FUNDAMENTALS OF EDUCATIONAL ETHNOGRAPHY

Introduction

The present work aims to show the foundations of educational ethnography, since
that in the field of scientific educational research the method of the
ethnographic; which helps us to know, analyze, and interpret reality in depth
educational, and thus improve education in all areas.

The term 'ethnography' etymologically derives from the Greek 'ethographo' 'ethos' that
means 'people' and 'grapho' which means 'to write', that is to say that 'ethnography is the
science that studies and describes peoples and their culture," when referring to culture is
mention the customs and traditions of a human group linked by a race,
nationality that has a particular common mismatched identity. To do ethnography is thus to reach
understand in detail what people with cultural and social ties do, say, and think
or of any other nature, that exchange visions, values, and patterns, whether of a type
social, cultural, economic or religious.

The term 'educational' is used as an adjective to refer to all those

processes, events, and situations related to one of the most important phenomena of
humanity: education. The condition of 'educational' is one that implies the
existence of educational elements applicable to individuals with a purpose
educational in numerous ways.

In contrast to positivist research approaches, various have been emerging.

alternative perspectives in educational research. One of them is ethnography, which
offers the educational researcher a particularly rich approach. In fact, increasingly with
more frequently studies and research appear following research methods
qualitative, and more and more are following ethnographic models.

Ethnographers have opened fields of study, have provided careful descriptions, have
provided models to understand the school dynamics and have explored the perspectives,
strategies and cultures of teachers and students. Nevertheless, their ultimate goal is the improvement of the
educational practice.

1. Approach to the concept of educational ethnography

In the field of qualitative scientific research, ethnography is considered as
a method or technique that helps to describe the object of study, every ethnographic study is
qualitative but not all qualitative research is ethnographic.

In the field of ethnographic pedagogy, several authors point out what is understood by
school ethnography and educational ethnography, it should be noted that ethnography is not the same
school and educational ethnography, in the following paragraphs their difference is mentioned.

Yuni and Urbano argue that educational ethnography is the study and analysis of the
educational institutions and processes using the ethnographic method and aims to
provide valuable descriptive data of the contexts, activities, and beliefs of the
participants in the educational setting. Educational ethnography studies, understands and
analyzes the educational act globally and it is not limited to being institutionalized
that goes beyond the walls of a classroom.

School ethnography is a branch of educational ethnography, about this Torres (1988)

mention that:
Focusing on the school context, the object of educational ethnography is
center on discover what happens there daily by contributing
meaningful data, from the most descriptive way possible, so then
interpret them and to be able to understand and intervene more appropriately in that
"Ecological niche which are the classrooms" (pg 14).

In this way, "the ethnography of the school is nothing more than the result of applying a
ethnographic practice and an anthropological reflection on the study of the school institution
(Velasco and Díaz, 2006, p. 10).

Both authors mention that school ethnography is to describe, interpret, and analyze,
what happens inside an institution, its modes of socialization, the processes of
Teaching and learning, the student and the educator are part of this ethnographic study.

In a review of educational ethnography, Wilcox identifies 2 categories of studies.

ethnographic schools: those who see the school as an instrument of
cultural transmission and those who explore the cultural conflict that occurs in classrooms.

With the first category, Wilcox establishes the school as a device of the relationship.
of cultural transmission, that is to say, that the school acts today as a dominant agent,
transmitting a set of knowledge, values, and ways of behavior that allow
maintain culture as a phenomenon in continuity. With the second category Wilcox
it mentions that the school is a place of confrontations and struggles to impose
cultural meanings.
 2. Purpose

Educational ethnography does not have a single purpose, but several, closely related.
Sanchez (2012) highlights the following:

a) Cultural description. - The description of the chosen culture is basic in everything.

ethnographic study. It is necessary to delimit the studied field, characterize it,
to make it peculiar

b) Interpretation and understanding.- In addition to describing the culture, it is necessary that the
the researcher subjectively interprets it, for only in this way does the reader of the ethnography,
unrelated to the researcher's experience, will be able to understand it.

c) Diffusion and improvement.- Another objective of ethnographies is the dissemination of their

reports to try to achieve, ultimately, improvements in education.
Where the main objective of the research is, and must remain, the
knowledge production. But since the purpose of producing knowledge by
itself can be very simple, the ideal is that this knowledge contributes to introduce
substantial changes in schools.

d) Self-knowledge. - On the other hand, another purpose of ethnography, not always

the transformation of the researcher is contemplated: of their ideas, of their
prior conceptions, etc. The essence of the ethnographic experience is
transform ourselves.

