = 𝑞0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶
where 𝑞0 (= 𝐶𝑉0 ) is the initial charge on the capacitor. Thus, 𝑞 decreases exponentially with time, at
a rate that is set by the capacitive time constant 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶. At time 𝑡 = 𝜏, the capacitor’s charge has
been reduced to 𝑞0 𝑒 −1 , or about 37% of the initial value.
Differentiating Equation gives us the discharge current 𝑖(𝑡),
𝑑𝑞 𝑞0 𝑡
𝑖= = − ( ) 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 = −𝑖0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶
Therefore, the current also decreases exponentially with time, at a rate set by 𝜏. The initial current 𝑖0
is equal to 𝑞0 /𝑅𝐶.

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PHY-108 Module 06: Current, Resistance & Circuit

Time constant:
The time it takes for the capacitor to charge, or discharge is determined by the time constant of the
circuit, which is equal to the product of the resistance and capacitance values.
RC time constant, 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 [𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑]
- If 𝜏 << 1, charge (𝑄) will attain its final
value rapidly.
- If 𝜏 >> 1, charge (𝑄) will do so slowly.
- Thus, 𝑅𝐶 determines the rate at which the
capacitor charges or discharges itself through
a resistance.
- Practically, time constant (𝜏) represents time taken for the capacitor to reach approximately 𝟔𝟑%
of full voltage while charging; And during discharging, discharge to 𝟑𝟕% of its initial voltage.

CHECKPOINT: The table gives four sets of values for

the circuit elements in Figure. Rank the sets according to
(a) the initial current (as the switch is closed on a) and (b)
the time required for the current to decrease to half its
initial value, greatest first.

𝜀
(𝑎) 𝐼 = & (𝑏) 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶
𝑅

ANSWER: (a) 1, 2, 4, 3; (b) 4, tie of 1 and 2, then 3

PROBLEM 27-58: In an RC series circuit, emf 𝜀𝐸𝑀𝐹 = 12.0 𝑉, resistance 𝑅 = 1.40 𝑀Ω, and
capacitance 𝐶 = 1.80 𝜇𝐹. (a) Calculate the time constant. (b) Find the maximum charge that will
appear on the capacitor during charging. (c) How long does it take for the charge to build up to
16.0 𝜇𝐶?

PROBLEM 27-60: A capacitor with initial charge 𝑞0 is discharged through a resistor. What
multiple of the time constant 𝜏 gives the time the capacitor takes to lose (a) the first one-third of its
charge and (b) two-thirds of its charge?

PROBLEM 27-61: A 15.0 𝑘Ω resistor and a capacitor are connected in series, and then a 12.0 𝑉
potential difference is suddenly applied across them. The potential difference across the capacitor
rises to 5.00 𝑉 in 1.30 𝜇𝑠. (a) Calculate the time constant of the circuit. (b) Find the capacitance of
the capacitor.

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PHY-108 Module 06: Current, Resistance & Circuit

PROBLEM 27-66: Figure displays two circuits with a

charged capacitor that is to be discharged through a resistor
when a switch is closed. In Fig. a, 𝑅1 = 20.0 Ω and 𝐶1 =
5.00 𝜇𝐹. In Fig. b, 𝑅2 = 10.0 Ω and 𝐶2 = 8.00 𝜇𝐹. The
𝑞
ratio of the initial charges on the two capacitors is 02 =
𝑞01
1.50. At time 𝑡 = 0, both switches are closed. At what time
𝑡 do the two capacitors have the same charge?

PROBLEM 27-67: The potential difference between the plates of a leaky (meaning that charge
leaks from one plate to the other) 2.0 𝜇𝐹 capacitor drops to one-fourth its initial value in 2.0 𝑠.
What is the equivalent resistance between the capacitor plates?

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