3. Characteristics

Phenomenological or Emic:
With this type of research, the researcher can obtain an internal knowledge of the
social life given that it involves describing and interpreting social phenomena from the
perspective of the participants in the social context of having internal knowledge.

Relatively persistent permanence

Within the group to be studied in order to gain their acceptance and trust. Once
Once this is achieved, we must understand the culture that surrounds them. This characteristic is about
take a step further in research so that the ethnographer lives in first person
It personalizes the social reality of the group, thus it will be able to observe how things happen in
its natural state and understand the different behaviors that occur in a
determined context.

It is holistic and naturalistic.

An ethnographic study provides a global view of the studied social environment from different perspectives.
viewpoints: an internal point of view (that of the group members) and a perspective
external (the interpretation of the researcher himself).

An inductive character.
It is based on firsthand experience and exploration of a social setting.
through participant observation as the main strategy to obtain information.
from here conceptual categories are generated and regularities are discovered
associations between the observed phenomena that allow for the establishment of models, hypotheses and
possible explanatory theories of the reality under study.

4. Role of the ethnographer

The ethnographer, for the vast majority of authors, is the main instrument of
research. It depends on him the selection of the theme to be investigated, the philosophy that is
adopt in the study, access to the field, relationships with the subjects studied, the
observations and interpretations made, and a long etcetera. As Sanmartín states
Arce, the researcher is a restorer of reality, whose work 'requires patience and
dedication, meticulous and fervent attention, keen observation and critical reflection of the
observed" (2000: 139).

We highlight two main demands that an ethnographer must meet: estrangement and
trying to be one more.

Alienation

Alienation is closely related to two basic aspects: (1) uprooting

to abandon the spaces that one usually frequents, and (2) the facing of a
unknown situation, which also must be examined to be understood. But
Moreover, estrangement must be a vital attitude in the ethnographer throughout.
research process, not only in the initial moments. This attitude holds
a close relationship with the researcher's ability to face with a sense of
astonishment at every observation made, however vulgar, familiar, or routine it may seem at first glance
view, for delving into its meaning can be very revealing for the
research.
A principle of procedure related to this issue is provided by Barrio Maestre, when
it states that "the researcher must call into question their ethnocentrism" (1995: 165), it is
to say, the researcher must judge reality from the perspective of the members
of the same, showing the ability to set aside their prior conceptions.
Be one more

The ethnographer not only has to be astonished by the foreign, but also has to try to integrate.
partially in the field they study. As Barrio Maestre suggests, "the ethnographer has to
familiarize oneself with the strange and be surprised by the familiar" (1995: 164).
In this attempt to become one more in the studied community, three are fundamental.
qualities: intuition, reflection, and empathy (Heras Montoya 1997: 16). The ethnographer, in his
travel, has a compass that helps him find his way: at times intuition leads him to
to pose some hypotheses, at other times reflection leads him to question them or to
to build others, and at other times, affections allow him to devise new attempts at explanation.

Ethnographic process

The ethnographic process is not a linear process, but circular, although it can be
identify different moments that can occur (and do occur) in practice
simultaneously. They are negotiation and access to the field, fieldwork
properly, the analysis of the data and the preparation of the ethnographic report.

Negotiation and access to the field

The entry into the field of study is often an issue mentioned in all works on
ethnography, and as Stake rightly points out: 'Almost always, the collection of
data "plays at home" of someone. In most cases, it implies at least one
small invasion of privacy. The procedures to obtain a response are based on
that the need to obtain permits is always taken for granted. To whom does it correspond
space in which we move?

The phase of negotiation that opens (or does not open) the doors to the field of study is mandatory and
can largely determine the course of the investigation, as Woods
maintains, in this phase "after all, it's about selling yourself as a person
"worthy of credit that carries out a project of value" (1987: 37).

Fieldwork

The fieldwork phase is a problematic stage of the work as its

As its own name indicates, it unfolds in the space inhabited by the group to be studied.
This stage basically collects the information that will be worked on later.
conducting the relevant analyses, although, as is evident, many of these analyses already
Reflections, interpretations, etc. occur simultaneously with data collection.

Next, I summarize the main characteristics of the techniques of

highlighted methods of information collection in ethnography: participant observation, the
interview and documentary analysis. However, depending on the study, they can also
employ others, and it is worth noting that these techniques should contribute to a basic goal: the
triangulation of perspectives.

Participant observation

Participant observation is considered the premier technique of ethnography.

it is so because "participant observation is understood as a condensed form, capable of
achieve objectivity through close and sensitive observation, while capturing at the same time
the meanings that the subjects of study give to their behavior. (...) The observation and
participant observation provides descriptions, that is, discourse specific to
researcher" (Velasco and Díaz de Rada 2006: 34).

To observe, it is ideal to modify the subject of study as little as possible,

adopting a "fly on the wall" way of acting, in order to observe situations as they are.
how they occur with the least possible interference.

5. The meaningful context

The prolonged participation in the context to be studied studying the viewpoint of 'the
"Natives" refers to the need to coexist with the group to be studied for periods of
continuous time to understand the interactions that occur among its members
and to be able to faithfully account for the dialectical relationships that occur between interactions
social and the meanings that are constructed.

Serra suggests that "it is considered that one of the requirements for obtaining a good
ethnography is an extended fieldwork in which there is direct contact and
a data collection in the field. The presence in the field and the connection with the
Individuals who are the subject of study over a long period are considered necessary.
because they allow gathering data on the behavior in their natural environment
people and events, and place them in the context in which they acquire meaning,
which facilitates its understanding and the formulation of pertinent hypotheses" (2004:167-168).

6. Phenomenological character
Ethnographic research involves describing and interpreting social phenomena from the
perspective of the participants in the social context, which allows the researcher to obtain
an internal knowledge, 'from within' social life.

It is important to know the distinction between the terms emic, which refers to the differences
what is within the same culture, and ethical, referring to the vision or orientation from
the exterior.

In education, it is necessary to understand what it means to be a student with academic failure in order to
intervene, avoid possible undesirable consequences and understand how this works
experience of the student in question. Phenomenological studies respond to this
objective. They are concerned with determining the meaning given to phenomena, discovering the
meaning and the way people describe their experiences about a
concrete event: what is the student's experience with school failure in the classroom
What is the experience of carrying the label of 'bad student,' through the description and
interpretation of the discourse of those who truly live it.

A phenomenological study is not so much concerned with knowing what causes school failure.
as for understanding what school failure is, emphasizing the essential and subjective aspects
from this experience, listening to the voices, the stories and the experiences of their
protagonists. They are interested in questions of meaning and that is why they use the recording of
conversations and the recording of anecdotes and personal experiences as the main ones
specific techniques for obtaining information.

From a methodological point of view, the phenomenological approach seeks to discover everything.
that which appears as relevant and meaningful in perceptions, feelings and
actions of social actors, following the research process clearly
inductive.

7. Holistic character

According to Pulido and Prados (1992), the ethnographic research methodology

consists of a sequence of research activities that take place over a
relatively long period of time. This succession is rarely linear; on the contrary,
loops, dispersions, tangled comings and goings are formed.

Let's look at each of the seven phases (Design selection, The determination of techniques,
Access to the research field, The selection of informants, The data collection
and the determination of the duration of the stay on stage, The processing of the
information collected and the preparation of the report) of the research methodology
ethnographic are:
 a) Selection of the design

What do I want to study? What is my goal? And what is the method that suits me best?
Adapt the answers I am looking for; they are essential questions before starting a
research. According to León and Montero (2002), what is truly essential as
The starting point of an ethnography is to formulate a good question, determine the objectives.
from the research and choose the appropriate scope of it.
It can be said that two characteristics of ethnographic study are its minimalist nature and
flexible. The complexity and degree of aesthetics (or the opposite) will be provided by the
studied reality. It cannot be known what the variations are or the course that will
to occur in the research, so the researcher must be prepared and be
aware of the difficulties and advantages of this methodology

Ethnography is not a simple technique but a methodological strategy that allows

obtain empirical information in the space where events take place
studied, "document the undocumented", thus allowing for a qualitative elaboration
from the studied school context; its results in a text that densely describes the
specificity of the place (Rockwell, 2013)

According to ethnographic research, it is not possible to separate individuals from the

context in which their lives take place and, therefore, their behaviors, as well as
neither the ignorance of their own perspective of the subjects investigated.

b) Determination of the techniques

The most commonly used techniques in ethnographic research are observations and the
interviews.

As observations, we can mention on one hand the non-participant, in which the

the investigator observes, but does not relate to the object of study, and on the other hand, the
participant observation in which the ethnographer actively collaborates and thus is able to
collect necessary information for your research.

The ethnographer, in addition to observing, also has to ask and examine; for this, he will rely on
in the interviews aimed at gaining an internal perspective from the participants of the
group. These interviews can be informal, in-depth, structured, individual
or in a group.
Interviews in ethnographic research consist of a series of conversations.
spontaneous and informal, this complicates the differentiation between what can be a
interview of a participant observation, this does not happen with formal interviews. In
definitive, both for interviews and for participant observation, the researcher
it must be taken into account:

The context.
The effects that the researcher themselves have on the group.
The need to create a communication relationship.
Building relationships with group members (personal characteristics will influence here)
of the researcher).

c) Access to the research field or scenario.

The scenario is the social situation that integrates people, their interactions, and the objects present.
presents. The ethnographer must access the stage in which the members are located and in
the ones that provoke the cultural situations they want to investigate. The encounter of
obstacles when accessing the stage and the effective means to avoid them,
they provide signs of the social organization of the place that the researcher can take into account
the time to carry out your studies.

The selection of the scenario is done intentionally and must be in accordance with the
research objective. Once the setting has been chosen, the ethnographer must
access it, for which it has to establish a series of entry strategies. The
the selected scenario for the research can be:

Very well-known scenario for the researcher.

Totally unfamiliar scenario.
Open and accessible scenario.
Closed scenario.

d) The selection of informants.

Access to the stage entails the fact that the ethnographer already has the first
contacts with the subjects participating in the social situation that one wants to investigate. The
What the researcher wants to achieve is to establish open relationships with the members of
a group that will be in charge of being the informants. For this, the ethnographer has to obtain
the rapport (creating a relationship of trust between the researcher/ethnographer and the subject being researched
or investigated) and thus obtain some descriptions and impressions about their own
reality and that of others.

Taylor and Bogdan (1986) provide some strategies that can help achieve the
report

Adjusting to the routines and ways of doing things of the group members.
Resort to what is shared.
Help them.
Adopt a humble stance. F. J. Murillo and C. Martínez-Garrido 9
Show interest in the information they convey.

The sex of the researcher also influences the collection of information:

Being a woman affected my relationships in the field as certain activities
they were restricted to one sex or the other. However, the fact that she was taller
that most of the locals wore pants and kept me out of the
an elevated social status in which I was placed, rather in an ambiguous category,
allowed me to make appointments and visit people freely throughout the country, like
they would do with men, but not drink with men unless another woman
was present. [...] On the other hand, I had good access to the activities of the
women, as well as to the gossip network, to its warmth and to its affection." (Rainbird, 1990,
pp.78-79

Throughout the research process, members will be selected who will

They are going to interrogate and the situations that are desired to be examined in more detail.

e) Data collection and the determination of the duration of the stay in the
scenario.

Once the sampling problems and the selection of the scenario are resolved, the situations
Social and informants, the issue of obtaining information becomes a priority.

The normal process of observation is selective, that is to say, the researcher selects in
function of social and theoretical categories prior to the reality under study, is
say, where do you look to see the school?

It is important to 'observe everything' even though it is actually impossible. Nevertheless, this is achieved.
through the opening to details that still do not fit into any scheme, or with the
pay attention to the signals given by individuals that indicate new relationships
significant. These signals become interpretable to the extent that the analysis and
theoretical work integrates them in parallel.

f) The processing of the collected information.

One of the most distinctive features of qualitative research, and specifically of

ethnography is that the analysis of the data is carried out throughout the study. The
The process of data collection and its analysis are closely linked.
They are interactive and interdependent aspects as the ethnographer observes and
interpret in parallel.

Throughout the research process, it selects what is significant from the context of
agreement with the conceptual and theoretical elaboration that it carries out at the same time. As it progresses
keep obtaining the data, generate hypotheses, conduct multiple analyses, reinterpret and formulate
new hypotheses about certain relationships between general concepts
observed phenomena. And it is precisely in this double process of observation and of
interpretation when the possibility of building and enriching the theory opens up.

Glaser and Strauss (1967) point out that the challenge for the qualitative researcher is the development of
a systematic understanding of the studied context based on the terms and words of
its own members. But the ethnographer goes beyond this: he uses direct quotes from the
informants who summarize or illustrate the concept or theme being described and assume them as
interferences from which one can identify cultural patterns or patterns
behavioral conduct of the studied group.

g) The preparation of the report.

Del Rincón (1997) warns that the ethnographic report must include sufficient details.
descriptive so that the reader knows what happened and how it happened, and feels transported to the
observed social situation. In this way, it is important to clearly integrate what it is
the theoretical and empirical foundation that supports the work, what that experience meant for
the actors involved and who represent the results obtained for the theory already
established.

Next we will see how we can concretize all these contents in the
basic sections of the ethnographic report following some of Spradley's suggestions
(1980) and Hammersley and Atkinson (1994):
 The approach of the theoretical and practical background of the research and the
global evolution of the theoretical approach, from the previous conceptual framework to the
final formulation of models, hypotheses, and theories developed as a result of the study.
The detailed description of the methods and procedures used to obtain the
information, without losing sight of the process perspective that characterizes construction
qualitative methodological order.
The results in the final conclusions. It is important to present the conceptualization.
the specific findings the final conclusions in one body, avoiding disaggregating them
the chapters are independent. A final section of the report should also be dedicated to
integrate the conclusions from a relational set perspective, that is, focused on
the way findings and conclusions related to the different categories of analysis
they connect mutually.
Annexes. It is always very illustrative to present a set of annexes with the guides of
work and instruments used in the collection generation process
information, as well as the transcripts of the observations and the interviews conducted,
careful to protect the identities of the informants. It can also be omitted the
list of bibliographic references or other documentary sources used by the
ethnographic.

8. Conclusion

Understanding that education is a multidisciplinary field is important because it...

show other ways of viewing education, that is the most important point of this topic
"fundamentals of educational ethnography" as it leads us to see educational reality. The
research on the present topic led to the following conclusions:
Educational ethnography studies, understands, and analyzes the educational act in a way
global and this is not limited to being institutionalized that goes beyond the walls
from a classroom. The purpose of education in culture is to reproduce and transform the
common social facts through the meanings assigned to them
Educational ethnography does not have a single purpose, but several, closely intertwined.
related, and cultural description, to interpret and understand
The characteristics of ethnographic research are: Phenomenological or Emic:
Permanence relatively persistent It is holistic y naturalist
An inductive character.
The role of the ethnographic researcher is not more important than the reality lived by that
culture.
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